Assessing the Environmental and Socioeconomic Impacts of Artisanal Gold Mining in Zimbabwe: Pathways Towards Sustainable Development and Community Resilience

Abstract

While artisanal gold mining (AGM) has been credited as a sector that sustains many households in Zimbabwe, it has at the same time been criticized as the chief driver of ecological degradation and social vulnerability. This study qualitatively examines the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of AGM by conducting in-depth interviews with miners, residents, and policymakers across six central mining districts. The study findings indicate that the use of mercury has resulted in severe contamination of water bodies, while clearing land to pave the way for mining has led to severe deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and declining agricultural productivity due to the loss of fertile soils. It was also found that most AGMs were unregulated, and their unregulated operations have intensified health risks, social inequality, and land-use conflicts with the local community. This study provides an insight into how dependence on AGM has perpetuated a cycle of ecological degradation and poverty among many Zimbabweans. The study, therefore, attempts to combine community narratives with policy analysis, thereby proposing a framework for sustainable AGM in Zimbabwe. This involves advocating for the use of environmentally friendly technologies and promoting participatory environmental governance among all key stakeholders. The study contributes to achieving a balance between economic benefits and environmental management by advancing the discourse on sustainable development and community resilience in resource-dependent economies.

1. Introduction

Artisanal gold mining (AGM) has become a significant economic activity worldwide, particularly in developing countries. Besides providing employment opportunities, AGM has been observed to provide livelihood to many households and millions of people in resource-rich regions [1]. Due to economic decline and high levels of unemployment in some resource-rich regions, AGM has attracted many people, which has led to the sector expanding at a rapid rate, raising concerns about its environmental and social impacts during periods when nations are also facing increasingly complex challenges in navigating the dual imperatives of economic advancement and environmental sustainability [2,3]. Given the interconnectedness of these issues, this calls for an understanding of the implications of the AGM sector in Zimbabwe, which may help develop strategies to manage the situation.

AGM is an essential source of income for many disadvantaged communities in Africa and is, hence, widely practiced. Resource-rich countries like Ghana, Mali, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo have seen a rise in AGM activities, partly due to economic survival needs and rising gold prices [4]. AGM has been observed to offer immediate financial benefits due to its attractive global gold prices; however, it requires proper management, as it can pose considerable environmental damage, including deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution [5]. In many developing nations, the situation has been exacerbated by the lack of a regulatory framework governing AGM, which often intensifies environmental challenges and results in ecological degradation that threatens the livelihoods of both animals and humans [6].

Zimbabwe exemplifies the dual impacts of artisanal gold mining. Due to persistent droughts and a lack of reliable rainfall in the past, the country has responded by introducing agricultural models, such as promoting drought-resistant traditional grains, to achieve food sufficiency. These agricultural models have recently been threatened and are diminishing due to the expansion of the AGM sector and climate change, which poses a threat to the nation’s food security [7,8]. Like other resource-rich nations, AGM employs many people and is an essential source of income for many households, although its activities have been observed to cause substantial environmental damage [7,9,10]. In Zimbabwe, most of the AGMs are unregulated and use toxic substances, such as mercury, which not only pose significant health risks to the miners and surrounding communities but also disrupt local ecosystems and adversely affect agricultural productivity and biodiversity, which calls for a holistic approach to their management if future generations are to enjoy the use of the same environment [3,11,12].

The problems associated with AGM in Zimbabwe extend beyond socioeconomic issues and environmental degradation, as the sector has led to social unrest within communities, land disputes as it expands, and the displacement of communities as it encroaches on agricultural lands and communal areas [7,11,13], and the government seem not to be taking any action to protect affected communities. The informal nature of many AGM activities makes miners vulnerable to exploitation by those in positions of authority, and they often end up working in unsafe environments, thereby exacerbating existing inequalities [7]. Social tensions can undermine community cohesion and hinder sustainable development initiatives, underscoring the need for comprehensive strategies that account for both the economic benefits and the adverse effects of AGM [11].

This study critically analyses the complex relationship between economic growth from artisanal mining and the need for environmental sustainability in Zimbabwe by seeking to assess the social and ecological impacts of AGM. This is essential for fostering community resilience and protecting the health of individuals and the environment from the effects of economic activities. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing effective policies that enhance livelihoods while maintaining the ecological integrity of mining regions.

Research Objectives

The objectives that we seek to solve and have answers to in this study are:

• To assess the environmental impacts of artisanal gold mining on terrestrial ecosystems, aquatic resources, and biodiversity in affected regions and to propose evidence-based mitigation strategies to minimize these effects.
• To examine the socioeconomic consequences of AGM on local communities, while utilizing a network perspective to understand the interrelationships among these factors.
• To provide stakeholders with actionable recommendations that are going to be derived from a comprehensive socioeconomic and environmental analysis.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Environmental Impacts of Artisanal Gold Mining

Environmental degradation refers to the decline of the natural environment due to resource depletion, ecosystem destruction, and pollution of air and water bodies, posing significant risks to biodiversity and human health and requiring immediate attention and action [14,15]. The ecological impacts of AGM are numerous and multifaceted, affecting not only ecosystems but also the communities that depend on them [16]. Deforestation is often viewed as a direct consequence of AGM, where forests are cleared to pave the way for mining. However, it is worth noting that the entire gold extraction process entails significant landscape modifications [14,17]. This degradation therefore reduces forest cover and disrupts local biodiversity, thereby threatening various plant and animal species that rely on these ecosystems for survival.

According to [18], the decrease in vegetation leads to various interconnected ecological effects, as deforestation causes soil erosion when the protective vegetation layer is removed. In areas with heavy rainfall, there are no trees to protect and stabilize the soil, which can lead to soil erosion and reduce the arable land available for agricultural practices [16]. Erosion reduces farm productivity and contributes to sedimentation in nearby water bodies, thereby impacting aquatic ecosystems and water quality [14]. AGM therefore degrades ecosystems, potentially impacting their habitats, by isolating species and reducing their ability to thrive [19]. The result would be a decrease in biodiversity, since species that rely on large territories may struggle to survive in altered environments [20,21]. It can therefore be argued that the reduction in biodiversity is concerning, as both animals and humans depend on it, hence underscoring the importance of ecosystem resilience, exposure to diseases, and the impact of climate change.

The impacts of AGM are a concern, as most are unregulated, raising questions about the likelihood of effective land restoration following mining, which is often considered low [22,23], thereby posing greater danger to animals and future generations. Research indicates that issues related to AGM, such as the use of mercury, which contaminates water sources, deforestation, and alterations in hydrology, where operations are not adequately monitored, lead to environmental degradation, which can hinder land restoration to its original state [24]. Rehabilitation efforts can span decades and may fail to restore ecological functions before mining activities are fully restored. In contrast, mining waste, which contains hazardous substances used in gold extraction, poses additional environmental risks [22,23]. Tailings, the residual materials remaining after extraction, can release harmful compounds into soil and waterways, thereby contributing to ecological degradation [12,23]. Therefore, chemical contamination not only harms flora and fauna but also poses a potential health risk to communities that rely on these environmental resources.

Degradation of Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems

The use of chemicals, such as mercury, by the gold mining sector poses a serious environmental issue, with adverse effects on both ecosystems and human health [15,20]. The authors argue that gold extraction methods often employ toxic substances, chiefly mercury and cyanide. These chemicals, used in gold extraction, often enter adjacent water bodies due to the lack of regulation and monitoring of AGM activities, posing considerable risks to both animals and humans [25,26]. Artisanal miners frequently use elemental mercury for amalgamating gold particles, a technique recognized for its efficiency and cost-effectiveness. When released into the environment through improper disposal or accidental spills, it can enter the food chain [27]. Mercury, which is used during gold extraction, is converted into methylmercury through microbial processes, a toxic compound that bioaccumulates in fish and other aquatic organisms [15,26], leading to significant health consequences, including neurological disorders and developmental issues in children and the general community reliant on these water sources [12,28].

The other chemical used in gold extraction is cyanide, which poses similar risks to mercury. Cyanide is widely used in well-regulated industrial processes, and its use in unregulated mining operations by AGM raises serious environmental concerns [29,30]. Most AGMs disregard environmental laws, and, due to the need to maximise returns, the risk of cyanide leaks and inadequate waste management leads to contamination of nearby water sources, rendering them toxic [31]. Cyanide contamination in aquatic ecosystems negatively affects marine organisms, leading to fish mortality and ecological disruption, and poses direct health risks to adjacent populations [30]. Research shows that people who have been exposed to cyanide for long periods of time have been found to suffer from respiratory issues, skin irritation, and various serious health problems [31]. The quality of the water being supplied also has a substantial impact on agricultural output, as many communities in mining regions rely on local water sources for irrigation and livestock management [28]. The decline in water quality due to pollution negatively impacts agricultural productivity, leading to food shortages and economic instability [32]. Contaminated water adversely affects agriculture by enabling plants to absorb harmful substances from soil and water, thereby exacerbating food security issues [3].

The activities of AGM could result in environmental degradation, expose communities to poor water quality, and lead to a decline in quality of life. In this regard, local communities where AGM is taking place may be forced to bear the cost, as they may need to seek alternative water sources, often requiring them to travel greater distances in search of cleaner water [32]. This mostly affects vulnerable groups, including women and children, who, according to African cultures, are typically responsible for obtaining water for household use [3,30,31], thereby disadvantaging them, as the time they have left for other crucial life issues becomes limited. This will therefore strain community resources, thereby intensifying tensions and conflicts over access to clean water.

Deforestation driven by the AGM sector leads to biodiversity loss, posing a significant challenge with far-reaching consequences for ecosystems and human livelihoods [8,33]. Mining operations substantially alter landscapes, disrupt ecosystems, and present threats to various plant and animal species [34]. Gold mining operations result in the destruction of vegetation and habitat fragmentation, both of which are critical to the survival of various species. They are likely to lead to decreased species populations and, in the long term, local extinctions [17,33].

Environmental degradation has been identified as a significant contributor to biodiversity loss in mining areas. The degradation of the natural environment has led to the elimination of hiding places for many species, potentially harming specialized species that rely on specific conditions for survival [34]. Species experiencing habitat loss are more susceptible to environmental stress, leading to population isolation, reduced genetic diversity, and increased susceptibility to diseases and environmental changes [34,35]. The authors argue that ecosystem degradation significantly impacts ecosystem services, as both habitats and species depend on what ecosystems provide. The essential services provided by the ecosystem to its inhabitants include pollination, natural pest regulation, and nutrient cycling, all of which are vital for agricultural sustainability [36]. Farming crops depends on pollinators, such as bees and butterflies, which are often adversely affected by habitat destruction, resulting in reduced crop yields and threatening food security in agricultural regions [34,35,37,38].

Besides environmental degradation, deforestation would reduce biodiversity, disrupting natural pest management systems. There is a chance that predatory species, which control pests, will decrease in numbers alongside their prey, potentially leading to increased pest outbreaks that may affect farming. Pest outbreaks may lead farmers to rely heavily on chemical pesticides, which ultimately exacerbate harm to local ecosystems and human health while increasing the cost of farming [39]. It is worth noting that species within ecosystems are interdependent, demonstrating that the decline of one species can have a significant impact and destabilize entire ecological communities. Hence, the decrease in biodiversity following environmental degradation negatively impacts ecosystem services and diminishes ecosystem resilience [34]. Research shows that diverse ecosystems exhibit enhanced resilience to disturbances, including climate change, disease, and invasive species [36]. To this end, it is worth noting that biodiversity loss increases ecosystem vulnerability by reducing their ability to adapt to changing conditions, which may ultimately lead to further environmental degradation and the loss of ecosystem functions [24]. The significance of biodiversity in cultural contexts should not be overlooked, as many societies maintain significant relationships with their indigenous flora and fauna, relying on them for traditional practices, sustenance, and medicinal uses [34,35]. Therefore, the extinction of species diminishes cultural heritage and harms the quality of life of affected communities, leading to significant social and economic consequences. While the environmental effects are immediate and visible, the social and financial implications of artisanal gold mining extend more broadly, as explored in the next section.

2.2. Socioeconomic Impacts of Artisanal Gold Mining

2.2.1. Economic Opportunities and Livelihoods

In Zimbabwe, AGM is a crucial source of income for many households due to limited formal employment opportunities following the economic decline [7], enabling families to meet essential needs such as food, education, and healthcare [11]. Because many AGMs are unregistered, they have provided many individuals, particularly women and youth, with the opportunity to participate in income-generating activities at their own pace, thereby making them a viable option in regions with limited alternative livelihood opportunities [40]. Several AGMs are drawn to the sector due to the potential for rapid financial gains, despite economic challenges and the scarcity of alternative income-generating methods [41].

The environmental impacts of AGM outweigh the economic benefits associated with mining, as AGM leaves an adverse footprint that threatens the future of the next generation [40,42]. The long-term viability of AGM is questionable, as environmental degradation, health hazards, and social instability undermine its existence. However, it has brought financial stability to several households through employment and financial gains [11,15]. Toxic compounds like mercury and cyanide present significant health risks to miners and their families, in addition to contaminating local water supplies, thereby jeopardizing agricultural productivity and food security [1,29]. As a result, local communities become trapped in a cycle of poverty, as the financial gains from mining are not used for developmental projects but rather to cover the costs of environmental degradation and health issues.

Most AGMs are unregulated and disregard environmental regulations, making it difficult for them to access bank loans and obtain support and protection from the government and NGOs. These AGMs lacking formal recognition face challenges securing land and resource rights, thereby rendering them susceptible to exploitation by those in authority and to disputes over land use [43,44]. The lack of adequate and enforceable environmental regulations from the government hinders the advancement of sustainable practices that could benefit both the economy and the environment [37,45]. Harnessing economic benefits from AGM would require coming up with holistic environmental regulations that not only promote the formalisation of the AGM sector but also call for the engagement of all stakeholders in the decision-making process linked to sustainable gold mining and promote the training of AGM, as well as mobilise resources to promote sustainable development [37]. Therefore, addressing these challenges requires establishing a more sustainable and equitable framework for AGM by striking a balance between fostering economic development and environmental management.

2.2.2. Health Risks

Research has documented the numerous health risks associated with AGM for miners, their families, and nearby communities [46]. The use of mercury, a hazardous substance, in gold extraction poses a substantial risk to miners [47]. Most AGMs have been observed to use and manage hazardous gold mining chemicals without sufficient protective gear because of a lack of resources, resulting in dangerous exposure that can lead to significant health problems, including neurological impairment and cognitive deficits [15]. Additionally, AGMs are exposed to dust and fumes during blasting, which can cause respiratory disorders and negatively impact miners’ health and work performance [36].

AGMs are not only exposed to hazardous chemicals, but some have also reacted to the chemicals by having some skin problems and experienced injuries from the unsafe working environment [48]. AGM is labour-intensive, with challenging activities that require many hours of concentration in demanding work environments, thereby elevating the risk of accidents due to insufficient safety protocols and prolonged working hours [49]. Exposure to contaminated chemicals results in dermatological issues, thereby increasing health risks in mining communities [48]. Therefore, the psychological impacts of AGM could lead to stress not only from long working hours, but also from economic instability and environmental degradation, which have the potential to contribute to heightened levels of anxiety and depression among miners and their families [43,50].

AGMs lack resources, which limits access to healthcare services, thereby significantly increasing health risks and rendering communities susceptible to chronic health conditions that may hinder economic productivity [51,52]. There has been an influx of people into mining areas, and healthcare facilities are limited and inadequately funded, restricting individuals’ ability to obtain prompt medical care for injuries and illnesses [53]. The lack of access affects miners and their families, as unresolved health issues can hinder their ability to work and earn an income, and mitigating health risks requires comprehensive initiatives, including enhancing healthcare access, implementing safety standards in mining operations, and increasing awareness about the hazards posed by toxic substances [52,54,55]. Therefore, prioritizing health and safety can foster a sustainable and resilient mining industry that safeguards the interests of all stakeholders.

Social dynamics and conflicts are interrelated phenomena that influence group interactions and societal structures. AGM has a substantial impact on social structures and dynamics within communities, often leading to increased competition for scarce resources. This is because increased human involvement in mining activities heightens demand for land, water, and other critical resources [56]. The competition for land use between miners and local communities could lead to disputes over land rights, as miners may encroach on areas historically used for agriculture. This could erode community cohesion and dismantle social relationships that have been developed over extended periods [57,58].

The allocation of mining revenues within communities frequently results in disputes and tensions, with most miners preferring to invest in their home areas, leaving little for the area where mining was conducted [7,59]. Revenues from the AGM primarily benefit a select group, which may foster resentment among individuals who perceive themselves as marginalized, potentially leading to community fragmentation, increased distrust, and social instability [60]. Escalating conflicts can result in violent confrontations or ongoing hostilities, consequently jeopardizing social [3].

The social implications of AGM extend beyond immediate conflicts, as the influx of miners and associated activities may transform established cultural norms and systems. The swift economic transformations induced by AGM can alter power dynamics, frequently benefit resource holders and marginalize other stakeholders, thereby altering cultural values along the way [61]. The transformation may alter established roles within families and communities, leading to social dislocation and a decline in conventional support systems [47]. Therefore, addressing these challenges requires the development of inclusive governance and conflict-resolution systems that involve all community members in decision-making, thereby fostering a more equitable and harmonious social environment.

2.2.3. Strategies for Improving Community Resilience

Improving resilience in mining communities affected by AGM requires implementing initiatives that diversify income sources. There is a need to train miners and local community members in resource use and in potential diversification into alternative livelihoods, such as farming, small-scale enterprises, and eco-tourism, to help communities reduce their dependence on mining as their primary source of income [38,62]. Diversification can enhance economic stability and mitigate risks associated with fluctuations in gold prices and market demand [60], thereby providing households with multiple avenues for income generation.

Promoting a sense of ownership among community members requires involving them in decision-making processes, which is crucial for fostering resilience [61,63]. When community members are engaged in issues related to AGM activities, and their feedback is valued, it fosters a sense of ownership and accountability for local resources [62]. Establishing platforms for dialogue, like workshops, enables citizens to voice their concerns and collaborate on sustainable initiatives [64]. A participatory approach to sustainable development can yield more equitable solutions that consider the interests of all key stakeholders, thereby promoting social cohesion.

Community members can only advocate for their rights and make informed decisions when the government and NGOs equip them through integrated educational and awareness campaigns that provide them with the necessary knowledge and skills [47,65]. Enhancing comprehension of the environmental and health implications of AGM, as well as the importance of sustainable practices, can empower communities to cultivate a stewardship mentality that prioritizes economic growth while preserving environmental integrity [8,66,67,68]. These approaches lay a strong foundation for resilience, enabling mining communities to address the challenges of artisanal gold mining. Addressing these socioeconomic challenges requires coordinated policy responses and sustainable community engagement strategies, as discussed in the following section.

2.3. Policy and Sustainability Frameworks for Sustainable Artisanal Mining

2.3.1. Regulatory Framework

Environmental regulations are essential systems that govern the operations and compliance of AGM activities [34,68]. Protocols and criteria are established to ensure accountability and transparency within organizations, and hence they are crucial for addressing the challenges associated with AGM [39]. Governments should implement more stringent regulations on mining operations to protect environmental integrity and ensure community safety. This involves imposing restrictions on the use of hazardous chemicals, enforcing land-use regulations, and requiring environmental impact assessments before mining commences [69]. A regulatory framework that emphasizes sustainability can help authorities mitigate the negative impacts of AGM on ecosystems and local communities [8]. Regulatory measures must be complemented by governmental support for AGMs, with efforts aimed at improving skills training, broadening access to microfinance, and providing resources, which can promote the diversification of income streams for communities dependent on mining. Investing in alternative economic opportunities can help policymakers alleviate pressure on natural resources and foster sustainable economic stability [8,68,69]. The combination of regulation and support from both the government and local authorities has the potential to promote a shift in community mindsets towards more sustainable mining practices.

Collaboration among governmental entities, local communities, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) is essential for the effective implementation of these projects [70,71]. Stakeholder engagement facilitates the recognition of the needs and perspectives of affected groups in the policy-making process [72,73]. The government is better positioned to establish more inclusive and effective frameworks to tackle the challenges of AGM by fostering partnerships and encouraging collaborative environmental engagement [74]. Therefore, having a holistic framework in place can promote sustainable mining operations, thereby strengthening environmental health and community resilience.

2.3.2. Community Engagement

Effective implementation of mitigatory strategies to counter the impact of AGM activities requires the involvement of the local community in planning and decision-making related to mining [75]. This implies that when community members are engaged in the sustainability of AGM activities, it facilitates the acknowledgment of their perspectives, which may lead to more effective, culturally relevant solutions [15]. Sustainability initiatives that aim to educate and train miners and community members in sustainable practices can promote environmental stewardship [76,77]. Workshops and training programs that emphasize reducing pesticide use, improving waste management, and protecting biodiversity can enable communities to engage in proactive initiatives [18].

Community involvement in policymaking is crucial for the successful execution of AGM legislation. Engaging local communities in the formulation of mining legislation helps integrate their distinct needs and viewpoints, resulting in more relevant and practical outcomes [78]. This, in turn, may foster ownership among community members [79], thereby increasing their likelihood of supporting and adhering to established norms. Engaging communities in decision-making processes enhances transparency and accountability, ultimately strengthening their ability to assert their rights and demand accountability from authorities for their decisions [64]. Therefore, community engagement has the potential to foster community cohesion and promote a collective commitment to sustainable practices that safeguard local resources and ensure long-term well-being.

When all key stakeholders of AGM collaborate, it can enhance the inclusivity of the decision-making process [80,81]. Establishing communication platforms, including community forums and advisory committees, enhances knowledge sharing among stakeholders, reduces tensions, and fosters collaborative planning that benefits all parties [78,79]. This could therefore improve policy outcomes and strengthen the resilience of communities facing challenges associated with AGM activities.

2.3.3. Methods for Environmentally Sustainable Mining

Environmentally sustainable mining practices aim to minimize ecological damage while preserving the economic benefits that AGM brings to local communities [58]. The adoption of environmentally sustainable practices is crucial for addressing the Zimbabwean situation, including reducing mercury pollution, rehabilitating degraded lands, and ensuring the long-term viability of natural ecosystems. Sustainable mining methods would include waste recycling, controlled excavation, post-mining land restoration, and the introduction of non-toxic gold extraction techniques, supported by community training programs [61].

The borax method is a promising alternative to mercury-based gold extraction, substituting sodium borate for mercury during the smelting of gold concentrates [82]. Borax acts as a fluxing agent that has been observed to lower the melting point of gold-bearing material, thereby allowing the metal to separate cleanly from gangue minerals without releasing hazardous vapours [83], unlike mercury. Compared with mercury, borax is non-toxic, less costly, locally available, and achieves higher gold recovery rates than mercury amalgamation [83,84], thereby offering several advantages. Furthermore, its use eliminates direct exposure to mercury, thereby preventing atmospheric and aquatic contamination and protecting both miners and communities [84].

Research conducted in Tanzania and the Philippines on AGM has demonstrated that when miners are trained to use borax and provided with the necessary equipment for gold smelting, borax can be an effective and cost-effective gold smelting method [85]. The feasibility of this transition for Zimbabwe would depend primarily on capacity-building initiatives, pilot demonstrations, and the provision of affordable starter kits through partnerships between the Environmental Management Agency (EMA), mining cooperatives, and local NGOs. However, we recommend that the government take the lead by encouraging miners to adopt borax, which would not only reduce mercury emissions but also align national practice with the Minamata Convention on Mercury, to which Zimbabwe is a party, promoting environmentally sound artisanal mining.

2.3.4. Capacity Building, Environmental Education, and Resource Stewardship

The adoption of sustainable mining practices is therefore crucial for achieving a balance between economic development and environmental management. There is a need to conduct training programs for miners and stakeholders to enhance stakeholder knowledge of sustainable extraction methods that minimize environmental impact [86,87]. Initiatives may encompass strategies to reduce the use of toxic chemicals, implement safe waste-disposal procedures, and promote the rehabilitation of mined areas [86].

Alongside extraction techniques, education on effective waste management is crucial for mitigating the environmental impacts of mining activities [52,87]. Miners can acquire knowledge of efficient waste management and disposal to reduce contamination of soil and water sources [68]. Effective waste management is crucial for communities to minimize pollution and protect natural resources, which are essential for their livelihoods and overall well-being [43].

Educating miners about the importance of water conservation can improve sustainable practices in the mining industry [88]. The acknowledgment of water’s critical function in mining activities and surrounding ecosystems requires miners to adopt measures to safeguard this vital resource [52]. Integrating water conservation into training programs promotes sustainability, as noted in [87], thereby enhancing economic development and protecting the long-term health of the environment.

2.3.5. Integrated Environmental–Socioeconomic Planning for Long-Term Sustainability

Integrating environmental and socioeconomic factors into development planning is crucial for achieving long-term sustainability in artisanal gold mining communities [63,77]. This approach acknowledges the need to balance economic benefits with the obligation to conserve natural resources by integrating environmental assessments and community needs into policy frameworks and thereby enabling stakeholders to develop strategies that promote sustainable development and safeguard the ecosystem [51]. This integration can enhance societal resilience in addressing the challenges posed by AGM, as development plans can mitigate the negative impacts of mining activities by addressing issues such as land degradation, water resource management, and community health concerns [63,68,89]. In this regard, it implies implementing sustainable development programs that support alternative lifestyles in conjunction with mining can enhance economic stability and foster diverse revenue streams [59]. Facilitating collaboration among governmental entities, local communities, and NGOs is essential for the effectiveness of sustainable policies [39]. Involving all stakeholders in the planning process facilitates the incorporation of varied perspectives, resulting in more effective solutions [18,63]. The following section presents the materials and methods used in conducting this study.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Research Design and Philosophical Orientation

In undertaking this study, we employed a qualitative research design grounded in the interpretivist philosophical paradigm. An interpretivist approach was employed in this study as a hermeneutic instrument, providing a means to understand how individuals in AGM make sense of their lived experience. The interpretive method phase entailed examining the world of human experience in relation to environmental degradation, health, and socioeconomic transformation. Interpretivism holds the view that social activity, which in this regard refers to community dynamics shaped by social and ecological contexts, emerges from intentional action and interaction at the individual level, in addition to other internal and external causal factors. The interpretivist approach enabled an in-depth exploration of the complex relationships between miners and their environment within their natural settings, facilitating a deeper understanding.

We conducted in-depth interviews in Kwekwe, Shurugwi, Mazowe, Mberengwa, Penhalonga, and Kadoma, which had been identified as major AGM areas in Zimbabwe. These areas were purposefully selected to capture ecological and socioeconomic diversity across the AGM areas, with each area representing a unique environmental and institutional context. Kwekwe and Shurugwi are characterized by long-established artisanal operations that utilize extensive mercury. Mazowe and Penhalonga, on the other hand, reflect emerging mining areas in ecologically sensitive areas. By contrast, Mberengwa and Kadoma exhibit community-led mining zones that provide insights into local governance and adaptation practices. This purposive spatial selection enabled comparative analysis and ensured the inclusion of both mature and emerging AGM landscapes within the country.

3.2. Study Area and Case Study Sites

In-depth interviews were conducted between October 2024 and February 2025 in selected AGM areas of Mberengwa, Kwekwe, Shurugwi, Kadoma, Mazowe, and Penhalonga, which are widely recognized for intense artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities. These districts were selected purposively to capture geographical and socio-economic diversity, while also representing the country’s principal artisanal mining belts along the Great Dyke. Each of the chosen districts contains both active mining sites and adjacent farming communities that are affected by mining externalities, such as land degradation, mercury contamination, and deforestation. Selecting multiple AGM areas was crucial, as it enabled comparisons of findings, which significantly enhanced the transferability of the results.

3.3. Participants and Sampling Procedures

The participants for the study were selected based on their understanding and involvement in AGM. They included miners, residents of mining communities, environmental management officials, and representatives of civil society organizations involved in mining governance. The sample consisted of 16 participants (6 artisanal miners, three residents, three community leaders, two officers from the Environmental Management Agency, and two representatives of non-governmental organizations working on environmental advocacy). To be eligible to participate in the study, one had to be at least 18 years old and have resided in or worked in the mining area for a minimum number of years. This criterion ensured that all informants possessed adequate contextual experience to reflect on both environmental and socioeconomic changes over time.

3.4. Data Collection Procedures

Data were collected through in-depth interviews conducted in English or Shona, depending on participants’ language preference, and each lasted 40–45 min. An interview guideline was used to guide the interview process, and all interviews were audio-recorded with prior consent and subsequently transcribed. Ethical clearance for the study was obtained from the Walter Sisulu University Senate Research Ethics Committee (SREC, Ref. 07/03/10/2025/PG), and participants provided written or oral informed consent before participation.

3.5. Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using thematic analysis following [90] six-step procedure: familiarization, initial coding, theme development, theme review, definition, and reporting. We began by reading the transcripts to understand the data, which was followed by manual coding to capture recurring ideas, expressions, and metaphors related to environmental and social impacts. Codes were inductively generated rather than predetermined, allowing themes to emerge naturally from participants’ narratives. During the process, a constant comparison of interviewees allowed for the refinement of themes.

3.6. Ensuring Trustworthiness

The study’s credibility was enhanced by conducting a series of interviews with individuals from selected gold mining areas, continuing until data saturation was achieved. Additionally, a summary of key interpretations was shared with participants for validation purposes with the intention of ensuring the trustworthiness of the results. Additionally, debriefing was conducted with two qualitative research colleagues to verify consistency in coding and interpretation, as a strategy to ensure trustworthiness. During coding, all decisions were documented to ensure the reliability of the findings. Ethical considerations were maintained throughout the research process to minimize bias and respect community norms, given that mining-related issues are sensitive and require the protection of participants.

3.7. Ethical Considerations

Ethical clearance for this study was obtained from the Walter Sisulu University Senate Research Ethics Committee (FREC), with approval number 07/03/10/2025/PG and approval date 10 February 2025. Before data collection, participants were informed about the research’s objectives, scope, and intended use. Informed consent was obtained both verbally and in writing from all respondents, and participation was voluntary. Participants were assured of their right to withdraw at any stage without consequence. To preserve confidentiality, identifying details such as names, organizations, or specific mining sites have been anonymized in all quotations and transcripts. During fieldwork, interviews were conducted with consideration for cultural issues and respect for local norms, particularly when engaging with traditional leaders and community elders. The ethical protocol adhered to the principles of beneficence, non-maleficence, and respect for autonomy, consistent with internationally accepted standards for social research. Although this study was qualitative and did not include quantitative data, such as environmental monitoring results from soil or water testing, the results of qualitative interviews with miners, residents, community leaders, and officials helped provide a comprehensive understanding of the lived experiences of environmental degradation.

4. Results and Discussion

A thematic analysis of interviewees’ responses reveals how AGM affects the environment and downstream communities. The respondents highlight significant economic benefits derived from mining operations alongside severe environmental degradation, health risks, and social challenges. Respondents also offered insightful views on operating government policy and provided solutions to environmental degradation. The discussion below reflects the range of experiences and viewpoints shared by the interviewees.

4.1. Economic Opportunities and Challenges

Many respondents emphasized that AGMs offer substantial economic benefits, particularly given the economic downturn and the high unemployment rate. Proceeds from the AGM have become an essential source of income for many households in Zimbabwe during these challenging times, marked by high unemployment. To emphasize how AGM is essential, one responder remarked:

“Through AGM, I am now able to finance my children’s education as well as to procure food and other essential goods for my family.”

AGM has indeed served as a lifesaver for several households facing economic hardship, thereby helping alleviate poverty by generating cash flow in mining communities. Many respondents highlighted that income from their mining operation was essential, as it enabled them to invest the proceeds in buying houses and sending their children to school, thereby improving their living standards. In this regard, the benefits have extended to downstream members of the communities, such as small traders who cater to the needs of AGM, like the provision of food. In some communities, profits from AGMs are invested in public goods, resulting in improvements to local infrastructure, education, and healthcare facilities. This aligns with the literature suggesting that AGMs can reduce poverty in resource-dependent areas [91] when adequately managed.

Notwithstanding these advantages, miners voiced deep concerns about the volatility of mining income and the fragility of their economic gains. Gold earnings are highly unpredictable; output and prices fluctuate, leading to boom-and-bust cycles. To highlight the unstable returns from mining, one participant remarked:

“In some months, I earn sufficient income to support my family; in other months, I scarcely earn anything.”

The most interesting discovery was that several families of AGM experience brief periods of prosperity, followed by downturns that plunge them back into poverty. Many respondents commonly described this boom cycle as an ongoing challenge that undermines financial stability, thereby highlighting the need for the government and NGOs to equip AGMs with the necessary financial management skills if the AGM sector is to contribute to the economy’s development. It was also highlighted that during the summer, when AGMs are operational and do not lack resources during the rainy season, cash flows are high. Consequently, prices of essential goods rise, making food and supplies more expensive for everyone, an aspect that affects the poorest households and those not benefiting from AGM activities. Such economic instability can create community-wide effects, and to emphasize this, one miner remarked:

“When gold prices increase and decline, it impacts all. When individuals cease mining operations, the community and local enterprises also endure adverse effects, since most of them have come to depend on AGM.”

The implications of AGM and its connection to the community mean the entire community and downstream tributaries are affected. Over-reliance on AGM was identified as a risk, as most respondents acknowledged that they were now focusing on AGM as their primary source of income, to the extent that they had neglected agriculture and other livelihoods, which can perpetuate poverty cycles when mining output declines, especially during rainy seasons. It was also highlighted that younger members of the community sometimes drop out of school, lured by quick mining income that yields short-term gains at the cost of long-term human capital development. While some families, including those with AGM and downstream tributaries, have attained a degree of financial security through gold mining, most people remain vulnerable to market shocks and lack a safety net. Several respondents emphasized the need to diversify into other livelihoods and stabilize their incomes, although this remains a dream. When they receive income, they often forget to invest, hoping to earn more money during the next mining operation.

One key aspect shown by this part of the study is the economic vulnerability and dependency cycle associated with AGM. The study highlights how entire communities, not just miners, are affected by fluctuations in mining output, emphasizing the risks of over-reliance on gold extraction, which agrees with the view that was given by [92] that there is a need to diversify and not be solely dependent on mining, as this puts stress on the environment. It also underscores the trade-off between short-term financial gains and long-term economic stability, particularly in terms of education and human capital development. The findings of this study align with [1], who suggest that diversification of livelihoods is crucial for mitigating the risks posed by AGM and ensuring sustainable economic development.

4.2. Environmental Degradation

All respondents highlighted environmental degradation as a phenomenon affecting mining communities. Respondents highlighted that environmental degradation is severe on land, and the associated effects on water and ecosystems demonstrate the seriousness of the situation. Most respondents highlighted that deforestation, caused by AGM operations, has occurred as forests and vegetation are cleared to pave the way for gold extraction. The study highlights that some community members are deeply pained by the loss of their environment due to environmental degradation, despite having no power to stop it. One miner lamented and went on to state:

“Each fallen tree represents a loss; we seek not only gold but also the land that nourishes us.”

The loss of trees and plant cover has led to habitat destruction and a decline in biodiversity. Several participants noted that some areas once rich in flora and fauna are now barren, with one commenting:

“We are greatly causing damage to our land that has sustained us through generations. We do not have any other options, but if we persist at this rate of mining, there will be no green environment left for future generations, and chances of this country turning to a desert remain high.”

To complement the qualitative descriptive findings,

Table 1. Manifestations of Environmental Degradation in Artisanal Gold Mining Areas of Zimbabwe.

Degradation Category	Specific Manifestations	Evidence from Interviews (Examples)	Observed/Reported Impacts
Deforestation & Vegetation Loss	✓ Clearing of forests for mining pits ✓ Loss of vegetation and natural cover	“Each fallen tree represents a loss…” “There will be no green environment left…”	Habitat destruction Loss of biodiversity Increased soil erosion Reduced ecosystem resilience
Soil Degradation & Land Scarring	✓ Formation of deep pits and gullies ✓ Soil exposure and removal of fertile topsoil ✓ Abandoned open shafts	“The land that sustained us is now full of pits.”	Reduced agricultural productivity Physical danger to people and livestock Long-term land infertility
Water Contamination	✓ Mercury runoff into rivers and streams ✓ Cyanide leakage from processing ✓ Sedimentation/siltation	“The rivers we once drank from are now contaminated.”	Unsafe drinking water Aquatic life mortality Accumulation of toxins in food chains Higher household water insecurity
Aquatic Ecosystem Disruption	✓ Fish kills ✓ Turbid, sediment-heavy water ✓ Alteration of stream channels	“Water is now turbid and laced with chemicals…”	Loss of aquatic biodiversity Reduced irrigation water quality Collapse of local fisheries
Air Pollution	✓ Dust from blasting and ore crushing ✓ Mercury vapor during smelting	“We inhale a lot of dust and chemicals…”	Respiratory diseases (silicosis, bronchitis) Neurological disorders from mercury vapor Poor ambient air quality
Biodiversity Loss	✓ Decline in wildlife populations ✓ Habitat fragmentation ✓ Disturbance of ecological niches	“Some areas once rich in flora and fauna are now barren.”	Reduced genetic diversity Increased human–wildlife conflicts Species extinction risks
Vector-Borne Disease Proliferation	✓ Mosquitoes breed in abandoned pits ✓ Stagnant water accumulation	“Abandoned pits become breeding grounds for mosquitoes.”	Increased malaria incidence Public health burden
Landscape Transformation	✓ Destruction of cultural and agricultural landscapes ✓ Loss of aesthetic value	“Our land is gone… we used to cultivate this land.”	Cultural disintegration Forced migration Reduced tourism potential

synthesizes the key manifestations of environmental degradation observed across all six study sites and thus integrates interview evidence with emergent thematic categories.

We incorporate recent environmental monitoring data from studies done in some mining districts to strengthen and validate participants’ accounts of ecological degradation. These quantitative measurements, which document mercury levels in water and soil far exceeding national and WHO safety thresholds, provide crucial empirical support for the study’s qualitative findings.

Table 2. Mercury concentrations in water and soil from artisanal gold mining areas in Zimbabwe (2015–2025).

Region/Location	Mercury in Water	Mercury in Soil/Sediment	Source
Mazowe, Mashonaland Central	Upper Mazowe River: was found to be between 36–40 g/L of Hg in river water, which was uniform along the river’s length in recent surveys. This sustained level of 30–40 indicates chronic contamination from nearby ASGM and airborne deposition.	At Mazowe Dam, sediments elevated trace metal burdens were reported (e.g., Hg detected as insoluble complexes)	[91].
Kadoma, Mashonaland West Province	Muzvezve River: Researchers have found mercury in water near Kadoma’s ASGM sites, though mostly in particulate form (fluvial transport of amalgam fines)—e.g., <0.5 µg/L in river water but higher in wetlands	Hg was found to be very high in gold-processing zones. Most soils at the Kadoma mill sites averaged 43.5 mg/kg, with hot-spot readings up to 105 mg/kg Hg (in tailings after cyanidation). Even village soil shows measurable Hg accumulation from nearby amalgamation activities.	[92].
Kwekwe, Midlands Province	Tiger Reef Mine: 2.13 mg/L (2130 µg/L) in runoff effluent near a stamp mill; even 0.13 mg/L (130 µg/L) in a downstream stream—both vastly above the 0.02 mg/L limit	This data was not reported as it only aimed at effluent water monitoring at this site (data not reported)	[93].
Shurugwi, Midlands Province	Runde River basin: Mercury-laden runoff from alluvial gold workings was found to have raised downstream Hg levels, as there was evidence of increasing Hg concentrations vs. upstream, though the exact figures were not given	Tailing sediments were found at 6–1541 µg/kg (mean ~142 µg/kg) near ASGM sites. (Shurugwi hosts many stamp mills and tailings, implying comparable sediment contamination.)	[94].

below presents a summary of these monitoring results.

This strong emotional reflection reveals that respondents are aware that AGM’s current operations jeopardize the environment for future generations. Digging pits to extract gold and deforestation have exposed the soil, leading to land degradation as fertile topsoil is stripped away, leaving gullies and abandoned pits that are hazardous to both animals and humans. Land degradation was highlighted as potentially undermining food security and traditional livelihoods, as fertile soils are washed away.

Some respondents highlighted the contamination of water from mercury and cyanide used during gold processing. Respondents reported that most AGMs use mercury and, sometimes, cyanide to extract gold, chemicals that are inexpensive but have serious consequences. Participants observed that mercury runoff from processing sites has contaminated local rivers and streams, poisoning vital water sources. One respondent remarked that:

“The rivers we once drank from are now contaminated, and we are now worried about where we are going to get water for drinking.”

Several respondents reported that community members no longer rely on these waters for drinking or irrigation due to concerns about their health. Miners described water that runs turbid with sediment and laced with chemicals, killing fish and rendering the water unsafe for humans and livestock. Participants expressed a worry about aquatic life die-offs and the endangerment of animals that rely on streams. Several interviewees in mining communities noted that even laundering clothes or using river water for daily chores has become dangerous. This aligns with more extensive research on mercury’s health hazards [36,52], and indeed, miners themselves linked environmental contamination to health problems in their villages. In addition to mercury, siltation from soil erosion was mentioned, referring to the washing of loose earth into waterways, which clogs rivers and can lead to increased flooding or stagnant pools. Some miners have observed that abandoned pits fill with water, becoming breeding grounds for mosquitoes and contributing to increased malaria in the area. Overall, the decline in water quality was universally regarded as one of mining’s most destructive impacts, which concurs with the literature [1,25,47].

The interviewees expressed frustration that they lack the resources or technology to mine more sustainably, despite being aware of the damage, and feel constrained by their circumstances. To emphasize this aspect, one participant remarked:

“The environmental impact of AGM is profound… without modern technologies and resources, it is difficult to lessen these environmental impacts.”

A few respondents showed awareness of safer techniques, such as using borax instead of mercury to process gold ore, but they lacked access to the training and equipment needed to use these alternatives. Others responded, noting that AGM regulation was weak, allowing destructive practices by AGM to continue unchecked. A few respondents hinted at the need for environmental conservation, which was surprising and interesting, as it highlighted the importance of protecting the ecosystem for future generations and called for help in adopting better practices. The findings of this study underscore that the environmental impact of AGM, including deforestation and water pollution, is substantial and increasing rapidly, though no near-term solution is in sight. Respondents indicated that, without environmental intervention, they fear further ecological collapse in mining regions. They advocated for reforestation efforts, reclamation of mined lands, and stricter controls on the use of toxic substances. In essence, the discussion aligns with the view of [93,95,96,97], who argue that the community must recognize that environmental stewardship must improve if they are to preserve the land and water that sustain their lives alongside the pursuit of gold.

4.3. Health Implications

Most respondents indicated that environmental degradation is now also linked to health issues, which has brought additional suffering to the local community. Several respondents reported a wide range of health issues associated with AGM, including respiratory challenges that are prevalent in both mining and surrounding communities. To emphasize this aspect, one respondent remarked that:

“During mining operations and especially gold blasting, we inhale a lot of dust and chemicals, and thereby we end up experiencing respiratory difficulties.”

Several respondents noted that inhaling dust from gold mining and ore crushing could cause coughing, chest problems, and diseases such as silicosis and chronic bronchitis, not only among AGMs but also among those living in mining areas. The use of mercury in enclosed or poorly ventilated spaces exposes miners to toxic fumes, causing headaches and dizziness at best, and long-term neurological damage at worst. Indeed, mercury poisoning was cited as a serious issue afflicting miners and their families. One miner remarked that:

“We acknowledge that mercury is hazardous, yet it remains the sole method for efficient gold extraction.”

All the miners who were interviewed showed an understanding that handling mercury with bare hands and inhaling its vapor could lead to tremors, memory loss, organ damage, or even birth defects in children. However, due to poverty and the prospect of quick returns, they had no other options. Without a readily available alternative, AGMs stated that they feel compelled to continue using traditional methods to recover gold. Respondents noted that this trade-off between health and livelihood was a source of distress, as AGMs often sacrifice their well-being for economic survival.

Broader community health impacts traced to AGM were observed during the discussion. Most respondents highlighted that environmental degradation and disruption of the ecosystem have created a web of health issues among villagers, including gastrointestinal diseases from drinking contaminated water and increased malaria from mining pits that have become breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Several participants highlighted the plight of children in mining areas by stating that many miners work with minimal safety measures, and their families can be exposed to mercury or dust at home. There are cases of children suffering skin rashes and other symptoms consistent with toxic exposure. Moreover, several miners deplored the prevalence of child labour in AGM. This aligns with the observation that economic desperation drives some families to involve children in digging or panning, exposing them to physical danger and pulling them out of school [1,54]. One participant noted regretfully that:

“Numerous children are unable to attend school as their families require their assistance in mining.”

This not only endangers the children’s health through injury or poisoning but also harms their prospects, continuing a cycle of poverty and limited opportunity. Accidents and physical injuries are another health hazard from interviewees, as they recounted incidents of tunnel collapses, falls into pits, or accidents with rudimentary machinery that have even killed AGMs, which impose a heavy emotional and economic toll on families. Additionally, an indirect health impact raised by some respondents is the rise of sex work and sexually transmitted infections in mining boomtowns. Most of the respondents indicated that there has been an influx of many young male miners, which has attracted several commercial sex workers, leading to higher rates of HIV/AIDS and other STDs in these communities.

There was a strong consensus among the respondents that health and safety interventions are urgently needed in AGM areas. Most respondents called for the government to formalise AGMs and provide them with basic protective gear, such as dust masks and gloves, at affordable prices, since these could be a source of foreign currency for the country. Most respondents expressed a desire for the government and NGOs to provide training programs on the safe handling of chemicals to reduce inadvertent poisonings. Respondents indicated that there was a need for AGMs to go for regular health check-ups. Several respondents mentioned a connection between environmental protection and health, and that curbing chemical contamination, especially mercury in water and soil, would improve the community’s health. To emphasize this aspect, one participant in appealing for help stated:

“AGMs are poor and do not have resources, and hence government intervention is necessary to implement better practices; without such support, we remain susceptible.”

Respondents’ answers portray that AGMs, though aware of the health risks they face, ranging from chronic respiratory disease to acute toxic exposure, have accepted their situation as part of the job due to poverty. The study’s findings indicated that there is an urgent need for change if AGM is to work under conditions where making a living does not mean slowly losing one’s health. Respondents’ answers indicated a need to strengthen health and safety regulations, improve environmental conditions, and provide healthcare support, all of which are seen as critical steps toward more sustainable mining practices in Zimbabwe.

4.4. Social Dynamics and Conflicts

Artisanal gold mining has profoundly transformed the social fabric of the communities where it occurs. Interviewees described a dual-edged social impact, whereby, on one hand, those who strike gold or profit from mining enjoy improved status and wealth. Most responses indicated that participants in AGM often remained in poverty, leading to noticeable inequalities and resentments, and thereby widening the gap even within the same village. Respondents also revealed that most people who saw the activities of AGM as bad were those without a direct or indirect benefit from it. One miner remarked:

“It seems there are two worlds here within gold mining areas, one for those who have discovered gold and the other for those who have not. Those who have not benefited from AGM are the most vocal ones, and in most cases, they are the ones seen complaining about environmental issues. To some of us, it is a fight for survival, since we live from hand to mouth.”

Several respondents indicated that the prospects of becoming rich quickly from gold mining activities and the influx of money for some traders in AGM sectors have created envy and competition, thereby eroding the cultural norms and solidarity that once existed among community members. Several respondents reported feelings of bitterness and division within a once-unified community, especially when one member discovers gold and goes on to buy a new house, vehicle, or consumer goods, which can further divide the community. This finding aligns with researchers [49,59,80], who noted that the unregulated nature of AGM sometimes attracts outsiders from other regions to share in the bonanza, thereby fostering tension among residents. Respondents reported that residents of mining areas may feel excluded from rich mining claims now controlled by newcomers, further fuelling us-versus-them sentiments.

Several respondents highlighted that the rush for gold has led to land-use conflicts, as AGM has encroached on communal land reserved for farming and pastoral activities. Respondents highlighted that, even though current regulations were inadequate, AGMs had no respect for prevailing regulations, and these miners had organised themselves into terrorist groups that could steal from residents during periods of low gold output, thereby becoming a menace to residents. In explaining this, one respondent remarked:

“Most of our land is gone, and you can see pits all over the once green area. We used to cultivate this land, but there is nothing left for our grandchildren and us. We must migrate from our cultural land and move to other virgin areas soon.”

Several respondents reported that clashes between AGMs and residents have become frequent of late due to a lack of arable land and clean water, which they blame on mining. Respondents argued that residents have been irritated by the fact that AGMs are sometimes protected by politicians who seem to be behind AGMs’ power, which has forced some to take matters into their own hands. Respondents had many disputes over land use rights, which escalated into physical fights, leading to the deaths of many people. Respondents reported that disputes also occurred among AGMs, as the discovery of gold ores would attract multiple groups of AGMs competing to mine the same gold-bearing area, leading to confrontations. Respondents highlighted that in some places, violent encounters have occurred, occasionally involving machetes or firearms, as rival groups battle for control of a rich gold mining area, and when you consider that AGMs are people who do not respect regulations, it means that it would be a battle zone. Some of the respondents pointed to the presence of criminal gangs exploiting the chaotic situation, which was noted as contributing to local insecurity. Furthermore, the migration of young men into mining zones has sometimes upset local social balances, with cases of theft, alcohol abuse, and other crimes mentioned as rising in mining towns. Community leaders worry that the social cohesion of their villages is fraying under these pressures. The expansion of mining has even led to the displacement of entire families in some cases, as the discovery of a rich deposit under a homestead has forced the occupants out of the area to make way for mining. This aligns with the view that expansion of AGM and its uprooting dismantle extended family networks and can sever people’s connection to ancestral lands, with profound cultural impact [10,95,98,99].

Several miners voiced concern that the traditional way of life and cultural norms are being eroded. One participant said with regret:

“We are losing our way of life. The younger generation is disconnected from our traditions and solely concentrated on mining.”

Rituals, farming cycles, and community gatherings have all been disrupted by the all-consuming pursuit of gold. Elders find it harder to pass on cultural practices when youth are preoccupied with mining, and this cultural loss is an often-overlooked social cost of the mining boom. Respondents suggested increased community involvement and dialogue to manage the impacts of AGM as a mitigatory strategy and to promote sustainable development. They felt that inclusive decision-making could ease tensions. When calling for residents to have a say in how mining is conducted and how its benefits and burdens are shared, one interviewee had this to say:

“We must engage in the discourse regarding the impact of AGM on us. Our voices hold significance. Our ancestors’ land is being taken, and we are left with nothing.”

Many of the respondents believe that if miners, farmers, and community leaders sat together, possibly with mediators, they could negotiate agreements on land use, compensation, and conflict resolution. They indicated that some communities have formed committees or associations to address grievances and establish basic rules, such as prohibiting mining near schools or sacred sites. Several respondents reported that grassroots governance was crucial for preventing violence and maintaining peace. The findings of this study highlight that AGM has caused significant social stresses within mining communities, bringing both economic opportunities and inequality, as well as conflict, crime, and cultural disruption. The finding aligns with [18], who suggests that confronting these issues requires fostering social cohesion through open communication, equitable resource management, and respect for cultural heritage, even as the community adapts to new economic realities. Without such efforts, as one participant warned:

“The social cohesion of mining communities is at risk of further disintegration, jeopardizing the potential advantages that artisanal mining may offer.”

4.5. Perceptions of Government Policies

Most interviews revealed a complex mix of opinions on the government’s role and policies regarding AGM. What was worrisome was the respondents’ awareness of the AGM sector members of mining laws and regulations, and the widespread frustration with how those policies are implemented. Respondents’ views capture the prevailing view that government authorities have largely failed to enforce environmental and safety regulations in the AGM sector. Several respondents highlighted that the regulatory environment was inconsistent or even chaotic, as some areas experience occasional police crackdowns on illegal mining, while others are protected and not even victimised. Respondents highlighted that corruption was a significant barrier that undermines trust in official regulatory interventions. Several AGMs revealed that they have been operating for years without regulatory mining licenses, which is technically illegal. Respondents highlighted that law enforcement officers only visit to correct their bribes, unless there is an accident or a political motive. A few respondents pointed out that AGMs operate in a grey area, feeling ignored by the state except when they are harassed, and this lack of consistent enforcement means that environmental rules, such as bans on mercury use or requirements to fill in pits, are routinely flouted, simply because miners know there is little chance of penalties. The respondents expressed that government inaction has essentially left their communities to fend for themselves. Regarding the absence of the state in providing guidance, one respondent said:

“It seems as though we are abandoned to manage things on our own. Economic challenges and high unemployment leave us with no option but to fight for our survival.”

Even though respondents reported that enforcement of environmental regulations was inadequate, some miners acknowledged recent government initiatives aimed at helping them. A few of the respondents were aware of government programs aimed at formalizing AGM by registering miners and establishing official gold-buying depots, which could integrate AGM into the formal economy. Some respondents reported that a few training workshops on safer mining techniques have been organized either by a government ministry or in partnership with NGOs. Though in theory these initiatives address miners’ needs, some respondents reported that limited resources and a lack of awareness have impeded their success, even though training sessions have reached only a fraction of AGMs, as many remain unaware of best practices. Most respondents were aware of the government’s efforts to promote mercury-free mining technologies and land rehabilitation projects. However, they observed that these programs are typically small-scale or pilot projects rather than widespread mandates. A recurring critique was that policy measures focus on penalties rather than incentives, and respondents believed that simply outlawing certain practices is ineffective when people have no alternative sources of income. Respondents said that the government should provide tangible support. On reflecting on the respondent stated:

“Rather than merely prohibiting AGM, the government should work on formalising AGM since they could be contributors to economic development. Prohibiting is not the solution when there are no alternative forms of employment to AGM, hence collaborating with miners on sustainable development is what must be done.”

This aspect of the response highlights a desire for a more inclusive and supportive approach from the government in managing AGM. Many respondents believe that if the government collaborated with AGMs through training and education, subsidized mining equipment, and the creation of legal avenues for gold sales, the community and the state would both benefit, possibly through reduced environmental harm and increased tax revenue. Most AGM interviewees perceive that current regulatory mining policies fall short of what is needed to make AGM sustainable, as they are punitive rather than supportive. Most respondents noted that regulations may be crafted with good intentions, such as reducing environmental degradation. However, without proper enforcement, adequate funding, and community engagement, their impact would be minimal. When summarising the status quo, one respondent said:

“The government’s efforts have been somewhat ineffective… without strong enforcement and better support systems, these policies have had limited success.”

At the same time, there is a clear call for more cohesive governance. Most respondents expressed a need to see them collaborating with the government, NGOs, and the community on sustainable development, and they view such collaboration as the bridge between policy and practice. Respondents proposed the creation of local mining committees or cooperatives, in which AGM would work in groups under the guidance of the government, which would be tasked with regulating miners within the community and improving compliance with rules. Some respondents highlighted that collaboration between the government and NGOs would also help promote sustainable development, as the government alone would not be able to provide all the monitoring.

This aspect of the study aligns with the literature, which, as interviewees conveyed, is a mix of hope and skepticism. On the one hand, they expressed hope that, with better policy execution and genuine stakeholder involvement, AGM could be managed for the benefit of all. On the other hand, they harbored skepticism because past promises by authorities had not materialized at the grassroots level [99,100,101]. The overarching sentiment is an apparent demand for regulations that both govern and empower miners, creating a situation in which miners are not treated as outlaws but as partners in a transition to sustainability.

4.6. Community Responses and Proposed Solutions

Faced with the challenges above, communities have not remained passive. What is promising is that a few respondents are advocating for environmental responsiveness, even if on a small scale, which promises to be the starting point for a better future. Notably, community opinions on mining are divided, as some residents remain focused on the economic necessity of mining. In contrast, others voice growing concerns about its long-term consequences, and aspect that has spurred conversation and action. In some mining areas, grassroots initiatives have emerged to mitigate damage. A few respondents acknowledged that NGOs have organized a few training workshops on sustainable development. They indicated that, while such efforts have limited reach, they mark an essential step toward raising awareness. Respondents also highlighted that in some communities, land reclamation and reforestation have been initiated by volunteers and churches, with youths participating in reclaiming land and planting trees in abandoned mining areas. A few respondents advocated designating specific days for environmental rehabilitation, such as filling abandoned pits, to give back to the community. Some respondents reported that communities have also experimented by adopting local regulations, establishing rules prohibiting mining in riverbeds that supply drinking water, and setting up a community task force to monitor miners’ compliance with agreed-upon practices. Respondents highlighted that community-led initiatives demonstrate that residents now recognize the significance of striking a balance between mining and environmental accountability. However, respondents acknowledged that such initiatives often do not take off due to a lack of resources and coordination. When reflecting on tree-planting events, most AGMs do not take them seriously; as a result, the project remains too small to counter the vast scale of deforestation. One respondent remarked:

“Though efforts to plant trees have been initiated, they remain tiny because many AGMs do not take them very seriously. These efforts are not widespread enough to make a significant impact.”

Most respondents reported that national programs like tree planting require funding and external support. Even so, the existence of these responses demonstrates a proactive mindset, as communities are organizing and finding solutions even in the absence of decisive government intervention. When asked what should be done to improve the situation, AGMs across communities offered concrete suggestions for sustainable development. A key proposal from respondents was the introduction of safer, modern mining techniques, and miners are eager for training in methods that would allow them to extract gold without poisoning the environment or themselves. To emphasize the importance of replacing mercury with alternative processing techniques and the fact that it could significantly reduce water pollution, one participant stated:

“One important measure is providing comprehensive training programs for miners on the use of less harmful chemicals.”

During the interview, respondents mentioned the need for proper training of AGMs in waste handling and mine site rehabilitation. Most respondents reported that they have not adopted environmental mining initiatives because they lack knowledge of them; however, if trained, they would be willing to adopt such practices. Some of the respondents proposed the need for government funding to purchase equipment and technology, and access to subsidized mining machinery that can increase gold recovery efficiency, thereby reducing the need to dig and process as much ore and lowering the environmental footprint. A few respondents suggested that small, modern gold concentrators could extract more gold with less labour and chemical use. Some respondents even suggested using protective technologies, such as retorts, to capture mercury vapor, thereby reducing exposure to toxic substances. Respondents also proposed economic diversification and alternative livelihoods, with respondents emphasizing the importance of reducing overdependence on mining. They suggested programs to support agriculture, animal husbandry, or new enterprises in their communities, aspects that would broaden the community’s income base, making it easier to impose sustainable development initiatives on mining. In this regard, it might involve the government and NGOs assisting mining communities and providing training to farmers, thereby enabling them to earn a supplementary income outside of the mining seasons. A few respondents reported that mining community members needed to be capacitated in alternative livelihood programs, such as beekeeping and market gardening, thereby reducing their dependency on AGM.

Most respondents believe that stakeholder collaboration is the linchpin of any successful sustainable development. They called for a multi-stakeholder approach involving AGMs, community members, government officials, and NGOs. Respondents noted that when AGMs are united, they can more easily obtain government licenses, access training, share resources, and collectively market their gold for better prices. Such organizations could also foster peer accountability for environmental practices. To emphasize the importance of creating formalized cooperatives and how this could benefit communities, one participant had this to say:

“……. improving working conditions for miners helps in increasing the efficiency of gold extraction and thereby reducing the overall ecological footprint”.

In terms of governance, several participants suggested the need for regular dialogue with authorities, such as scheduling community meetings with representatives from the Ministry of Mines or the Environmental Management Agency to discuss ongoing issues. Where local District Development Committees exist, respondents want them to actively include AGM in their agenda, rather than treating it as an illegal or taboo subject. Respondents argued that support from the government and NGOs was crucial, and they welcomed the involvement of outsiders to provide funding, technical expertise, and neutral oversight. They indicated that solutions to sustainable development require those on the ground to form a comprehensive vision, since it aims to educate and equip miners for safer practices, enforce regulations while supporting miners’ livelihoods, rehabilitate the environment, diversify economic opportunities, and ensure that those affected by AGM meet to discuss as a unit. As one miner succinctly put it:

“We require improved alternatives; dependence exclusively on gold is unsustainable. During the rainfall seasons, we do not get much income because most of us do not have the resources to buy equipment that can be used during the rainfall season.”

This aspect of the study encapsulates the community’s desire to strike a balance between economic gains, social well-being, and environmental conservation. By considering ideas from key stakeholders and implementing their suggestions, stakeholders can work to transform Zimbabwe’s AGM sector into a more sustainable, community-centered enterprise.

4.7. Linking Findings to Sustainable Development Goals and Environmental Justice

The findings of this study about Zimbabwe’s AGM, the community, and its intersection with the environment reveal significant intersections with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and SDG 15 (Life on Land). When analysing, it can be noted that while AGM contributes to poverty alleviation and local employment, in line with SDG 8, the associated environmental degradation and health hazards undermine SDG 15, which advocates the protection and restoration of terrestrial ecosystems. In addition, the unregulated use of mercury, which has contaminated water bodies, contravenes SDG 12 by perpetuating unsustainable production processes and polluting vital water resources.

The findings of this study demonstrate that marginalized rural populations in mining communities experience the loss of arable land and clean water, while receiving limited institutional protection from those in authority. The challenge faced by the mining community is that those in authority over natural resource management typically ignore complaints from those affected and operate far from the environment where AGM would take place. This imbalance highlights the need for procedural justice, by ensuring local participation in environmental governance, and distributive justice, which calls for fair sharing of both the benefits and burdens of natural resource exploitation.

In addition, the study underscores the principle of intergenerational equity, which is a cornerstone of sustainability thinking. Environmental degradation, the depletion of natural resources, and the loss of fertile soils compromise future generations’ ability to meet their own needs, thereby violating the long-term goals of sustainable development. Embracing collaborative initiatives, such as community monitoring committees, can help redress these inequities while strengthening accountability.

Aligning AGM operations with the SDG goals and the principles of environmental justice can help Zimbabwe move toward a more inclusive and sustainable extractive economy. Integrating perspectives from all key stakeholders can help provide practical solutions to sustainable development.

4.8. Long-Term Sustainability Implications

The study findings reveal that although AGM provides employment opportunities to many, it threatens the long-term sustainability of the ecosystems and communities. Respondents acknowledged the need to diversify and move away from economic dependence on AGM, which is short-term and driven by immediate income needs rather than future planning. Without structured rehabilitation programs and diversified income streams, environmental degradation has led to the loss of arable land, which, in the long term, will result in declining agricultural productivity, thereby undermining food security and ecological resilience in AGM areas.

Sustainable development requires balancing short-term economic benefits with environmental management to ensure that future generations will benefit from the same environment. Achieving this balance, therefore, requires formalizing AGM through licensing and regulation, which can help enforce environmental standards and provide AGMs with access to training and financial support. Achieving sustainable development requires adopting mercury-free extraction technologies, such as gravity concentration and borax amalgamation, to minimize ecological contamination and protect downstream tributaries. Inclusive community-based governance is crucial for environmental management, as active participation by all key stakeholders ensures interventions are culturally relevant and sustainable. This would, therefore, imply that the long-term sustainability of Zimbabwe’s AGM sector depends not only on sustainability reforms but also on socioeconomic transformation that empowers communities to thrive beyond extractive dependence.

5. Conclusions

This study demonstrates that while AGM is a vital source of livelihood for many Zimbabwean communities, it poses serious risks to environmental integrity and social stability. The findings of this study reveal extensive ecological degradation, including soil erosion and water contamination, as well as health risks, such as respiratory ailments from mercury exposure. The challenges of AGM underscore the need to adopt sustainability initiatives and robust governance frameworks that reconcile economic gains with environmental management.

A significant finding from the study is that environmental degradation resulting from AGM is driven by weak, unenforceable regulations rather than by individual AGM activities. Addressing AGM environmental degradation requires collaboration among key stakeholders, including the Ministry of Mines, the Environmental Management Agency (EMA), and the local community, as well as the development of a unified environmental protection initiative.

This study’s findings call for balancing economic gains with sustainable development. Formalization of AGM, adoption of mercury-free technologies, and collaboration among all key stakeholders are crucial to ensuring that the benefits of AGM extend beyond immediate economic relief and reach future generations.

By integrating all key stakeholders, this study contributes to academic discourse and policy on achieving sustainable development goals within the AGM sector. Future studies should take the form of quantitative longitudinal studies by including direct ecological data monitoring to complement critical qualitative insights into the environmental and socioeconomic effects of AGM. Future interdisciplinary research should integrate field-based environmental assessments and measurements with community narratives to strengthen causal understanding and inform more evidence-driven policy interventions. A longitudinal study is also needed to examine the lasting effectiveness of interventions such as miner training, safer extraction methods, and alternative livelihood initiatives.

By adopting a holistic approach and continuing with research, we can deepen our understanding of AGM’s long-term implications and inform more effective, inclusive strategies to balance economic gains with environmental management.