Polysaccharides

The carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is receiving growing attention for its agro-industrial potential, particularly due to its seeds, which are the source of locust bean gum (LBG), a galactomannan-rich polysaccharide with wide applications in food and pharmaceutical industries. Efficient dehusking of carob seeds is critical to maximize LBG purity and yield, yet current industrial methods pose environmental concerns and lack robust quality control tools. In this study, we demonstrate the use of Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy (DRS) and Kubelka–Munk (KM) modeling as a rapid, non-destructive technique to assess dehusking efficiency. By combining spectral data from four complementary spectrometers (450–1800 nm), we identified key reflectance and absorbance features capable of distinguishing raw, industrially treated, and laboratory-dehusked seeds. Notably, our laboratory-treated seeds exhibited a considerably lower reflectance in the NIR plateau (800–1400 nm) compared to raw and industry-treated seeds, and their KM-reconstructed skin showed enhanced absorption bands at 960, 1200, and 1400 nm, consistent with more complete husk removal and improved light penetration. Principal Component Analysis revealed tighter clustering and lower variability in lab-processed seeds, indicating superior process reproducibility. These results establish DRS as a scalable, green analytical tool to support quality control and optimization in carob processing. Full article

Wheat is often used as a raw material in the brewing of special styles of beer. Hydrocolloids naturally present in wheat are called pentosans. They constitute approximately 2% of wheat flour. Arabinoxylans (pentosanes) and β-glucan are common compounds in wheat and are mostly found in the cell wall. Hydrocolloids are commonly used to retain moisture in bread and baked goods. Besides the moisture content, they affect the texture and retrogradation enthalpy of starch molecules. In the baking industry, they can be useful and improve the dough properties, but in the brewing industry, they are commonly designated as problematic compounds. Namely, to a certain extent, they can improve the foam stability; however, they can hinder the filtration process. This review paper aims to give an overview of non-starch compounds and their properties and to emphasize the significance of these macromolecules in the malting and brewing industries, especially in wheat varieties. The objective of this review is to gather information by searching different databases with scientific papers to broaden knowledge on arabinoxylans and β-glucans in brewing. Full article

Resveratrol (RES), a naturally occurring polyphenolic compound with well-documented anticancer potential, is limited in clinical application due to its poor aqueous solubility and low bioavailability. This study aimed to develop RES-loaded liposomes coated sequentially with chitosan (CS) and hyaluronic acid-chitosan (HA) (RES-HA-CS-Lip) to enhance RES stability, delivery, and anticancer efficacy in breast cancer cells. HA-CS-coated liposomes were prepared using a thin-film hydration technique. Their physicochemical characteristics were thoroughly investigated through dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry. The optimized RES-HA-CS-Lip exhibited spherical morphology with an average particle size of 212 nm, a narrow polydispersity index (<0.4), a zeta potential of +9.04 ± 1.0 mV, and high entrapment efficiency of 82.16%. Stability studies demonstrated superior retention of size, surface charge, and encapsulation efficiency over 28 days at both 4 °C and 25 °C. In vitro release profiles at physiological and acidic pH revealed sustained drug release, with enhanced release under acidic conditions mimicking the tumor microenvironment. Antioxidant activity, assessed via DPPH and ABTS radical-scavenging assays, indicated that RES retained its radical-scavenging potential upon encapsulation. Cytotoxicity assays demonstrated markedly improved anticancer activity against MCF-7 breast cancer cells, with an IC₅₀ of 13.08 μg/mL at 48 h, while maintaining high biocompatibility toward normal HaCaT keratinocytes. RES-HA-CS-Lip demonstrated excellent stability against degradation and aggregation. Overall, these findings highlight HA-CS-coated liposomes as a promising polysaccharide-based nanocarrier that enhances stability, bioactivity, and therapeutic efficacy of RES, representing a potential strategy for targeted breast cancer therapy. Full article

This study investigated the effects of homolactic fermentation on the rheological, viscoelastic, and starch structural properties of quinoa–chickpea flour-based beverages. Three formulations with increasing proportions of chickpea flour (10, 25, and 50%) were fermented for 10 h with Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5. Apparent viscosity, deformation capacity, storage modulus (G′), and pasting behavior were measured along with FTIR-based analysis of the starch molecular structure. All fermented samples reached pH values < 4.5 and exhibited improved rheological properties with significant increases in viscosity and storage modulus (G′), particularly in the 50:50 blend. These enhancements were attributed to the synergistic effects of homolactic fermentation and inherent properties of chickpea starch, particularly its high amylose content, large granule size, and long amylopectin chains. FTIR analysis revealed that the short-range molecular order of starches was preserved after fermentation in all beverages, except for the 50:50 blend, as evidenced by the increased degree of order (DO) and double helix (DD) ratios. Overall, these findings demonstrate that integrating chickpea flour and controlled homolactic fermentation is an effective strategy for tailoring the viscosity and stability of plant-based probiotic beverages, providing a theoretical basis for the development of clean-label and functional fermented plant-based systems. Full article

The increasing demand for sustainable alternatives to non-biodegradable plastic packaging is driving the development of active packaging based on biopolymers such as methylcellulose. In this study, innovative methylcellulose nanocomposite films incorporating zein nanoparticles loaded with propolis and curcumin were developed for active packaging applications. The zein nanoparticles revealed excellent physicochemical properties, with a zeta potential above 30 mV, suggesting adequate stability. Transmission electron microscopy confirmed nanoparticles containing curcumin and propolis with uniform sizes ranging from approximately 130 to 140 nm with low polydispersity. Release studies revealed that approximately 25% of the curcumin and 35% of the propolis were released from the nanoparticles within 24 h. The release mechanism was best described by the Korsmeyer–Peppas model, suggesting a sustained release profile. The nanoparticles reduced the hydrophobicity and rigidity of the films, as evidenced by a lower elastic modulus and higher percentage elongation, thereby suggesting greater flexibility. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis revealed the incorporation of bioactive compounds in the polymer matrix. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) revealed the thermal parameters of the synthesized films. Furthermore, the films exhibited antibacterial and antioxidant activities, making them highly suitable for use as biodegradable active packaging. Full article

Chitosan-based hydrogels are used in the adsorption of pharmaceutical compounds from water. The adsorption process of diclofenac and naproxen on chitosan hydrogels cross-linked with glutaraldehyde has been studied theoretically and experimentally. According to the thermodynamic properties, the adsorption processes were spontaneous and endothermic, due to the negative values of Gibbs free energy, and the enthalpies of formation were positive. Furthermore, the different systems were studied by electrostatic potential maps, where the functional groups (amino and hydroxyl) represented the active sites of the hydrogel. The maximum adsorption capacity obtained for diclofenac and naproxen was 108.85 and 97.22 mg/g, respectively, at a temperature of 308.15 K. On the other hand, the adsorbent was characterized by FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) and XRD (X-ray Diffraction) before and after the adsorption of the drugs to confirm the binding of the adsorbates on the surface of the material. Full article

Fucoidan B (FucB) is a sulfated polysaccharide with recognized biological activity. In this study, FucB was chemically modified through redox conjugation with gallic acid (GA) to obtain FucB-GA, aiming to enhance its antioxidant properties. Structural characterization using FTIR, NMR, and electrophoresis confirmed the successful covalent binding of GA to FucB without major structural degradation. The conjugation increased the phenolic content and reduced crystallinity, as shown by XRD and SEM, indicating greater amorphous character, which can favor biological applications. Thermogravimetric analysis demonstrated enhanced thermal stability in FucB-GA. Antioxidant activity was evaluated through various in vitro assays. FucB-GA showed superoxide radical scavenging activity of 91.96%, copper chelating capacity of 43.2%, antioxidant capacity of 37 mg AEE/g, and reducing power of 94.22%, significantly higher results than FucB, while no sample chelated iron. Under the conditions analyzed, gallic acid alone showed minimal or no activity in most assays. These results suggest that conjugation with GA increases the antioxidant potential of FucB, while also improving the activity and bioavailability of GA, likely due to the increase in electron-donating and metal-binding groups. Overall, the study supports the development of FucB-GA as a promising antioxidant compound for pharmaceutical or nutraceutical applications. Full article

The precipitation of cellulose and polyacrylonitrile and its copolymer (PAN) solutions is a well-known process that has been extensively described in numerous studies. It is suggested that “soft” precipitants (aqueous solutions of solvent, alcohols) be used in place of “rigid” ones (water) to control the rate at which solutions precipitate. Diffusion processes can also be controlled by lowering the temperature of the interacting system’s constituent parts. The appearance and structure of the resulting fibers (films) are directly correlated with the rate of coagulation. Adding a composite additive to the solution is an unusual method of altering the rate of polymer phase release. The introduced additive should dissolve in a common solvent, which will ensure the competition of precipitation between the polymer phases. It is shown that using optical methods it is possible to trace the evolution of the polymer phase precipitation and the formed morphology. For 12% solutions of cellulose, PAN and mixed systems in N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO) the kinetics of the movement of isoconcentration planes was traced and the growth rates of the precipitated polymer zone were estimated. The introduction of PAN additives into cellulose enables the influence of diffusion processes and minimizes the formation of finger-like defects (vacuoles). When the PAN content in the system is 30% or more, the formation of defects in the precipitated solution is significantly suppressed, which is crucial for achieving a uniform morphology. Full article

As the demand for chitin grows, new chitin sources with unique physicochemical properties are required. Abundant biofouling species, such as amphipods and hydroids, have chitinous skeletal systems that can be utilized for chitin production. However, little is known about these chitin sources. This study investigated the viability of amphipods (Jassa sp.) and hydroids (Coryne sp.) obtained from aquaculture biofouling assemblages as novel sources of chitin. Chitin was extracted from these sources and characterized in terms of its degree of acetylation (DA), crystallinity index (CrI), molecular weight (MW), thermal stability, and surface morphology. Physiochemical characteristics where then compared against commercially available shrimp chitin. Results show that a 32.75% chitin yield can be obtained from hydroids. The percentage DA for amphipod (AC) and hydroid (HC) chitin is 58.4–59.2% and 64.8–66.7%, respectively. AC is characterized as α-chitin with a low molecular weight (MW), while HC is medium-MW β-chitin. This finding is significant because it shows hydroids to be a new source of rare β-chitin. In addition, AC has higher thermal stability than HC. AC and HC greatly differ in terms of surface morphology. Therefore, the chitin biomaterials extracted from amphipods and hydroids have different but favorable properties that can be used for diverse applications. Full article

In this work, redox-responsive chitosan derivatives were prepared by crosslinking with disulfide-bridged dicarboxylic acids. Taking into account that structural variations in diacids can lead to significant differences in properties, especially swelling capacity, this study aimed to evaluate the impact of increasing alkyl chain length and hydrophobicity. Two dicarboxylic acids of different hydrophobic character and chain length were used: dithiodiglycolic acid (DTGA) and dithiopropionic acid (DTPA). The resulting materials were fully characterized. Despite their structural similarity, the derivatives exhibited distinct behaviors: DTGA derivatives formed stable hydrogels, whereas DTPA ones remained compact upon contact with water. These results were confirmed by swelling measurements and oscillatory rheology. The EDC:COOH molar ratio was also evaluated, revealing a strong effect on the degree of crosslinking. Moreover, DTGA systems prepared at a 1:1 ratio showed significantly higher swelling than those synthesized at 3:1. Regarding redox responsiveness, it was assessed by quantifying thiol content before and after reduction with sodium borohydride, and reversibility was assessed through reduction–oxidation cycles. Finally, preliminary experiments evaluated the materials’ ability to incorporate benzalkonium chloride as a model biocide, and their release was tested in the presence of thiosulfate-reducing bacteria, providing initial insight into their behavior in redox-responsive delivery systems. Full article

This study investigates the potential of acetylated xylan as a functional component in coatings for biodegradable paper-based food packaging. Acetylated xylan was synthesized in the laboratory via the reaction of native beechwood xylan with acetic anhydride. Multilayer coatings composed of acetylated xylan, chitosan, and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) were applied to paper substrates as single and double layers (approximately 5 g/m²) to enhance their barrier and antimicrobial properties. The coated papers were evaluated for mechanical properties, resistance to water, oil, and grease, antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria, and biodegradability in soil. The combination of xylan derivatives with chitosan significantly improved surface hydrophobicity (contact angle ~87°) and achieved complete inhibition (100%) of Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella spp., without compromising biodegradability. Incorporation of ZnO NPs further enhanced both the barrier properties and antimicrobial efficacy, particularly against S. aureus. A high biodegradation rate (~92%) was recorded after 42 days of soil burial. These results demonstrate the suitability of xylan-based multilayer coatings as sustainable alternatives for food packaging applications. Full article

Uncontrolled hemorrhage is a major global health issue, causing high mortality rates in both civilian and military settings. The risk of infection in bleeding wounds highlights the need for effective hemostatic materials. Natural polysaccharides are promising for developing hemostatic microgels, and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) offer antimicrobial benefits. This study aimed to synthesize a novel powdered hemostatic material using spray drying, leveraging chitosan (CHI) and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) combined with eco-friendly AgNPs that provide antimicrobial properties. AgNPs were synthesized via a green method using CMC as a reducing and stabilizing agent, then characterized by UV-Vis, TEM, FTIR, and DLS. CHI/CMC and CHI/CMC-AgNPs microgels were created using a scalable spray drying technique and then evaluated for their morphological, physical, thermal, swelling, hemostatic, and antimicrobial properties. Characterization showed that AgNPs had monodisperse sizes and a unique UV-Vis peak at 428 nm. CHI/CMC microgels had an irregular spherical shape, with AgNPs slightly increasing their size. CHI/CMC and CHI/CMC-10AgNPs (with 10% v/v AgNPs) demonstrated appropriate swelling capacity and hemocompatibility and reduced coagulation time by 20%. However, CHI/CMC-20AgNPs (with 20% v/v AgNPs) exhibited high hemolysis. Both CHI/CMC-10AgNPs and CHI/CMC-20AgNPs displayed antimicrobial activity. In conclusion, a novel powdered hemostatic micromaterial was successfully developed, exhibiting improved properties and efficacy as a next-generation hemostatic agent. Full article

This work aims to develop bio-based and biodegradable materials for active food packaging purposes by comparing the properties of avocado seed flour (ASF) and avocado extracted starch (AES). A 36.4% dry basis yield is obtained for the extracted AES from ASF. ASF presents a higher crystallinity, and SEM images show a mixture of starch granules and other materials, whereas AES presents lower ash, protein, and lipid content relative to ASF. To make a comparison between the two, ASF or AES are mixed with glycerol at different concentrations, then twin-screw extruded and injection-molded to develop thermoplastic starch-based materials. The morphological, mechanical, barrier, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and disintegrability properties are evaluated to compare their different compositions. ASF-based films exhibit better barrier properties and a 134% higher intrinsic antioxidant capacity. Conversely, the homogenous nature of AES-based materials results in better interactions with the plasticizer, allowing a wide range of mechanical properties. Moreover, cinnamon essential oil (CEO) was incorporated into the preferred compositions of both ASF and AES to improve antimicrobial properties. Adding a 5% concentration of CEO to samples was sufficient to completely inhibit the growth of P. expansum. These results support waste valorization for developing active packaging materials with high antioxidant and antimicrobial properties without competing for resources with the food industry. Full article

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have emerged as sustainable and tunable alternatives to conventional solvents for the extraction of polysaccharides. This review presents a structure-informed framework linking DES composition to polysaccharide solubility, emphasizing the differential responsiveness of amorphous, interfacial, and crystalline domains. Amorphous polysaccharides are efficiently extracted under mild DES conditions, while crystalline polymers often require stronger hydrogen bond acceptors or thermal/mechanical activation. Beyond dissolution, DESs modulate key properties of the extracted polysaccharides, including molecular weight, monomer composition, and bioactivity. Comparative analysis highlights how acidic, basic, or metal-coordinating DESs selectively target distinct polymer classes. Emerging innovations, such as in situ DES formation, mechanochemical systems, and switchable solvents, enhance efficiency and reduce downstream processing demands. Furthermore, the integration of machine learning and COSMO-RS modeling enables predictive solvent design, reducing reliance on empirical screening. By combining mechanistic insight, compositional tailoring, and computational tools, this review provides a scientifically grounded perspective for advancing DES-mediated extraction processes and enabling structure-preserving, application-oriented recovery of polysaccharides in food, pharmaceutical, and biorefinery domains. Full article

Probiotics offer significant health benefits; however, their efficacy is often compromised by low survival rates in stressful conditions. Microencapsulation using modified starches presents a promising strategy to enhance probiotic viability. This study aimed to evaluate microwave-assisted octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) modification of faba bean starch to provide a protective matrix for the microencapsulation of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) through spray drying. Starch was extracted from faba beans and hydrolyzed, and a factorial design was employed for OSA esterification (3% w/w) using a conventional microwave (30 or 60 s at power levels of 2 or 10). The starches were characterized, and the most effective treatment was selected for the microencapsulation of LGG, varying the inlet temperature (120 and 140 °C) and flow rate (7 and 12 mL/min) at 30% solids content. Microwaves significantly reduced the processing time for starch esterification. Microwave-assisted OSA modification produced starches with low viscosity (<0.015 Pa·s), high amylose and resistant starch content, and good solubility, making them suitable for probiotic encapsulation. The microencapsulation of LGG resulted in a powder yield of 41–55%, with particle sizes ranging from 5 to 20 µm and survival rates of 81–90%. This study presents an effective method of producing OSA-modified starch from faba beans using microwave energy, demonstrating strong potential for probiotic delivery applications. Full article

Chitosan, a biopolymer with molecular variability, continues to demonstrate promising potential for biomedical and biotechnological applications. In this study, mixtures of β-oligochitosan, with a low molar mass (MM) of 1.5 kDa (CH1), α-oligochitosan, MM = 26.39 kDa (CH2), and α-chitosan, MM = 804.33 kDa (CH3) were analyzed. The tested solutions, chitosan alone and mixtures (CH1:CH2 and CH1:CH3), prepared in different mass ratios (1:1, 2:1, 3:1), were characterized in terms of MM and degree of deacetylation (DDA). The antimicrobial activity on S. aureus, E. coli, and C. parapsilosis was evaluated. The fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) was also calculated for mixtures. Using the Brine Shrimp Lethality Assay (BSLA), the in vivo interactions, which involve the internalization of chitosan in the cells, were assessed. The results showed that α-β chitosan mixtures exhibited an in vitro antimicrobial antagonistic effect (FICI > 1) for all samples. In contrast, significantly improved larval survival (%), development, and motility (p < 0.0001), with a close correlation between cellular inclusions and naupliar stages (R = 0.94), were detected in vivo testing. These data support the strategic use of chitosan mixtures with variable characteristics in biotechnological applications, with potential for optimizing intake, biological activity, and controlling cytotoxicity. Full article

This study aimed to develop synbiotic edible films based on fish gelatin containing Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG, evaluating the impact of different prebiotics (inulin and fructooligosaccharides, FOSs) and structuring polysaccharides (pectin and alginate) on their physical, mechanical, thermal properties, cell viability, and in vitro gastrointestinal behavior. Seven film formulations were prepared from fish gelatin solutions (3%, w/v) containing glycerol (30%, w/w, as plasticizer), with the addition of prebiotics (inulin or FOSs, 1:1 w/w to gelatin), either alone or in combination with pectin (1%, w/v) or alginate (0.5%, w/v). Specifically, F1 contained gelatin, glycerol, and L. rhamnosus GG (control); F2 and F5 included inulin or FOSs, respectively; F3 and F6 combined inulin or FOSs with pectin; and F4 and F7 combined inulin or FOSs with alginate. After incorporation of the probiotic, the solutions were cast and dried at 37 °C for 24 h. The incorporation of prebiotics and polysaccharides significantly influenced probiotic viability after film drying (p < 0.05). The control formulation (F1) showed the highest reduction (26.10%), while F4 (inulin + alginate) and F7 (FOS + alginate) exhibited the lowest losses of 10.41% and 10.98%, respectively. These films also demonstrated better performance during simulated digestion, with F7 showing the smallest reduction after 6 h (0.5 log), maintaining 7.0 colony-forming units per gram (CFU g⁻¹), which is considered adequate for functional effects. Physically, the films varied in solubility (27.50% to 41.37%), thickness (0.085 to 0.095 mm), water vapor permeability (WVP) (8.17 to 11.75 g·mm/m²·d·kPa), and moisture content (13.47% to 17.50%). Mechanically, F4 showed the highest tensile strength (24.5 MPa), while F1 had the highest elongation at break (62%). During storage, F7 and F4 showed the lowest viability losses (29.8% and 29.4%, respectively) under refrigeration. Overall, the results indicate that the association of prebiotics with structuring polysaccharides improves stability, cellular protection, and functional performance of the films. Full article

Achieving precise drug release in the colon remains a key objective in therapies for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Natural polysaccharides, including high-amylose starch (HAS) and pectin, offer relevant characteristics for localized drug delivery due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and adaptability. In this work, high-esterified pectin (HEP) was incorporated during the retrogradation of HAS to further form cohesive films without the need for organic solvents or high temperatures. The resulting matrices showed improved mucoadhesive performance, particularly under colonic conditions, where hydrophobic ester groups in HEP enhanced tissue adherence. This feature is critical for prolonged residence time in inflamed mucosa. Variations in HEP content directly influenced matrix density, fluid interaction, and mechanical resistance, without compromising film integrity. The high degree of esterification limited pH-dependent swelling and promoted alternative release mechanisms potentially related to enzymatic degradation. Such behavior contrasts with traditional low-esterified pectin (LEP) systems, suggesting that HEP may act as a structural modifier rather than a neutral excipient. Despite its widespread use in food systems, HEP remains underexplored in pharmaceutical matrices, especially in combination with retrograded starch (RS). The physicochemical and biointerfacial properties observed here underscore their applicability for the rational design of colonic delivery systems and provide a foundation for formulation strategies tailored to chronic intestinal disorders. Full article