Gels — Open Access Journal

Resorcinol (R) and formaldehyde (F) gel synthesis has been well-studied along with alternative reagents. We present the synthesis of formaldehyde-based xerogels using chemically similar s-triazine precursors, with comparison to traditional analogues. The substitution ranges from tri-hydroxyl to tri-amine, with an intermediate species, allowing changing chemistry to be investigated. Each molecule (X) offers different acid/base properties, known to influence gel formation, as well as differences in crosslinking potential. Varying X/F ratios were selected to recreate the stoichiometry used in RF systems, where one represented higher F to match the increased reaction sites of the additives. X/C ratios were selected to probe different catalyst (C) ratios, while working within the range likely to produce viable gels. Results obtained show little impact for ammeline as an additive due to its similarity to resorcinol (activation sites and pK_a); while melamine and cyanuric acid show differing behavior depending on the level of addition. Low concentrations show melamine to have the most impact due to increased activation and competition for formaldehyde; while at high concentrations, cyanuric acid is shown to have the greatest impact as it creates a more acidic environment, which diminishes textural character, possibly attributable to larger clusters and/or weaker cross-linking of the system. Full article

Nanogels, or nanostructured hydrogels, are one of the most interesting materials in biomedical engineering. Nanogels are widely used in medical applications, such as in cancer therapy, targeted delivery of proteins, genes and DNAs, and scaffolds in tissue regeneration. One salient feature of nanogels is their tunable responsiveness to external stimuli. In this review, thermosensitive nanogels are discussed, with a focus on moieties in their chemical structure which are responsible for thermosensitivity. These thermosensitive moieties can be classified into four groups, namely, polymers bearing amide groups, ether groups, vinyl ether groups and hydrophilic polymers bearing hydrophobic groups. These novel thermoresponsive nanogels provide effective drug delivery systems and tissue regeneration constructs for treating patients in many clinical applications, such as targeted, sustained and controlled release. Full article

Aerogels can be defined as ultralight materials with a 3D porous structure, similar to their parent wet gels, where the solvent has been replaced by a gas without a collapse of the gel structure, thanks to the drying process used (supercritical CO₂ drying, freeze drying, etc [...] Full article

Amphiphilic Polymer Co-networks: Synthesis, Properties, Modelling and Applications is a new and very interesting book published by the Royal Society of Chemistry and edited by Prof. Costas S. Patrickios (University of Cyprus). Herein, a brief review of the most important features of the book and its contents is provided from a personal perspective. Full article

Nowadays, one of the strongest factors affecting consumers’ choice at the moment of purchasing food products is their nutritional features. The population is increasingly aware of the diet–health relationship and they are opting for a healthy lifestyle. Concerns with the increasing number of heart-related diseases, which are associated to the consumption of fats, are placing the functional food market in a relevant growth position. Considering that, our goal was to develop, under semi-industrial processing conditions, a healthy meat-based spreadable product (pâté) with reduced fat content through replacement of pork fat by healthier structured oil. Beeswax was used to develop an edible oleogel based on linseed oil with a high content of linolenic acid. A decrease of the hardness and adhesivity was verified for pâtés with oleogel incorporation. Linseed oil inclusion was the main factor leading to an increase of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content in pâté samples. A decrease up to 90% in the n-6/n-3 (omega-6/omega-3) ratio can signify a better nutritional value of the obtained pâté samples, which can result in a possible upsurge in omega-3 bioavailability through digestion of these pâtés. This could be an interesting option for the consumption of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, targeting, for example, the reduction of cardiovascular diseases. Full article

Two pyrene derivatives having the perylenediimide (1) or the alky chain (2) in the middle of molecules were synthesized. Co-assembled supramolecular gels were prepared at different molar ratios of 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8 equiv. of 2 to 1. By SEM observation, the morphology of co-assembled supramolecular gels changed from spherical nanoparticles to three-dimensional network nanofibers as the ratio of 2 increased. In addition, the pyrene-excimer emission of co-assembled gels increased with increasing concentration of 2, and was stronger when compared with the condition without 1 or 2, indicating the formation of pyrene interaction between 1 and 2. In addition, the sol-gel transition was found to be reversible over repeated measurement by tube inversion method. The rheological properties of co-assembled supramolecular gels were also improved by increasing the ratio of 2, due to the increased nanoscale flexibility of supramolecular packing by introducing alkyl chain groups through heterogeneous pyrene interaction. These findings suggest that macroscale mechanical strength of co-assembled supramolecular gel was strongly influenced by nanoscale flexibility of the supramolecular packing. Full article

Here we address the problem of what we can expect from investigations of sorption kinetics on cryogel beads in batch. Does macroporosity of beads indeed help eliminate diffusion limitations under static sorption conditions? Are sorption rate constants calculated using phenomenological kinetic models helpful for predicting sorption properties under dynamic conditions? Applying the rate constants distribution (RCD) model to kinetic curves of Cu(II) ions sorption on polyethyleneimine (PEI) cryogel and gel beads and fines, we have shown that diffusion limitations in highly swollen beads are very important and result in at least ten-fold underestimation of the sorption rate constants. To account for intraparticle diffusion, we have developed the RCD-diffusion model, which yields “intrinsic” kinetic parameters for the sorbents, even if diffusion limitations were important in kinetic experiments. We have shown that introduction of a new variable—characteristic diffusion time—to the RCD model significantly improved the reliability of sorption kinetic parameters and allowed prediction of the minimal residence time in column required for efficient uptake of the adsorbate under dynamic conditions. The minimal residence time determined from kinetic curves simulated using the RCD-diffusion model was in good agreement with experimental data on breakthrough curves of Cu(II) ion sorption on monolith PEI cryogel at different flow rates. Full article

Currently, surgical operations, followed by systemic drug delivery, are the prevailing treatment modality for most diseases, including cancers and trauma-based injuries. Although effective to some extent, the side effects of surgery include inflammation, pain, a lower rate of tissue regeneration, disease recurrence, and the non-specific toxicity of chemotherapies, which remain significant clinical challenges. The localized delivery of therapeutics has recently emerged as an alternative to systemic therapy, which not only allows the delivery of higher doses of therapeutic agents to the surgical site, but also enables overcoming post-surgical complications, such as infections, inflammations, and pain. Due to the limitations of the current drug delivery systems, and an increasing clinical need for disease-specific drug release systems, hydrogels have attracted considerable interest, due to their unique properties, including a high capacity for drug loading, as well as a sustained release profile. Hydrogels can be used as local drug performance carriers as a means for diminishing the side effects of current systemic drug delivery methods and are suitable for the majority of surgery-based injuries. This work summarizes recent advances in hydrogel-based drug delivery systems (DDSs), including formulations such as implantable, injectable, and sprayable hydrogels, with a particular emphasis on stimuli-responsive materials. Moreover, clinical applications and future opportunities for this type of post-surgery treatment are also highlighted. Full article

Hydrogels composed of calcium cross-linked alginate are under investigation as bioinks for tissue engineering scaffolds due to their variable viscoelasticity, biocompatibility, and erodibility. Here, pyrrole was oxidatively polymerized in the presence of sodium alginate solutions to form ionomeric composites of various compositions. The IR spectroscopy shows that mild base is required to prevent the oxidant from attacking the alginate during the polymerization reaction. The resulting composites were isolated as dried thin films or cross-linked hydrogels and aerogels. The products were characterized by elemental analysis to determine polypyrrole incorporation, electrical conductivity measurements, and by SEM to determine changes in morphology or large-scale phase separation. Polypyrrole incorporation of up to twice the alginate (monomer versus monomer) provided materials amenable to 3D extrusion printing. The PC12 neuronal cells adhered and proliferated on the composites, demonstrating their biocompatibility and potential for tissue engineering applications. Full article

The necessity to recover uranium from dilute solutions (for environmental/safety and resource management) is driving research towards developing new sorbents. This study focuses on the enhancement of U(VI) sorption properties of composite algal/Polyethylenimine beads through the quaternization of the support (by reaction with glycidyltrimethylammonium chloride). The sorbent is fully characterized by FTIR, XPS for confirming the contribution of protonated amine and quaternary ammonium groups on U(VI) binding (with possible contribution of hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, depending on the pH). The sorption properties are investigated in batch with reference to pH effect (optimum value: pH 4), uptake kinetics (equilibrium: 40 min) and sorption isotherms (maximum sorption capacity: 0.86 mmol U g⁻¹). Metal desorption (with 0.5 M NaCl/0.5 M HCl) is highly efficient and the sorbent can be reused for five cycles with limited decrease in performance. The sorbent is successfully applied to the selective recovery of U(VI) from acidic leachate of uranium ore, after pre-treatment (cementation of copper, precipitation of rare earth elements with oxalate, and precipitation of iron). A pure yellow cake is obtained after precipitation of the eluate. Full article

Several methods to increase the mechanical and swelling properties of Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) gels are known. In this study different methods were combined to systematically alter the gel properties. The combination of nanocomposite and cryo gels as well as silica post modification was used to modulate the gel strength. This new cryo-clay-silica gel based on N-isopropylacrylamide was investigated in respect to degree of swelling, kinetic of thermo responsive behavior and tensile strength. Here, the properties of new cryo-clay-silica gel were compared with properties of clay-, silica-clay and cryo-clay gels. Full article

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting, although still in its infancy as a fabrication tool, has the potential to effectively mimic many biological environments. Cell-laden 3D printed structures have demonstrated to be an improvement from the widely used monolayer platforms, largely because of recapitulation of native tissue architecture with the 3D structures. Thus, 3D in vitro models have been increasingly investigated for improved modeling of cell and disease systems, such as for breast cancer. In the present work, multicellular cell-laden hydrogels comprised of adipocytes and breast cancer cells were bioprinted and evaluated. An ideal bioink of 3:2 5% alginate was determined to mimic the tissue stiffness observed in a physiological breast cancer tumor environment. Rheological characterization and degradation studies were performed to verify the stability of the artificial breast hydrogel environment. It was found that both the breast cancer cells and adipocytes remained viable directly after printing and throughout the 10-day culture period within the printed hydrogels. Direct printing of the cells in co-culture resulted in morphology changes and variations in cell localization within printed structures. Overall, the feasibility of efficiently fabricating multicellular cell-laden bioprinted models of the breast tumor microenvironment was established. Full article

Minocycline (MNC) is a tetracycline antibiotic capable of associating with cyclodextrin (CD), and it is a frontline drug for many instances of implant infection. Due to its broad-spectrum activity and long half-life, MNC represents an ideal drug for localized delivery; however, classic polymer formulations, particularly hydrogels, result in biphasic release less suitable for sustained anti-microbial action. A polymer delivery system capable of sustained, steady drug delivery rates poses an attractive target to maximize the antimicrobial activity of MNC. Here, we formed insoluble hydrogels of polymerized CD (pCD) with a range of crosslinking densities, and then assessed loading, release, and antimicrobial activity of MNC. MNC loads between 5–12 wt % and releases from pCD hydrogels for >14 days. pCD loaded with MNC shows extended antimicrobial activity against S. aureus for >40 days and E. coli for >70 days. We evaluated a range of water/ethanol blends to test our hypothesis that solvent polarity will impact drug-CD association as a function of hydrogel swelling and crosslinking. Increased polymer crosslinking and decreased solvent polarity both reduced MNC loading, but solvent polarity showed a dramatic reduction independent of hydrogel swelling. Due to its high solubility and excellent delivery profile, MNC represents a unique drug to probe the structure-function relationship between drug, affinity group, and polymer crosslinking ratio. Full article

This study investigates the synthesis of formaldehyde-based xerogels using alternative aromatic precursors, with comparison to traditional resorcinol-formaldehyde analogues, in order to alter the chemical composition of the resulting gels. By replacing resorcinol with aromatic amine molecules, i.e., ammeline, melamine and melem, each expected to undergo similar reactions with formaldehyde as the substituted species, we found that for all substituted gels, at low additive contents, the gel structure was compromised and non-porous materials were formed, as opposed to the most abundant monomers, and therefore, these additives seem to act as impurities at low levels. Working towards higher additive contents, melem monomers exhibited low solubility (~5%), even at elevated temperatures, thereby limiting the range to which melem could act as a substitute, while melamine could be incorporated up to ~40% under acidic conditions, with enhanced microporosity over this range. Pure gels were successfully synthesised from ammeline, but their performance was inferior to resorcinol-formaldehyde gels, while melamine-formaldehyde analogues required acidic reaction conditions but shrank considerably on sub-critical drying, adversely affecting the gel properties and demonstrating their lack of potential as sorbents. This demonstrates the potential for the inclusion of aminated aromatics within resorcinol-based gel systems, however, only as partial substitutes and not complete replacements. Full article

The physical principle underlying the familiar condensation transition from vapor to liquid is the competition between the energetic tendency to condense owing to attractive forces among molecules of the fluid and the entropic tendency to disperse toward the maximum volume available as limited only by the walls of the container. Van der Waals incorporated this principle into his equation of state and was thus able to explain the discontinuous nature of condensation as the result of instability of intermediate states. The volume phase transition of gels, also discontinuous in its sharpest manifestation, can be understood similarly, as a competition between net free energy attraction of polymer segments and purely entropic dissolution into a maximum allowed volume. Viewed in this way, the gel phase transition would require nothing more to describe it than van der Waals’ original equation of state (with osmotic pressure $\Pi$ replacing pressure P). But the polymer segments in a gel are networked by cross-links, and a consequent restoring force prevents complete dissolution. Like a solid material, and unlike a van der Waals fluid, a fully swollen gel possesses an intrinsic volume of its own. Although all thermodynamic descriptions of gel behavior contain an elastic component, frequently in the form of Flory-style rubber theory, the resulting isotherms usually have the same general appearance as van der Waals isotherms for fluids, so it is not clear whether the solid-like aspect of gels, that is, their intrinsic volume and shape, adds any fundamental physics to the volume phase transition of gels beyond what van der Waals already knew. To address this question, we have constructed a universal chemical potential for gels that captures the volume transition while containing no quantities specific to any particular gel. In this sense, it is analogous to the van der Waals theory of fluids in its universal form, but although it incorporates the van der Waals universal equation of state, it also contains a network elasticity component, not based on Flory theory but instead on a nonlinear Langevin model, that restricts the radius of a fully swollen spherical gel to a solid-like finite universal value of unity, transitioning to a value less than unity when the gel collapses. A new family of isotherms arises, not present in a preponderately van der Waals analysis, namely, profiles of gel density as a function of location in the gel. There is an abrupt onset of large amplitude density fluctuations in the gel at a critical temperature. Then, at a second critical temperature, the entire swollen gel collapses to a high-density phase. Full article

Drug delivery is a fascinating research field with several development opportunities. Great attention is now focused on colloidal systems, nanoparticles, and nanogels and on the possibility of modifying them in order to obtain precise targeted drug delivery systems. The aim of this review is to give an overview of the main available surface functionalization and coating strategies that can be adopted in order to modify the selectivity of the nanoparticles in the delivery process and obtain a final system with great targeted drug delivery ability. We also highlight the most important fields of application of these kinds of delivery systems and we propose a comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of the described functionalization strategies. Full article

The combination of oleogelators in oil structuring has an untapped potential, since effective pairs have usually been found by serendipity. The aim of this work was to evaluate the combination of berry (BEW) or sunflower wax (SHW) with glycerol monostearate (GMS) in flaxseed oil (FXO) at 5 and 25 °C. The thermal and mechanical properties, microstructure, and stability of oleogels were investigated. Self-standing and translucent gels were obtained from BEW in FXO. However, the mixture BEW:GMS resulted in a decrease of dynamic moduli. Moreover, changes in the crystal network and a reduction of oil binding capacity were noticed. Thus, the GMS prevented the complete organization of BEW in polyunsaturated chains of FXO. Conversely, a positive interaction was found for GMS:SHW, since both alone were not able to impart the structure in FXO. Interestingly, gel was formed with improved properties, even with a small addition of GMS, although an ideal ratio of 1:1 (GMS50:50SHW) was found. Oxidative stability analysis showed that all gels resembled the behavior of liquid oil (~12.00 meqO₂/kg) over 30 days storage. Therefore, semi-solid systems with nutritional and techno-functional claims were created by using waxes and fatty-acid derivative oleogelator in a rational fashion; this opened the opportunity to tailor oleogel properties. Full article

Human immunoglobulin M (hIgM) antibodies are considered as hopeful tools for diseases therapy. Therefore, chromatography approaches are used to purify hIgM with a single step. In this study, we prepared a poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) based immunoaffinity p(HEMA-I) cryogel column by using cyanamide to immobilize antihuman immunoglobulin on the p(HEMA) cryogel for purification of hIgM in aqueous solution and artificial human plasma. The characterization of the p(HEMA) cryogel column was performed by using a scanning electron microscope (SEM), micro-computerized tomography (µ-CT), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), swelling degree and macro-porosity. Further, the optimizations of various parameters were performed such as, pH, ionic strength, temperature and concentration of hIgM in aqueous solutions. In addition, the Langmuir adsorption model was supported by experimental results. Maximum adsorbed amount of hIgM corresponded to 11.1 mg/g at pH 5.75 [morpholino ethanesulfonic acid (MES buffer)]. Our results indicated that the p(HEMA-I) cryogel column can be reused at least 10 times without significant loss in adsorption capacity. As a natural source, artificial human plasma was selected for hIgM adsorption and the purity of hIgM was evaluated using sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Full article