Microplastics

The concentration of intracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is one of the most important characteristics of the metabolic state of the cells of microorganisms and their viability. This indicator, monitored by bioluminescent ATP-metry, and accumulation of the suspension biomass in the medium were used to assess the effect of particles of different synthetic microplastics (MPs) (non-biodegradable and biodegradable) on the cells of yeast, filamentous fungi, bacteria and phototrophic microorganisms (microalgae and cyanobacteria) co-exposed with polymer samples in different environments and concentrations. It was found that the effect of MPs on microorganisms depends on the concentration of MPs (1–5 g/L), as well as on the initial concentration of cells (10⁴ or 10⁷ cells/mL) in the exposure medium with polymers. It was shown that the lack of a sufficient number of nutrition sources in the medium with MPs is not fatal for the cells. The study of the effect of MPs on the photobacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum, widely used as a bioindicator for assessing the ecotoxicity of various environments, demonstrated a correlation between the residual bioluminescence of these cells and the level of their intracellular ATP in media with biodegradable polycaprolactone and polylactide, which had an inhibitory effect on these cells. Marine representatives of phototrophic microorganisms showed the greatest sensitivity to the presence of MPs, which was confirmed by both a decrease in the level of intracellular ATP and the concentration of their biomass. Among the eight microorganisms studied, bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas turned out to be not only the most tolerant to the presence of the seven MP samples used in the work, but also actively growing in their presence. Full article

The main aim of this work is to define the limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) for polyethylene (PE) particles using a pyrolysis and oxidation-based method, the thermal Rock-Eval^® device, combined with a mathematical extrapolation procedure. The influences of particle size and shape on the thermal degradation of PE polymers are also investigated in this study. Thermal Total HC and Tpeak parameters, recently used to characterize polymer samples, are evaluated as a function of both polymer grain size and shape. Results indicate a LOD for the investigated PE polymers of around 1.7–2 μg in 60 mg of composite sediment (28–33 ppm). A conservative LOQ for the PE samples ranges between 5 and 6 μg (83–100 ppm). The LOQ is on the same order of magnitude for any size or shape of the studied PE polymers. By contrast, the LOD for the PE samples is slightly affected by both the polymer grain size and shape. Results also demonstrate that it is possible to detect PE nanoparticles of 79 nm in size. Finally, this study provides specific Rock-Eval^® parameters, linear regressions, and a mathematical extrapolation procedure that can be used to better quantify very small PE mass contents, including nanoplastics in environmental samples. Full article

Plastic remains a cheap material for numerous uses in households, industries, and engineering; however, it disintegrates in aquatic ecosystems to form smaller particles termed microplastics. Microplastics (MPs) have become a cause for concern due to their persistence and potential effects on freshwater ecosystems. Moreover, the toxicity of microplastics can be achieved through different mechanisms, including physical blockage and additive leaching, or they can function as vectors for other chemical pollutants. Microplastics were found to provide a growing surface for microbial communities, forming a biofilm termed the plastisphere. Microplastic pollution seems to need urgent attention globally; however, the comparability of results becomes a challenge due to the different techniques employed by different researchers. Moreover, the complete removal of MPs has proven to be an impossible task. This review explored MP occurrence in freshwater ecosystems, the role of microbial communities in the dynamics of microplastics, removal techniques, strategies for reduction in the environment, and their effect on freshwater ecosystems. Moreover, techniques to reduce microplastic release, such as recycling, plastic–fuel conversion, and biodegradable plastics, are explored. The review provides recommendations for reducing microplastic release and removal in freshwater ecosystems. This review stresses existing gaps to explore going forward in addressing microplastic pollution and possible removal techniques. Full article

Microplastics pose a growing environmental concern, necessitating accurate and scalable methods for their detection and classification. This study presents a novel deep learning framework that integrates a transformer-based architecture with domain adaptation techniques to classify microplastics using reflectance micro-FTIR spectroscopy. A key challenge addressed in this work is the domain shift between laboratory-prepared reference spectra and environmentally sourced spectra, which can significantly degrade model performance. To overcome this, three domain-adaptation strategies—Domain Adversarial Neural Networks (DANN), Deep Subdomain-Adaptation Networks (DSAN), and Deep CORAL—were evaluated for their ability to enhance cross-domain generalization. Experimental results show that while DANN was unstable, DSAN and Deep CORAL improved target domain accuracy. Deep CORAL achieved 99% accuracy on the source and 94% on the target, offering balanced performance. DSAN reached 95% on the target but reduced source accuracy. Overall, statistical alignment methods outperformed adversarial approaches in transformer-based spectral adaptation. The proposed model was integrated into a reflectance micro-FTIR workflow, accurately identifying PE and PP microplastics from unlabelled spectra. Predictions closely matched expert-validated results, demonstrating practical applicability. This first use of a domain-adaptive transformer in microplastics spectroscopy sets a benchmark for high-throughput, cross-domain analysis. Future work will extend to more polymers and enhance model efficiency for field use. Full article

Microplastic (MPL) and nanoplastic (NPL) contamination in soils is widespread, impacting soil invertebrates, microbial communities, and soil–plant systems. Here, we compiled the information from 100 research articles from 2018 onwards to enhance and synthesize the status quo of MPLs’ and NPLs’ impacts on such groups. The effects of these pollutants depend on multiple factors, including polymer composition, size, shape, concentration, and aging processes. Research on soil invertebrates has focused on earthworms and some studies on nematodes and collembolans, but studies are still limited to other groups, such as mites, millipedes, and insect larvae. Beyond soil invertebrates, plastics are also altering microbial communities at the soil–plastic interface, fostering the development of specialized microbial assemblages and shifting microbial functions in ways that remain poorly understood. Research has largely centered on bacterial interactions with MPLs, leaving understudied fungi, protists, and other soil microorganisms. Furthermore, MPLs and NPLs also interact with terrestrial plants, and their harmful effects, such as adsorption, uptake, translocation, and pathogen vectors, raise public awareness. Given the complexity of these interactions, well-replicated experiments and community- and ecosystem-level studies employing objective-driven technologies can provide insights into how MPLs and NPLs influence microbial and faunal diversity, functional traits, and soil ecosystem stability. Full article

Microplastic pollution is pervasive in marine ecosystems and poses a growing threat to marine organisms and human health. This study simultaneously investigates microplastic ingestion and phthalate exposure in Parapenaeus longirostris, a commercially valuable and ecologically relevant Mediterranean crustacean occupying an intermediate trophic position. Specimens were collected from three coastal areas in the central Tyrrhenian Sea (Western Mediterranean): near the Tiber River mouth, one of the most polluted rivers in Italy, and two additional sites to the north and south. The frequency of individuals with ingested microplastics varied among locations: 78% near the Tiber River, 64% at site S, and 38% at site N, reflecting anthropogenic pressure gradients. Analyses confirmed the lower occurrence at site N, indicating higher ingestion near land-based pollution sources. Ingested microplastic polymer types varied among sites, reflecting location-specific contamination. Phthalates were present in shrimp muscle at all sites (5–1122 ng/g w.w.) with the highest average concentration (68.26 ± 55.74 ng/g) at the site with the highest microplastic ingestion. Although no statistical correlation was found, the similar spatial distribution of microplastics and phthalates suggests a potential link influenced by local pollution and individual variability. These findings provide novel evidence of microplastic and phthalate contamination in P. longirostris, highlighting its role as a trophic connector mediating contaminant transfer through the food web. While current levels suggest no potential risk to human health, continued monitoring and further studies on exposure along trophic pathways are recommended. Full article

The present study investigates the role of microplastics (MPs) (polystyrene (PS) microbeads) in copper (Cu) binding within the sea surface microlayer (SML) and underlying water (ULW). A mesocosm experiment was conducted, with both SML and ULW samples obtained daily, comparing mesocosms containing MPs with those free of them. The SML enrichment in dissolved Cu (Cu-D) and the Cu-complexing capacity (L_T) were found to be significantly higher in the MP-treated mesocosms, with stability values of Cu-ligand complexes (logK′) being higher in the SML of MP treatments. Significant differences in Cu-D and L_T between control and MP treatments were found in SML and ULW across treatments and over time. Cu-D was negatively correlated with transparent exopolymer particles (TEPs) in the ULW of both treatments, while L_T was positively correlated with TEPs in the SML of MP treatments. Experimental data indicate that the co-existence of TEPs and MPs favors Cu binding with organic matter in the SML, suggesting that MPs may enhance this process. The impact of MPs on dissolved Cu complexation is probably attributed to the production of organic ligands, via enhanced TEP production, without excluding direct adsorption onto biofilm-coated MPs. The present study provides insight into the role of microplastics in Cu cycling in marine surface waters, focusing on the microenvironment of the SML. Full article

Microplastics (MPs) have emerged as persistent pollutants in urban freshwater ecosystems, yet their vertical distribution in stream sediments remains underexplored. This study investigated MPs at 5 cm and 10 cm depths across 17 sites in Branch Brook Park, Newark, NJ, during three sampling periods in 2022 and 2023. MPs were extracted through density separation and quantified using FTIR and Raman spectroscopy. The MP concentrations in stream sediments ranged from 560 to 3930 p/kg of dry sediment, with significantly higher abundances observed at 5 cm depth. The surface sediments consistently accumulated more MPs, especially during dry seasons, highlighting limited vertical infiltration under low-saturation conditions. The longitudinal spatial distribution did not show a notable trend along the urban stream course. Furthermore, there was a significant difference in MP accumulation between the three sampling periods, indicating a seasonal and temporal variation. The regression analyses showed weak correlations between MP concentrations and environmental parameters such as pH (R² = 0.02) and temperature (R² = 0.05), suggesting that physicochemical conditions alone exert limited control on MP accumulation compared to localized hydrological and land-use factors. These findings provide new insights and highlight the need for depth-integrated monitoring strategies and targeted pollution mitigation at stormwater entry points. Full article

Micro- and nanoplastic (MNP) particles are constantly formed through plastic fragmentation by sunlight, friction, or oxidation. MNPs potentialize health risks when entering the human body by ingestion, infusion, inhalation, and skin absorption. Still, the translocation among intracellular compartments must also be considered because MNPs can reach the circulatory system and be found in virtually all body fluids, tissues, and organs, potentially causing significant health impacts. The ability of MNPs to interact with macromolecules and cause damage to intracellular structures results in several physiopathological conditions, such as inflammation, oxidative imbalance, apoptosis, and carcinogenesis. One major challenge in MNP research is the development of reliable detection and quantification methods and effective sample separation processes. Although there is evidence directly linking MNPs to heart disease, the same cannot be said for diseases such as cancer, respiratory conditions, and reproductive system disorders. Therefore, the impact of MNPs on human health was examined, and a careful evaluation of their effects was carried out. We reviewed the extensive scientific literature from the past years, focusing on exposure, aging, interactions, and effects on entering MNPs into human metabolism and the physiological systems, which makes these particles particularly hazardous. Full article

Microplastic (MP) contamination in riverine systems poses a growing environmental challenge, and their spatial and temporal variability complicates proper assessments. This study investigated MP concentrations (≥10 µm) across three German rivers using fluorescent staining-based detection. The results reveal highly heterogeneous distributions ranging from 4 to 1761 MP/L. The Rehbach displayed the highest mean MP concentration (540 ± 476 MP/L), whereas the Alb had the lowest (98 ± 54 MP/L). Long-term monitoring underscored pronounced temporal fluctuations linked to changing inputs, weather events, and hydrodynamics. To capture these fluctuations, monitoring campaigns must consider an appropriate temporal sampling framework. Further, to address detection challenges, the study compared 0.5 L grab sampling with 100 L pump sampling (PSU) and observed that the PSU yielded 4.7 times higher MP concentrations with improved reproducibility (27 ± 25% vs. 49 ± 33%). These results highlight the critical need for standardized protocols and scalable, cost-effective methods for reliable MP quantification and hotspot identification in freshwater environments. Full article

The climbing perch, Anabas testudineus, is one of the most widely distributed freshwater amphibious fishes in South and Southeast Asia, inhabiting both natural and artificial water bodies polluted by plastic waste. Current mesocosm experimental study aimed to investigate behavioral responses of wild fish to floating expanded polystyrene (EPS) pellets, with a focus on the biofilm developing on their surface. For biofilm formation, the pellets (diameter 3–4 mm) were exposed for two, six, and fourteen days in an irrigation canal inhabited by climbing perch. Development of an intensive biofilm was observed on days 6 and 14 of exposure, characterized by a high diversity of organisms, including protozoa, cyanobacteria, algae, amoebae, and fungi. Fish feeding behavior was observed in the presence of feed pellets, clean EPS pellets, and three variants of EPS pellets with biofilm developed on their surfaces in the freshwater environment. The fish rapidly grasped and ingested feed pellets compared to all variants of plastic pellets. Climbing perch grasped all types of EPS pellets but always rejected them after oral cavity testing. The time to the first grasp was significantly longer for both clean EPS and EPS exposed for two days compared to feed pellets. Biofilm appeared to function as a taste deterrent for the fish: the duration of oral cavity testing was negatively correlated with the EPS pellet exposure timings in natural conditions. We suggest that floating plastic stimulates foraging behavior in the fish, and the duration of this behavior was significantly longer than that observed with feed pellets. The similarity of positive buoyant EPS pellets to natural food objects may stimulate the fish movements towards the water surface, which likely results in greater energy expenditure and increased risk of predation, without any apparent benefit to the individual. Full article

There is limited research that addresses microplastics (MPs) contamination on the surfaces of fruits and vegetables. This study quantifies and characterizes MPs on the surface of tomatoes, apples, grapes, and cucumbers purchased from three markets (A, C, L). MPs were examined by stereomicroscopy, hot needle tests, and Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersion Detector (SEM-EDX), and the results were reported by abundance, shape, color, and composition. Grapes in market A had the highest surface MPs concentration with a maximum of 0.891 particles/mm², while tomatoes in the same market had the lowest, at 0.030 particles/mm². The majority of MPs (> 85%) were transparent. Tomato, grape, and cucumber surfaces in all markets predominantly contained fragments, while apple surfaces primarily contained fibers. SEM-EDX analysis revealed MPs were primarily composed of carbon and oxygen and provided insights into the surface structures, elemental compositions, and sizes. Exposure assessment revealed the highest estimated daily intake (EDI) occurred in grapes from market A, at 9.24 × 10⁻⁵ MPs/kg/day for adults and 4.04 × 10⁻⁴ MPs/kg/day for children. Although the values appear low, no regulatory limits exist. Surface contamination remains an overlooked exposure route, emphasizing the need for food safety policies addressing MPs contamination and their effect on human health and the environment. Full article

Human exposure to micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) in the environment and their potential health effects are of growing public interest. Regarding water, that interest grows because multiple studies found MNPs in different matrices including tap and bottled water. We intended to (i) understand how MNPs enter freshwater systems and drinkable water, (ii) assess the evidence of human exposure to MNPs in water, and (iii) identify data gaps to support the determination of potential health effects. We searched the literature and selected studies via rigorous inclusion criteria, analyzed the data assessing the reliability of findings, and identified data gaps associated with human exposure to MNPs in water. The lack of standard sampling and analytical methods for testing MNPs in water constitutes a barrier to make accurate comparisons. The diverse analytical methods to fully characterize MNPs led to different findings in samples of similar matrices. Current drinking and wastewater treatment systems are not designed to remove MNPs. However, efforts to enhance the precision and accuracy of MNPs’ characterization and their removal by treatment systems are promising. Therefore, addressing data gaps could produce reliable data for conducting exposure and risk assessments, protect our communities, and control the mobility of MNPs to minimize exposures. Full article

Biodegradable plastics are increasingly proposed as environmentally friendly alternatives for disposable dishes or glasses in addition to their more conventional uses as foils and in bags. If produced from certified degradable materials, such items are expected to degrade rapidly during state-of-the-art composting. However, conditions prescribed for the testing and certification of materials differ from those typically applied in industrial composting, and operators of the corresponding plants have found that degradation is incomplete. In this study the degradation of commercially available biodegradable bags as well as disposable sparkling wine glasses was studied in a series of pilot-scale composting campaigns closely mimicking state-of-the-art composting conditions. The materials were characterized regarding their chemical composition, structure, and crystallinity, as well as the changes thereof throughout the process. Evidence is given that parameters such as crystallinity change significantly during composting, which may inhibit breakdown during the process and thus have unknown consequences for the subsequent environmental impact. Full article

The growth in the production and use of biodegradable plastics, positioned as an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional polymers, has led to an increase in their distribution in the environment. However, in conditions other than industrial composting facilities, biodegradable polymers can persist for a long time, fragment, and form biodegradable micro- and nanoplastics (BioMNP) with potential toxicity. Unlike traditional microplastics, the impact of BioMNP on human health has been poorly studied. This review summarises the available data on the cytotoxicity of BioMNP, including mechanisms of interaction with human cells, routes of entry into the body, induction of inflammation, oxidative stress, and cellular dysfunction. Particular attention is paid to the interaction of microplastics with cells of various body systems, including the digestive, respiratory, immune, and urogenital systems, as well as with the skin. The identified knowledge gaps highlight the need for further research to assess the risks associated with the impact of BioMNP on humans and to develop safer forms of biopolymers. Among biodegradable plastics, PLA-based particles tend to exhibit stronger cytotoxic effects. Nanoplastics generally induce more severe cellular responses than microplastics. Organs such as the liver and lungs appear particularly vulnerable. Full article

The increasing presence of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) in environmental matrices presents substantial analytical challenges due to their small size and chemical diversity. This study introduces a novel enzymatic biosensor based on the Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) platform for the sensitive detection of MPs and NPs, utilizing laccase as the recognition element. Standard plastic particles, including polystyrene (PS, 0.1 µm), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, 1.0 µm and 100 µm), and polyethylene (PE, 34–50 µm), were analyzed using SPR angular interrogation along with a fixed-angle scheme. The angular approach revealed a clear relationship between the resonance angle, particle size, and refractive index, while the fixed-angle method, combined with immobilized laccase, facilitated specific detection through enzyme/substrate interactions. The analytical parameters showed detection limits ranging from 7.5 × 10⁻⁴ µg/mL (PE, 34–50 µm) to 253.2 µg/mL (PMMA, 1 µm), with significant differences based on polymer type and enzymatic affinity. Application of the biosensor to real rainwater samples collected from two regions in Mexico (Tula and Molango) confirmed its functionality, although performance varied depending on matrix composition, exhibiting inhibition in samples with high manganese (Mn²⁺), chromium (Cr²⁺), and zinc (Zn²⁺) content. Despite these limitations, the sensor achieved a 113% recovery rate in Tula rainwater, demonstrating its potential for straightforward in situ environmental monitoring. This study highlights the capabilities of laccase-based SPR biosensors in enhancing microplastic detection and underscores the necessity of considering matrix effects for real-world applications. Full article

Plastic pollution represents a persistent global issue, with catastrophic effects on ecosystems. Due to unique properties, these synthetic materials do not break down into biodegradable compounds when naturally dispersed, but degrade into smaller fragments, known as micro- (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs), that easily enter the food chain. Among plastics, polypropylene (PP) is one of the most common, whose consumption has dramatically increased in recent years for single-use packaging and surgical masks. In this context, given the widespread detection of PP-MPs and NPs in various biological matrices, investigating their toxicity in living organisms is crucial. For these reasons, this study aims to assess how PP-MPs and NPs affect tissue regeneration following injury, proposing the freshwater leech Hirudo verbana as an established experimental model. Injured leeches were examined at different time points after plastic administration, and analyses were conducted using microscopy, immunofluorescence, and molecular biology techniques. The results demonstrate that plastic exposure induces fibrosis, disrupts tissue reorganization, delays wound repair, and activates the innate immune and oxidative stress responses. In summary, this project provides new insight into the adverse effects of PP particles on living organisms, highlighting for the first time their negative impact on proper tissue regeneration. Full article

This study presents the first investigation into the distribution of microplastics (MPs) in Sasebo City, Japan, using principal component analysis (PCA) in conjunction with water flow velocity and salinity variables. The mean MP abundance was 82.4 ± 47.7 items/m³ (SSB1–SSB4), showing no significant difference among sampling points. The fragment-to-fiber ratio was 76:24, and polypropylene and polyethylene (each 41%) were the main polymers. Fragment abundance increased with decreasing particle size, while fibers were rare below 700 μm. PCA indicated distinct MP polymer and shape distributions corresponding to stagnant water (SSB1), high-flow conditions (SSB2 and SSB3), and seawater (SSB4). Based on the literature, the study area represents a case of a small-scale aquatic system with limited anthropogenic influence due to moderate population, short river length, efficient effluent discharge, minimal industry, good water quality, and the absence of significant spatial variation in MP abundance. The infrequent precipitation during the sampling event supports the findings of the present study as a reliable baseline for objectively assessing MP contamination. Compared to aquatic systems of varying scales and anthropogenic influence, this baseline is applicable to both small-scale and large-scale aquatic systems with significant influences. This will serve as a valuable reference for future MP studies across diverse freshwater environments. Full article

Microplastics and metals are increasingly recognised as major water contaminants with profound environmental and health consequences. The environmental co-occurrence of microplastics and metals are well documented in waterways, including urban runoff, highway balancing ponds, industrial wastewater, and mine-impacted waters, posing a multifaceted environmental threat. Urgent remedial action is required to remove co-occurring microplastics and metals from water, giving consideration to how their co-occurrence can affect remediative efforts. However, information on the sorption of microplastics and Pb and Zn simultaneously by biochar is lacking. In this current study, changes in the quantity of metal adsorbed by pristine larch biochar and magnetised larch biochar due to the presence of microplastics was assessed using spectroscopic techniques. This study demonstrated that magnetised larch biochar and pristine larch biochar both remove co-occurring microplastics, Pb, and Zn from solution. Neither magnetised larch biochar nor pristine larch biochar show any statistical difference in the sorption of Pb with the inclusion of microplastics into the aqueous matrix. However, the inclusion of microplastics result in the reduced sorption of Zn by 43% for magnetised larch biochar (p < 0.01) and 69% for pristine larch biochar (p < 0.01). Magnetised larch biochar also demonstrated greater sorption than pristine larch biochar for microplastics (p < 0.05), Zn co-occurring with microplastics (p < 0.05), and Zn with no microplastics present (p < 0.01). Despite the effects of competitive sorption between Zn and microplastics, the removal of Pb, Zn, and microplastic from a multi-contaminant system indicate that magnetic larch biochar is a viable option to remove multiple contaminants from aqueous environs where metals and microplastics are seen to co-occur. Full article