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671 Results Found

  • Article
  • Open Access
13 Citations
3,530 Views
17 Pages

24 September 2020

For many decades the multispectral images of the earth’s surface and its objects were taken from multispectral sensors placed on satellites. In recent years, the technological evolution produced similar sensors (much smaller in size and weight)...

  • Article
  • Open Access
1 Citations
1,826 Views
21 Pages

Minimizing Seam Lines in UAV Multispectral Image Mosaics Utilizing Irradiance, Vignette, and BRDF

  • Hoyong Ahn,
  • Chansol Kim,
  • Seungchan Lim,
  • Cheonggil Jin,
  • Jinsu Kim and
  • Chuluong Choi

4 January 2025

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imaging provides the ability to obtain high-resolution images at a lower cost than satellite imagery and aerial photography. However, multiple UAV images need to be mosaicked to obtain images of large areas, and the resu...

  • Article
  • Open Access
13 Citations
4,079 Views
19 Pages

Web and MATLAB-Based Platform for UAV Flight Management and Multispectral Image Processing

  • Nourdine Aliane,
  • Carlos Quiterio Gomez Muñoz and
  • Javier Sánchez-Soriano

2 June 2022

The deployment of any UAV application in precision agriculture involves the development of several tasks, such as path planning and route optimization, images acquisition, handling emergencies, and mission validation, to cite a few. UAVs applications...

  • Article
  • Open Access
38 Citations
5,708 Views
23 Pages

Automated Identification of Crop Tree Crowns from UAV Multispectral Imagery by Means of Morphological Image Analysis

  • Ricardo Sarabia,
  • Arturo Aquino,
  • Juan Manuel Ponce,
  • Gilberto López and
  • José Manuel Andújar

25 February 2020

Within the context of precision agriculture, goods insurance, public subsidies, fire damage assessment, etc., accurate knowledge about the plant population in crops represents valuable information. In this regard, the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles...

  • Communication
  • Open Access
2 Citations
2,408 Views
12 Pages

29 December 2022

This paper demonstrates a predictive method for the spatially explicit and periodic in situ monitoring of surface water quality in a small lake using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), equipped with a multi-spectrometer. According to the reflectance o...

  • Article
  • Open Access
15 Citations
2,944 Views
17 Pages

The accurate and timely identification of crops holds paramount significance for effective crop management and yield estimation. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), with their superior spatial and temporal resolution compared to satellite-based remote sen...

  • Article
  • Open Access
23 Citations
5,877 Views
21 Pages

1 April 2023

Water quality monitoring of medium-sized inland water is important for water environment protection given the large number of small-to-medium size water bodies in China. A case study was conducted on Yuandang Lake in the Yangtze Delta region, with a...

  • Proceeding Paper
  • Open Access

Exploring the Application of UAV-Multispectral Sensors for Proximal Imaging of Agricultural Crops

  • Tarun Teja Kondraju,
  • Rabi N. Sahoo,
  • Selvaprakash Ramalingam,
  • Rajan G. Rejith,
  • Amrita Bhandari,
  • Rajeev Ranjan and
  • Devanakonda Venkata Sai Chakradhar Reddy

7 November 2025

UAV-mounted multispectral sensors are widely used to study crop health. Utilising the same cameras to capture close-up images of crops can significantly improve crop health evaluations through multispectral technology. Unlike RGB cameras that only de...

  • Article
  • Open Access
12 Citations
2,507 Views
14 Pages

Cotton Blight Identification with Ground Framed Canopy Photo-Assisted Multispectral UAV Images

  • Changwei Wang,
  • Yongchong Chen,
  • Zhipei Xiao,
  • Xianming Zeng,
  • Shihao Tang,
  • Fei Lin,
  • Luxiang Zhang,
  • Xuelian Meng and
  • Shaoqun Liu

26 April 2023

Cotton plays an essential role in global human life and economic development. However, diseases such as leaf blight pose a serious threat to cotton production. This study aims to advance the existing approach by identifying cotton blight infection an...

  • Article
  • Open Access
133 Citations
12,192 Views
24 Pages

Radiometric Calibration for Multispectral Camera of Different Imaging Conditions Mounted on a UAV Platform

  • Yahui Guo,
  • J. Senthilnath,
  • Wenxiang Wu,
  • Xueqin Zhang,
  • Zhaoqi Zeng and
  • Han Huang

14 February 2019

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) equipped with multispectral cameras for remote sensing (RS) has provided new opportunities for ecological and agricultural related applications for modelling, mapping, and monitoring. However, when the multispectral imag...

  • Article
  • Open Access
76 Citations
8,986 Views
15 Pages

14 November 2019

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based remote sensing has limitations in acquiring images before a forest fire, although burn severity can be analyzed by comparing images before and after a fire. Determining the burned surface area is a challenging clas...

  • Article
  • Open Access
10 Citations
7,697 Views
25 Pages

Estimating Leaf Area Index in Apple Orchard by UAV Multispectral Images with Spectral and Texture Information

  • Junru Yu,
  • Yu Zhang,
  • Zhenghua Song,
  • Danyao Jiang,
  • Yiming Guo,
  • Yanfu Liu and
  • Qingrui Chang

31 August 2024

The Leaf Area Index (LAI) strongly influences vegetation evapotranspiration and photosynthesis rates. Timely and accurately estimating the LAI is crucial for monitoring vegetation growth. The unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) multispectral digital camera...

  • Article
  • Open Access
57 Citations
10,255 Views
22 Pages

Identifying the Optimal Radiometric Calibration Method for UAV-Based Multispectral Imaging

  • Louis Daniels,
  • Eline Eeckhout,
  • Jana Wieme,
  • Yves Dejaegher,
  • Kris Audenaert and
  • Wouter H. Maes

2 June 2023

The development of UAVs and multispectral cameras has led to remote sensing applications with unprecedented spatial resolution. However, uncertainty remains on the radiometric calibration process for converting raw images to surface reflectance. Seve...

  • Feature Paper
  • Article
  • Open Access
53 Citations
3,928 Views
19 Pages

Bulk Drag Predictions of Riparian Arundo donax Stands through UAV-Acquired Multispectral Images

  • Giuseppe Francesco Cesare Lama,
  • Mariano Crimaldi,
  • Vittorio Pasquino,
  • Roberta Padulano and
  • Giovanni Battista Chirico

11 May 2021

Estimating the main hydrodynamic features of real vegetated water bodies is crucial to assure a balance between their hydraulic conveyance and environmental quality. Riparian vegetation stands have a high impact on vegetated channels. The present wor...

  • Article
  • Open Access
28 Citations
5,000 Views
18 Pages

Application of UAV Multispectral Imaging to Monitor Soybean Growth with Yield Prediction through Machine Learning

  • Sadia Alam Shammi,
  • Yanbo Huang,
  • Gary Feng,
  • Haile Tewolde,
  • Xin Zhang,
  • Johnie Jenkins and
  • Mark Shankle

26 March 2024

The application of remote sensing, which is non-destructive and cost-efficient, has been widely used in crop monitoring and management. This study used a built-in multispectral imager on a small unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) to capture multispectral...

  • Article
  • Open Access
5 Citations
3,436 Views
23 Pages

Remotely Sensed Phenotypic Traits for Heritability Estimates and Grain Yield Prediction of Barley Using Multispectral Imaging from UAVs

  • Dessislava Ganeva,
  • Eugenia Roumenina,
  • Petar Dimitrov,
  • Alexander Gikov,
  • Georgi Jelev,
  • Boryana Dyulgenova,
  • Darina Valcheva and
  • Violeta Bozhanova

23 May 2023

This study tested the potential of parametric and nonparametric regression modeling utilizing multispectral data from two different unoccupied aerial vehicles (UAVs) as a tool for the prediction of and indirect selection of grain yield (GY) in barley...

  • Article
  • Open Access
7 Citations
2,262 Views
20 Pages

Combining UAV Multispectral Imaging and PROSAIL Model to Estimate LAI of Potato at Plot Scale

  • Shuang Li,
  • Yongxin Lin,
  • Ping Zhu,
  • Liping Jin,
  • Chunsong Bian and
  • Jiangang Liu

27 November 2024

Accurate and rapid estimation of the leaf area index (LAI) is essential for assessing crop growth and nutritional status, guiding farm management, and providing valuable phenotyping data for plant breeding. Compared to the tedious and time-consuming...

  • Article
  • Open Access
198 Citations
21,042 Views
22 Pages

2 May 2014

In recent times, the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) as tools for environmental remote sensing has become more commonplace. Compared to traditional airborne remote sensing, UAVs can provide finer spatial resolution data (up to 1 cm/pixel) and...

  • Article
  • Open Access
45 Citations
7,013 Views
21 Pages

20 December 2021

High throughput phenotyping (HTP) for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) stay green (SG) is expected in field breeding as SG is a beneficial phenotype for wheat high yield and environment adaptability. The RGB and multispectral imaging based on the unmanne...

  • Article
  • Open Access
71 Citations
7,498 Views
23 Pages

Fast Detection of Olive Trees Affected by Xylella Fastidiosa from UAVs Using Multispectral Imaging

  • Attilio Di Nisio,
  • Francesco Adamo,
  • Giuseppe Acciani and
  • Filippo Attivissimo

31 August 2020

Xylella fastidiosa (Xf) is a well-known bacterial plant pathogen mainly transmitted by vector insects and is associated with serious diseases affecting a wide variety of plants, both wild and cultivated; it is known that over 350 plant species are pr...

  • Article
  • Open Access
6 Citations
2,265 Views
19 Pages

22 March 2024

This study was aimed at enhancing pothole detection by combining sigmoid calibration function and entropy thresholding segmentation on UAV multispectral imagery. UAV imagery was acquired via the flying of the DJI Matrice 600 (M600) UAV system, with t...

  • Article
  • Open Access
9 Citations
2,286 Views
18 Pages

24 February 2023

Total phosphorus (TP) concentration is high in countless small inland waterbodies in Hubei province, middle China, which is threating the water environment. However, there are almost no ground-based water quality monitoring points in small inland wat...

  • Article
  • Open Access
22 Citations
3,696 Views
36 Pages

Comparison of Different Transfer Learning Methods for Classification of Mangrove Communities Using MCCUNet and UAV Multispectral Images

  • Yuyang Li,
  • Bolin Fu,
  • Xidong Sun,
  • Donglin Fan,
  • Yeqiao Wang,
  • Hongchang He,
  • Ertao Gao,
  • Wen He and
  • Yuefeng Yao

2 November 2022

Mangrove-forest classification by using deep learning algorithms has attracted increasing attention but remains challenging. The current studies on the transfer classification of mangrove communities between different regions and different sensors ar...

  • Article
  • Open Access
6 Citations
5,125 Views
18 Pages

24 January 2025

Variations in vegetation indices derived from multispectral images and digital terrain models from satellite imagery have been successfully used for reclamation and hazard management in former mining areas. However, low spatial resolution and the lac...

  • Article
  • Open Access
70 Citations
8,777 Views
20 Pages

7 July 2022

Timely monitoring of inland water quality using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote sensing is critical for water environmental conservation and management. In this study, two UAV flights were conducted (one in February and the other in December 202...

  • Article
  • Open Access
6 Citations
1,999 Views
18 Pages

Inversion of Cotton Soil and Plant Analytical Development Based on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Multispectral Imagery and Mixed Pixel Decomposition

  • Bingquan Tian,
  • Hailin Yu,
  • Shuailing Zhang,
  • Xiaoli Wang,
  • Lei Yang,
  • Jingqian Li,
  • Wenhao Cui,
  • Zesheng Wang,
  • Liqun Lu and
  • Yubin Lan
  • + 1 author

In order to improve the accuracy of multispectral image inversion of soil and plant analytical development (SPAD) of the cotton canopy, image segmentation methods were utilized to remove the background interference, such as soil and shadow in UAV mul...

  • Article
  • Open Access
27 Citations
4,801 Views
19 Pages

Machine Learning-Based Processing of Multispectral and RGB UAV Imagery for the Multitemporal Monitoring of Vineyard Water Status

  • Patricia López-García,
  • Diego Intrigliolo,
  • Miguel A. Moreno,
  • Alejandro Martínez-Moreno,
  • José Fernando Ortega,
  • Eva Pilar Pérez-Álvarez and
  • Rocío Ballesteros

7 September 2022

The development of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and light sensors has required new approaches for high-resolution remote sensing applications. High spatial and temporal resolution spectral data acquired by multispectral and conventional cameras (o...

  • Article
  • Open Access
76 Citations
6,725 Views
17 Pages

Estimation of the Maturity Date of Soybean Breeding Lines Using UAV-Based Multispectral Imagery

  • Jing Zhou,
  • Dennis Yungbluth,
  • Chin Nee Vong,
  • Andrew Scaboo and
  • Jianfeng Zhou

4 September 2019

Physiological maturity date is a critical parameter for the selection of breeding lines in soybean breeding programs. The conventional method to estimate the maturity dates of breeding lines uses visual ratings based on pod senescence by experts, whi...

  • Article
  • Open Access
141 Citations
14,280 Views
18 Pages

Combining UAV-Based Vegetation Indices and Image Classification to Estimate Flower Number in Oilseed Rape

  • Liang Wan,
  • Yijian Li,
  • Haiyan Cen,
  • Jiangpeng Zhu,
  • Wenxin Yin,
  • Weikang Wu,
  • Hongyan Zhu,
  • Dawei Sun,
  • Weijun Zhou and
  • Yong He

17 September 2018

Remote estimation of flower number in oilseed rape under different nitrogen (N) treatments is imperative in precision agriculture and field remote sensing, which can help to predict the yield of oilseed rape. In this study, an unmanned aerial vehicle...

  • Article
  • Open Access
6 Citations
2,086 Views
19 Pages

Effects of Variety and Growth Stage on UAV Multispectral Estimation of Plant Nitrogen Content of Winter Wheat

  • Meiyan Shu,
  • Zhiyi Wang,
  • Wei Guo,
  • Hongbo Qiao,
  • Yuanyuan Fu,
  • Yan Guo,
  • Laigang Wang,
  • Yuntao Ma and
  • Xiaohe Gu

9 October 2024

The accurate estimation of nitrogen content in crop plants is the basis of precise nitrogen fertilizer management. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imaging technology has been widely used to rapidly estimate the nitrogen in crop plants, but the accuracy...

  • Article
  • Open Access
6 Citations
2,088 Views
19 Pages

3 December 2024

The values of vegetation indices can provide a new source of data for use in the estimation of land to be consolidated. The results of research work carried out so far indicate a significant advantage of low-volume imaging over satellite methods when...

  • Article
  • Open Access
41 Citations
13,890 Views
20 Pages

Fusion of Multispectral Imagery and Spectrometer Data in UAV Remote Sensing

  • Chuiqing Zeng,
  • Douglas J. King,
  • Murray Richardson and
  • Bo Shan

6 July 2017

Abstract: High spatial resolution hyperspectral data often used in precision farming applications are not available from current satellite sensors, and difficult or expensive to acquire from standard aircraft. Alternatively, in precision farming, unm...

  • Article
  • Open Access
31 Citations
6,759 Views
24 Pages

UAV Remote Sensing for High-Throughput Phenotyping and for Yield Prediction of Miscanthus by Machine Learning Techniques

  • Giorgio Impollonia,
  • Michele Croci,
  • Andrea Ferrarini,
  • Jason Brook,
  • Enrico Martani,
  • Henri Blandinières,
  • Andrea Marcone,
  • Danny Awty-Carroll,
  • Chris Ashman and
  • Jason Kam
  • + 5 authors

19 June 2022

Miscanthus holds a great potential in the frame of the bioeconomy, and yield prediction can help improve Miscanthus’ logistic supply chain. Breeding programs in several countries are attempting to produce high-yielding Miscanthus hybrids better...

  • Article
  • Open Access
18 Citations
4,422 Views
18 Pages

Vegetation Classification in Urban Areas by Combining UAV-Based NDVI and Thermal Infrared Image

  • Geunsang Lee,
  • Gyeonggyu Kim,
  • Gyeongjo Min,
  • Minju Kim,
  • Seunghyun Jung,
  • Jeewook Hwang and
  • Sangho Cho

30 December 2022

Vegetation has become very important decision-making information in promoting tasks such as urban regeneration, urban planning, environment, and landscaping. In the past, the vegetation index was calculated by combining images of various wavelength r...

  • Article
  • Open Access
22 Citations
4,134 Views
18 Pages

Monitoring the Severity of Rubber Tree Infected with Powdery Mildew Based on UAV Multispectral Remote Sensing

  • Tiwei Zeng,
  • Huiming Zhang,
  • Yuan Li,
  • Chenghai Yin,
  • Qifu Liang,
  • Jihua Fang,
  • Wei Fu,
  • Juan Wang and
  • Xirui Zhang

31 March 2023

Rubber tree powdery mildew (PM) is one of the most devastating leaf diseases in rubber forest plantations. To prevent and control PM, timely and accurate detection is essential. In recent years, unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) remote sensing technology...

  • Article
  • Open Access
4 Citations
2,354 Views
18 Pages

5 November 2024

Rural wetlands are complex landscapes where rivers, croplands, and villages coexist, making water quality monitoring crucial for the well-being of nearby residents. UAV-based imagery has proven effective in capturing detailed features of water bodies...

  • Article
  • Open Access
20 Citations
5,945 Views
19 Pages

Spectral Angle Mapping and AI Methods Applied in Automatic Identification of Placer Deposit Magnetite Using Multispectral Camera Mounted on UAV

  • Brian Bino Sinaice,
  • Narihiro Owada,
  • Hajime Ikeda,
  • Hisatoshi Toriya,
  • Zibisani Bagai,
  • Elisha Shemang,
  • Tsuyoshi Adachi and
  • Youhei Kawamura

20 February 2022

The use of drones in mining environments is one way in which data pertaining to the state of a site in various industries can be remotely collected. This paper proposes a combined system that employs a 6-bands multispectral image capturing camera mou...

  • Article
  • Open Access
4 Citations
2,087 Views
19 Pages

Evaluating UAV-Based Remote Sensing for Hay Yield Estimation

  • Kyuho Lee,
  • Kenneth A. Sudduth and
  • Jianfeng Zhou

17 August 2024

(1) Background: Yield-monitoring systems are widely used in grain crops but are less advanced for hay and forage. Current commercial systems are generally limited to weighing individual bales, limiting the spatial resolution of maps of hay yield. Thi...

  • Article
  • Open Access
93 Citations
9,619 Views
18 Pages

Prediction of Field-Scale Wheat Yield Using Machine Learning Method and Multi-Spectral UAV Data

  • Chaofa Bian,
  • Hongtao Shi,
  • Suqin Wu,
  • Kefei Zhang,
  • Meng Wei,
  • Yindi Zhao,
  • Yaqin Sun,
  • Huifu Zhuang,
  • Xuewei Zhang and
  • Shuo Chen

18 March 2022

Accurate prediction of food crop yield is of great significance for global food security and regional trade stability. Since remote sensing data collected from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) platforms have the features of flexibility and high resoluti...

  • Article
  • Open Access
2 Citations
2,150 Views
21 Pages

Research on the Classification of Complex Wheat Fields Based on Multi-Scale Feature Fusion

  • Fei Mu,
  • Hongli Chu,
  • Shuaiqi Shi,
  • Minxin Yuan,
  • Qi Liu and
  • Fuzeng Yang

27 October 2022

This study uses UAV multi-spectral remote sensing images to carry out ground object classification research in complex wheat field scenes with diverse varieties. Compared with satellite remote sensing, the high spatial resolution remote sensing image...

  • Article
  • Open Access
205 Citations
10,855 Views
19 Pages

Wheat Growth Monitoring and Yield Estimation based on Multi-Rotor Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

  • Zhaopeng Fu,
  • Jie Jiang,
  • Yang Gao,
  • Brian Krienke,
  • Meng Wang,
  • Kaitai Zhong,
  • Qiang Cao,
  • Yongchao Tian,
  • Yan Zhu and
  • Weixing Cao
  • + 1 author

5 February 2020

Leaf area index (LAI) and leaf dry matter (LDM) are important indices of crop growth. Real-time, nondestructive monitoring of crop growth is instructive for the diagnosis of crop growth and prediction of grain yield. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-bas...

  • Technical Note
  • Open Access
139 Citations
10,753 Views
14 Pages

12 December 2017

Leaf area index (LAI) is a significant biophysical variable in the models of hydrology, climatology and crop growth. Rapid monitoring of LAI is critical in modern precision agriculture. Remote sensing (RS) on satellite, aerial and unmanned aerial veh...

  • Article
  • Open Access
27 Citations
4,315 Views
19 Pages

Sugarcane Nitrogen Concentration and Irrigation Level Prediction Based on UAV Multispectral Imagery

  • Xiuhua Li,
  • Yuxuan Ba,
  • Muqing Zhang,
  • Mengling Nong,
  • Ce Yang and
  • Shimin Zhang

1 April 2022

Sugarcane is the main industrial crop for sugar production, and its growth status is closely related to fertilizer, water, and light input. Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based multispectral imagery is widely used for high-throughput phenotyping, sinc...

  • Article
  • Open Access
1 Citations
1,269 Views
10 Pages

2 November 2024

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)-based multi-spectral imaging could reduce the intensive labour required in phenotyping germplasm in crop breeding. The objectives of this study were to examine if UAV-based imaging could differentiate cicer milkvetch (A...

  • Article
  • Open Access
82 Citations
6,665 Views
17 Pages

11 August 2022

Timely and accurate information on the spatial distribution of urban trees is critical for sustainable urban development, management and planning. Compared with satellite-based remote sensing, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) remote sensing has a higher...

  • Article
  • Open Access
24 Citations
6,540 Views
18 Pages

UAV-Assisted Thermal Infrared and Multispectral Imaging of Weed Canopies for Glyphosate Resistance Detection

  • Austin Eide,
  • Cengiz Koparan,
  • Yu Zhang,
  • Michael Ostlie,
  • Kirk Howatt and
  • Xin Sun

16 November 2021

The foundation of contemporary weed management practices in many parts of the world is glyphosate. However, dependency on the effectiveness of herbicide practices has led to overuse through continuous growth of crops resistant to a single mode of act...

  • Article
  • Open Access
11 Citations
6,176 Views
24 Pages

15 January 2021

The province of León preserves a unique hydraulic infrastructure 1200 km-long, used for the exploitation of auriferous deposits in Roman times. It represents the most extensive waterworks in Europe and is one of the best-preserved examples of...

  • Article
  • Open Access
58 Citations
5,352 Views
20 Pages

Dynamic Influence Elimination and Chlorophyll Content Diagnosis of Maize Using UAV Spectral Imagery

  • Lang Qiao,
  • Dehua Gao,
  • Junyi Zhang,
  • Minzan Li,
  • Hong Sun and
  • Junyong Ma

17 August 2020

In order to improve the diagnosis accuracy of chlorophyll content in maize canopy, the remote sensing image of maize canopy with multiple growth stages was acquired by using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) equipped with a spectral camera. The dynami...

  • Article
  • Open Access
31 Citations
7,223 Views
21 Pages

Comparison of PROSAIL Model Inversion Methods for Estimating Leaf Chlorophyll Content and LAI Using UAV Imagery for Hemp Phenotyping

  • Giorgio Impollonia,
  • Michele Croci,
  • Henri Blandinières,
  • Andrea Marcone and
  • Stefano Amaducci

17 November 2022

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) remote sensing was used to estimate the leaf area index (LAI) and leaf chlorophyll content (LCC) of two hemp cultivars during two growing seasons under four nitrogen fertilisation levels. The hemp traits were estimated b...

  • Article
  • Open Access
26 Citations
5,746 Views
19 Pages

Prediction of the Kiwifruit Decline Syndrome in Diseased Orchards by Remote Sensing

  • Francesco Savian,
  • Marta Martini,
  • Paolo Ermacora,
  • Stefan Paulus and
  • Anne-Katrin Mahlein

9 July 2020

Eight years after the first record in Italy, Kiwifruit Decline (KD), a destructive disease causing root rot, has already affected more than 25% of the area under kiwifruit cultivation in Italy. Diseased plants are characterised by severe decay of the...

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