World Electric Vehicle Journal

The transition to electric public transportation is crucial for reducing the carbon footprint and promoting environmental sustainability. However, successful implementation requires strong public policies, including tax incentives and educational programs, to encourage widespread adoption. This study identifies the optimal electric bus model for Cuenca, Ecuador, using the multicriteria decision-making methods PROMETHEE and TOPSIS. The evaluation considers four key dimensions: technical (autonomy, passenger capacity, charging time, engine power), economic (acquisition, operation, and maintenance costs), social (community acceptance and accessibility), and environmental (reduction of pollutant emissions). The results highlight passenger capacity as the most influential criterion, followed by autonomy and engine power. The selected electric bus model emerges as the most suitable option due to its energy efficiency, low maintenance costs, and long service life, making it a cost-effective long-term investment. Additionally, its adoption would enhance air quality and improve the overall user experience. Beyond its relevance to Cuenca, this study provides a replicable methodology for evaluating electric bus feasibility in other cities with different geographic and socioeconomic contexts. Full article

Intelligent driving technology can effectively improve transportation efficiency and vehicle safety and has become a development trend in automotive technology. As one of the core technologies of autonomous driving, path tracking control is directly related to the driving safety and comfort of vehicles and therefore has become a key research area of autonomous driving technology. In order to improve the reliability and control accuracy of path tracking algorithms, this paper proposed a path tracking control method based on the Gaussian pseudospectral method. Firstly, a vehicle motion model was constructed, and then an optimal trajectory solving method based on the hp adaptive pseudospectral method was proposed. The optimal trajectory control problem with differential constraints was transformed into an algebraic constrained nonlinear programming problem and solved using the sequential quadratic programming and compared with traditional control methods. The simulation results show that the tracking error of the lateral distance under the condition of $\mu =0.8$ is smaller than that of $\mu =0.4$. At the same time, the tracking error of the lateral distance under the condition of u = 30 km/h is smaller than that of u = 90 km/h. The optimal path tracking control using the improved hp adaptive pseudospectral method has higher accuracy and better control effect compared to traditional control algorithms. Finally, virtual and real vehicle tests were conducted to verify the effectiveness and accuracy of the improved hp adaptive trajectory control algorithm. Full article

A permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) is typically run at low speed with a sensorless control system using a high-frequency signal injection method. However, current harmonic and gain errors compromise rotor position observation accuracy. In this paper, we analyze the reasons for rotor observation angle error and propose a new rotor position observer with error compensation. This new sensorless control tool obtains the compensation error angle by extracting the negative high-frequency current in order to estimate the rotor position information accurately. The experimental results show that the error compensation strategy proposed in this paper can improve the accuracy of rotor position observation and achieve operation of the PMSM in both steady-state working conditions and dynamic working conditions at low speed. Full article

The hybridization of ADM-Type Rail Service Cars aims to enhance energy efficiency, environmental sustainability, and cost-effectiveness within Uzbekistan’s railway network. Diesel-powered service cars currently contribute to high fuel consumption, elevated emissions, and costly maintenance, necessitating a transition to hybrid technology. This study introduces an innovative “sequence of linear sets–torsion electric motor–wheel pairs” design, optimizing torque distribution and power efficiency for improved operational reliability. Through system modeling, performance simulations, and real-world field trials, the hybrid system demonstrates a 15% reduction in energy consumption, a 25% decrease in CO₂ emissions, and up to 30% lower maintenance costs compared to conventional diesel models. Additionally, the hybrid technology enhances operational flexibility, allowing seamless functionality on both electrified and non-electrified railway lines. From an economic perspective, retrofitting existing service cars instead of full fleet replacement provides a cost-effective alternative, offering an estimated 10-year return on investment (ROI) through fuel savings and reduced downtime. This initiative directly supports Uzbekistan’s Green Development Strategy and railway modernization plans while holding significant commercialization potential in Central Asia and other regions with aging railway infrastructure. By addressing technical scalability, regulatory compliance, and economic feasibility, this study proposes a practical and timely hybrid retrofit solution for sustainable railway operations, aligning current industry needs with long-term environmental and financial benefits. Full article

Analyzing the performance characteristics and applicable environments of intelligent vehicle lateral control algorithms, this paper establishes the Model Predictive Control (MPC), Pure Pursuit (PP), and Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) algorithms and uses 2022b MATLAB software to simulate the lateral error, heading error, and algorithm execution time at speeds of 3 m/s, 7 m/s, and 10 m/s. Urban low-speed scenarios (3 m/s) require high-precision control (such as obstacle avoidance), while high-speed scenarios (10 m/s) require strong stability. Existing research mostly focuses on a single speed and lacks a quantitative comparison across multiple operating conditions. Although MPC has high accuracy, its time consumption fluctuates greatly. LQR has strong real-time performance but a wide range of heading errors. PP has poor low-speed performance but controllable high-speed time consumption growth. It is necessary to define the applicable scenarios of each algorithm through quantitative data. In response to the lack of multi-speed domain quantitative comparison in existing research, this paper conducts multi-condition simulations using MPC, PP, and LQR algorithms and finds that at a low speed of 3 m/s, the peak lateral error of PP (0.45 m) is 55% and 156% higher than MPC (0.29 m) and LQR (0.176 m), respectively. At a speed of 10 m/s, the lateral error standard deviation of MPC (0.08 m) is reduced by 68% compared to PP (0.25 m). In terms of algorithm time consumption, LQR maintains full-speed domain stability (0.11–0.44 ms), while PP time increases by 95% with speed from 3 m/s to 10 m/s. The results show that in terms of lateral error, the MPC and LQR algorithms perform more stably, while the PP algorithm has a larger error at low speeds. Regarding heading error, all algorithms have a relatively large error range, but the MPC and LQR algorithms perform slightly better than the PP algorithm at high speeds. In terms of algorithm execution time, the LQR algorithm has the shortest and most stable execution time, the MPC algorithm has a relatively longer execution time, and the PP algorithm’s execution time varies at different speeds. Through this simulation, if high control accuracy and stability are pursued, the MPC or LQR algorithm can be considered; if real-time performance and computational efficiency are more important, the PP algorithm can be considered. Full article

This study addresses the optimization of the Vehicle Routing Problem (VRP) with prioritized customers by introducing and comparing two advanced solution approaches: a metaheuristic-based hyperheuristic framework and a Variational Autoencoder (VAE)-based hyperheuristic. The VRP with prioritized customers introduces additional complexity by requiring efficient routing while ensuring high-priority customers receive service within strict constraints. To tackle this challenge, the proposed metaheuristic-based hyperheuristic dynamically selects and adapts low-level heuristics using Simulated Annealing (SA) and Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), enhancing search efficiency and solution quality. In contrast, the VAE-based approach leverages deep learning to model historical routing patterns and autonomously generate new heuristics tailored to problem-specific characteristics. Through extensive computational experiments on benchmark VRP instances, our results reveal that both approaches significantly enhance routing efficiency, with the VAE-based method demonstrating superior generalization across varying problem structures. Specifically, the VAE-based approach reduces total travel costs by an average of $8\%$ and improves customer priority satisfaction by $95\%$ compared to traditional hyperheuristic methods. Moreover, a comparative analysis with recent state-of-the-art algorithms highlights the competitive performance of our approaches in balancing computational efficiency and solution quality. These findings underscore the potential of integrating metaheuristics with machine learning in complex routing problems and provide valuable insights for real-world logistics and transportation planning. Future research will explore the generalization of these methodologies to dynamic and large-scale routing scenarios. Full article

The automotive 12 V power net is undergoing significant transitions driven by increasing power demand, higher availability requirements, and the aim to reduce wiring harness complexity. These changes are prompting a transformation of the power net architecture. To understand how future power net topologies will influence component requirements, electrical simulations are essential. They help with analyzing the transient behavior of the future power net, such as under- and over-voltages, over-currents, and other harmful electrical phenomena. The accurate parametrization of simulation models is crucial in order to obtain reliable results. This study focuses on the wiring harness, specifically its resistance and inductance, as well as the loads within the low-voltage power net, including their power profiles and input capacities. The parameters for this study were derived from vehicle measurements in three selected battery electric vehicles from different segments and were enriched by virtual vehicle analyses. As a result, an extensive database of vehicle parameters was created and is presented in this paper, and it can be used for power net simulations. As a next step, the collected data can be utilized to predict the parameters of various configurations in a zonal architecture setup. Full article

As the number of electric vehicles increases, effective charging infrastructure planning and grid load management strategies become more important. This requires a better understanding of charging behaviors and accurate forecasting of charging demand. This study aimed to analyze the charging patterns of electric cars using the panel data of one year from 2023. Using this longitudinal data, we explored the spatiotemporal characteristics of charging patterns in Korea, examined the regularities of charging patterns, and quantified the variability in charging and travel behaviors. According to the results, the proportion of drivers with regular charging patterns was 75%, and the proportion of drivers with irregular charging patterns was 25%. We applied a method to quantify the variability in EV travel and charging patterns and explored factors affecting the variability. The variability in charging frequencies and trips showed similar patterns, which implies that EV trips and charging behaviors are highly correlated, and travel characteristics are an important factor in explaining charging behaviors. Full article

Aging experiments are pivotal for car manufacturers to ensure the reliability of their battery cells. However, realistic aging methods are time-consuming and resource-intensive, necessitating accelerated aging techniques. While these techniques reduce testing time, they can also lead to distorted results due to the partially reversible nature of cell behavior, which stems from the inhomogenization and rehomogenization of conducting salt and lithium distribution in the electrode. To accurately capture these phenomena, cell relaxation must be incorporated into the test design. This work investigates the impact of the test procedure and several stress factors, namely depth of discharge and C- rate, on the formation and rehomogenization of cell inhomogeneities. The experimental results reveal increasing cell inhomogenization, leading to growing reversible capacity losses, particularly under conditions with shorter cycling interruptions (check ups and rest phases). These reversible capacity losses are associated with a significant reduction in cycle life performance of up to 400% under identical cycling conditions but shorter cycling interruptions. Similar trends are observed for increasing cycle depths and C-rates. Optimized recovery cycles effectively mitigate cell inhomogenization, doubling cycle stability without requiring considerable additional testing time. Furthermore, a clear correlation is found between increasing inhomogenization and cell failure, with lithium stripping confirming the occurrence of lithium plating shortly before failure. These findings emphasize the critical importance of considering cell relaxation in cycle aging studies to ensure reliable and accurate lifetime predictions. Under realistic conditions, substantially enhanced cycle stability is expected. Full article

Numerous voltage vectors exist in a neutral-point-clamped (NPC) three-level inverter. Traditional three-level model predictive control incurs a heavy online computational burden. This paper proposes a model predictive torque control strategy for NPC three-level inverters with permanent magnet synchronous motor systems. First, the relationship among the stator flux linkage vector position, the torque–flux linkage increment, and the stator flux linkage variation is analyzed. Then, the candidate voltage vector sector is determined, and the candidate voltage vectors are selected from it. Meanwhile, the direction of the load current flowing to the neutral point and the voltage difference between the upper and lower capacitors are evaluated. As a result, redundant small vectors are effectively selected, reducing the number of candidate voltage vectors to six and avoiding the computation of all possible vectors. The experimental results from an NPC three-level inverter–permanent magnet synchronous motor system verify that this strategy significantly reduces the computational complexity and provides excellent dynamic and steady-state performance. Full article

Assessing the urban green transportation development level (UGTDL) is of great significance for addressing traffic issues in megacities and promoting urban sustainable development. An evaluation framework for the UGTDL is proposed based on Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) methods. Firstly, from both macro and micro perspectives, a comprehensive evaluation indicator system is constructed, covering multiple dimensions such as traffic spatial organization efficiency, green travel, new energy vehicle development, traffic safety, and the traffic environment. Secondly, to address the uncertainties and fuzziness in the evaluation process, the Probability Language Term Set (PLTS) is introduced to represent expert evaluation information, thereby reducing the information loss. Thirdly, the improved Step-wise Weight Assessment Ratio Analysis (SWARA) method is employed to calculate the weights of the indicators, improving the computational efficiency. Finally, the extended Combined Compromise Solution (CoCoSo) method is used to calculate the UGTDL, avoiding the compensatory issues in the traditional decision-making methods. The proposed approach is applied to assess the UGTDL in Guangzhou from 2020 to 2023. The results show that the UGTDL scores for Guangzhou from 2020 to 2023 are 1.6367, 2.2325, 2.1141, and 1.8575, respectively. Sensitivity analysis verifies the effectiveness and stability of the approach. Further obstacle analysis shows that the promotion of new energy vehicles (NEVs) has led to a marginal decrease in the utility of Guangzhou’s UGTDL. In the future, Guangzhou should take further measures to improve the traffic space organization efficiency and traffic safety. Full article

Aiming at exploring a high-precision unbalanced electromagnetic force model suitable for the dynamic simulation of wheel hub direct-drive electric vehicles, this article establishes the unbalanced electromagnetic force model under static eccentricity of a wheel hub motor by an analytical method and verifies its accuracy by finite element modeling. Then, it optimizes the unbalanced electromagnetic force model based on a BP neural network and couples it with the 1/2 vehicle vertical vibration model to improve its calculation and operation efficiency. Finally, the correctness of the coupling model is further verified by bench experiments. The results show that the analytical model of the unbalanced electromagnetic force is accurate. A BP neural network optimization algorithm can reduce the time of electromagnetic force model simulation for 10 s from 1 h to about 50 s, which greatly improves the calculation efficiency of the electromagnetic force on the basis of ensuring the accuracy of the model, thus providing an unbalanced electromagnetic force model that is more suitable for the dynamic simulation of wheel hub direct-drive electric vehicles, which effectively solves the problem that the traditional electromagnetic force is difficult to couple with the vehicle dynamics model and lays a better foundation for subsequent research on the vertical vibration effect of wheel hub direct-drive electric vehicles. Full article

To enhance the precision and real-time performance of trajectory tracking control in differential-steering intelligent sweeping robots and to improve the adaptability of the control algorithm to errors caused by sensor noise, tire slip, and skid, an MPC-PID (Model Predictive Control–Proportional-Integral-Derivative) dual closed-loop control strategy was proposed. This strategy integrates a Kalman filter-based state estimator and a sliding compensation module. Based on the kinematic model of the intelligent sweeping robot, a model predictive controller (MPC) was designed to regulate the vehicle’s pose, while a PID controller was used to adjust the longitudinal speed, forming a dual closed-loop control algorithm. A Kalman filter was employed for state estimation, and a sliding compensation module was introduced to mitigate wheel slip and lateral drift, thereby improving the stability of the control system. Simulation results demonstrated that, compared to traditional MPC control, the maximum lateral deviation, maximum heading angle deviation, and speed response time were reduced by 50.83%, 53.65%, and 7.10%, respectively, during sweeping operations. In normal driving conditions, these parameters were improved by 41.58%, 45.54%, and 24.17%, respectively. Experimental validation on an intelligent sweeper platform demonstrates that the proposed algorithm achieves a 16.48% reduction in maximum lateral deviation and 9.52% faster speed response time compared to traditional MPC, effectively validating its enhanced tracking effectiveness in intelligent cleaning operations. Full article

Grid capacity constraints present a prominent challenge in the construction of ultra-fast charging (UFC) stations. Active load management (ALM) and battery energy storage systems (BESSs) are currently two primary countermeasures to address this issue. ALM allows UFC stations to install larger-capacity transformers by utilizing valley capacity margins to meet the peak charging demand during grid valley periods, while BESSs rely more on energy storage batteries to solve the gap between the transformer capacity and charging demand This paper proposes a four-quadrant classification method and defines four types of schemes for UFC stations to address grid capacity constraints: (1) ALM with a minimal BESS (ALM-Smin), (2) ALM with a maximal BESS (ALM-Smax), (3) passive load management (PLM) with a minimal BESS (PLM-Smin), and (4) PLM with a maximal BESS (PLM-Smax). A generalized comparison framework is established as follows: First, daily charging load profiles are simulated based on preset vehicle demand and predefined charger specifications. Next, transformer capacity, BESS capacity, and daily operational profiles are calculated for each scheme. Finally, a comprehensive economic evaluation is performed using the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) and internal rate of return (IRR). A case study of a typical public UFC station in Tianjin, China, validates the effectiveness of the proposed schemes and comparison framework. A sensitivity analysis explored how grid interconnection costs and BESS costs influence decision boundaries between schemes. The study concludes by highlighting its contributions, limitations, and future research directions. Full article

To address the issue of over-regulation of the temperature of a liquid-cooled power battery thermal management system under the plowing condition of electric tractors, which leads to high energy consumption, a nonlinear model prediction control (NMPC) algorithm for the thermal management system of the power battery of electric tractors applicable to the plowing condition is proposed. Firstly, a control-oriented electric tractor power battery heat production model and a heat transfer model were established based on the tractor operating conditions and Bernardi’s theory of battery heat production. Secondly, in order to improve the accuracy of temperature prediction, a prediction method of future working condition information based on the moving average theory is proposed. Finally, a nonlinear model predictive control cooling optimization strategy is proposed, with the optimization objectives of quickly achieving battery temperature regulation and reducing compressor energy consumption. The proposed control strategy is validated by simulation and a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testbed. The results show that the proposed NMPC strategy can control the battery temperature better, that in the holding phase the proposed control strategy reduces the compressor speed variation range by 24.6% compared with PID, and that it reduces the compressor energy consumption by 23.1% in the whole temperature control phase. Full article

The focus of this paper is to seek means of increasing induction motor efficiency to a comparable level to a permanent magnet motor. Harmonic and high-frequency losses increase the rotor core and copper loss, often limiting IM efficiency. The research in this study focuses on reducing rotor core and copper losses for this purpose. An accurate finite element model of a prototype motor is developed. The accuracy of this model in predicting the performance and losses of the prototype motor is verified with experiments over a 32 Hz–125 Hz supply frequency range. The verified model of the motor is used to identify the causes of the rotor core and copper losses of the motor. It is found that the air gap flux density of the motor contains many harmonics, and the slot harmonics are dominant. The distribution of the core loss and the copper loss is investigated on the rotor side. It is discovered that up to 35% of the rotor copper losses and 90% rotor core losses occur in the regions up to 4 mm from the airgap where the harmonics penetrate. To reduce these losses, one solution is to reduce the magnitude of the air gap flux density harmonics. For this purpose, placing a sleeve to cover the slot openings is investigated. The FEA indicates that this measure reduces the harmonic magnitudes and reduces the core and bar losses. However, its effect on efficiency is observed to be limited. This is attributed to the penetration depth of flux density harmonics inside the rotor conductors. To remedy this problem, several FEA-based modifications to the rotor slot shape are investigated to place rotor bars deeper than the harmonic penetration. It is found that placing the bars further away from the rotor surface is very effective. Using a 1 mm sleeve across the stator’s open slots combined with a rotor tapered slot lip positions the bars slightly deeper than the major harmonic penetration depth, making it the optimal solution. This reduces the bar loss by 70% and increases the motor efficiency by 1%. Similar loss reduction is observed over the tested supply frequency range. Full article

The different pole–slot combinations of outer rotor surface-mounted permanent magnet (ORSPM) motors are designed and analyzed to satisfy EV driving requirements. Firstly, the analytical model for various slot–pole combinations of ORSPM motors is proposed based on the air-gap field modulation effect. Then, some of the in-wheel motor parameters and requirements are obtained for the vehicle system. In addition, some special pole–slot combination ORSPM motors are built to achieve higher flux density, and the electromagnetic performance is compared based on the finite element (FE) model, revealing that the 56-slot/48-pole (54s48p) in-wheel motor has a higher torque density and superior flux weakening capability than other cases. Finally, a 13 kW prototype with 54s48p is manufactured and tested to confirm the effectiveness of the FE analysis. Full article

Integrating autonomous vehicles (AVs) into urban traffic systems presents significant opportunities for optimizing traffic flow, reducing congestion, and enhancing transportation efficiency. This study proposes a comprehensive framework that combines mathematical optimization techniques, policy planning, and AV adoption modeling to improve urban mobility. Using Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) Optimization methods, the research fine-tunes traffic signal timings, dynamically allocates green time, and enhances intersection coordination to maximize throughput. The study evaluates the impact of AV penetration on traffic flow efficiency, congestion reduction, and infrastructure readiness using real-world urban data from Riyadh. The results indicate that AV integration leads to a 40% increase in traffic throughput, a 60% reduction in congestion levels, and a 45% improvement in infrastructure readiness, highlighting the effectiveness of AV-driven traffic optimization strategies. Additionally, policy interventions aimed at reducing legal constraints and increasing societal acceptance contribute to the successful implementation of AV technology. The findings provide a data-driven roadmap for city planners and policymakers, demonstrating how a well-structured AV deployment strategy can significantly enhance urban transportation efficiency. Full article

The introduction of autonomous vehicles (AVs) on roadways will result in a mixed vehicle environment consisting of these vehicles and manual vehicles (MVs). This vehicular environment will impact intersection sight distances (ISDs) due to differences in the driving behaviors of AVs and MVs. Currently, ISD design values for stop-controlled intersections are based on AASHTO’s guidelines, which account only for human driver behaviors. However, with AVs in the traffic stream, it is important to assess whether the existing MV-based ISDs are compliant when an AV is present at an intersecting roadway. Hence, this study utilizes the Monte Carlo Simulation method to compute the PNC of various object locations on the major and minor roadways for possible vehicle interaction types in a mixed vehicle environment at a stop-controlled intersection. Scenarios generated considered these variables and the major roadway speed limits and sight distance triangles (SDTs). ISD non-compliance was determined by examining the PNC metric, which occurred when the demand exceeded the supply. The results indicated that when AV–MV interaction was present at the intersection, the MV-based ISD design was non-compliant. However, it is possible to correct this non-compliance issue by reducing the AV speed limit. Full article