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Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport

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A special issue of World Electric Vehicle Journal (ISSN 2032-6653).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2025) | Viewed by 22826

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Rishabh Ghotge

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Guest Editor

Department of Energy Infrastructure, Cenex Nederland, 1031 KS Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Interests: electric vehicles; electric buses; charging infrastructure; smart charging; renewable electricity
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Omar Hegazy

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Guest Editor

EPOWERS Research Group, MOBI Research Centre for Electromobility, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
Interests: power electronics and electric powertrain design; energy and power management strategies for Evs; smart charging infrastructure and V2X technologies; reliability, lifetime prediction, digital twin (DT) of EV components; battery management systems (BMS) and next-gen battery integration
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Dr. Thomas Geury

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Guest Editor

MOBI-EPOWERS Research Group/ETEC Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
Interests: power electronics; energy management strategies; electric vehicles including e-buses; smart charging; renewable systems

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Buses for public transport have a unique role to play in the decarbonisation of the road transport sector. With known and scheduled routes, large and cost-sensitive fleets, heavy passenger loading, long hours of operation, and stringent air pollution regulations in the metropolitan areas where most of these vehicles are located, bus decarbonisation faces unique challenges. Buses are also subject to tighter regulations as part of competitive tendering processes by local and regional governments aiming to decarbonise public transport.

The ongoing transition to zero-emission buses presents opportunities for innovation across several aspects of bus infrastructure and system planning, including bus powertrains, energy storage systems, charging and fuelling infrastructure, thermal management systems for buses, routing and route-planning, trip demand prediction, traffic signal operation integration, environmental aspects, business models, and technical standards.

In this Special Issue, Zero-Emission Buses for Public Transport, we aim to present the latest developments towards zero-emission buses. We invite original research papers in the following areas:

Bus powertrain optimisation;
Bus charging and fuelling infrastructure;
Infrastructure planning for zero-emission buses;
Route planning and scheduling for zero-emission buses;
Energy storage systems for zero-emission buses;
Case studies on zero-emission bus deployment;
Developments in technical standards and tendering requirements in zero emission buses;
Emerging business models for zero-emission buses;
Life cycle assessments and environmental impacts of zero-emission buses.

We aim, in this Special Issue, to present the state-of-the-art and latest innovations in low-emission buses for public transport, current challenges faced in the decarbonisation of these vehicles, and directions for future work.

Dr. Rishabh Ghotge
Prof. Dr. Omar Hegazy
Dr. Thomas Geury
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. World Electric Vehicle Journal is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

zero-emission buses
ZEB
electric bus
e-bus
bus
coach

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

15 pages, 1729 KB

Open AccessArticle

Electric BRT Readiness and Impacts in Athens, Greece: A Gradient Boosting-Based Decision Support Framework

by Parmenion Delialis, Orfeas Karountzos, Konstantia Kontodimou, Christina Iliopoulou and Konstantinos Kepaptsoglou

World Electr. Veh. J. 2026, 17(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj17010006 (registering DOI) - 20 Dec 2025

Viewed by 60

Abstract

The integration of electric buses into urban transportation networks is a priority for policymakers aiming to promote sustainable public mobility. Among available technologies, electric Bus Rapid Transit (eBRT) systems offer an environmentally friendly and operationally effective alternative to conventional modes. This study introduces a Machine Learning Decision Support Framework designed to assess the feasibility of deploying eBRT systems in urban environments. Using a dataset of 28 routes in the Athens Metropolitan Area, the framework integrates diverse variables such as land use, population coverage, proximity to public transport, points of interest, road characteristics, and safety indicators. The XGBoost model demonstrated strong predictive performance, outperforming traditional approaches and highlighting the significance of points of interest, land use diversity, green spaces, and roadway infrastructure in forecasting travel times. Overall, the proposed framework provides urban planners and policymakers with a robust, data-driven tool for evaluating the practical and environmental viability of eBRT systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)

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21 pages, 1093 KB

Open AccessArticle

Social Planning for eBRT Innovations: Multi-Criteria Evaluation of Societal Impacts

by Maria Morfoulaki, Maria Chatziathanasiou and Iliani Styliani Anapali

World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(12), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16120661 - 6 Dec 2025

Viewed by 308

Abstract

This paper develops and applies an ex-ante methodological framework to assess the societal optimisation of eBRT innovations within the Horizon Europe eBRT2030 project, using Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) and the PROMETHEE method. The study evaluates 11 eBRT innovations to be deployed in five demonstration sites in Europe and one in Colombia. Twenty social parameters, including 10 risks and 10 benefits, were weighted and scored through expert and stakeholder engagement, to calculate the Societal Optimisation Index (SOI). Positive SOI values indicate that societal benefits outweigh risks, and negative values indicate the opposite, while close-to-zero values indicate socially neutral or ambiguous options requiring case-specific judgement. The results indicate that innovations such as Adaptive Fleet Scheduling and Planning, Intelligent Driver Support Systems, and IoT Monitoring Platforms provide strong societal benefits with manageable risks, while charging-related innovations are associated with social concerns. The study emphasises the importance of social impact assessment prior to implementing innovations, to enable inclusive decision-making for policymakers and transport planners and enable the development of socially optimised eBRT systems. Embedding experts’ perspectives and social criteria ensures that technological innovations are aligned with societal needs, assisting the transition towards more equitable, low-carbon transport systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)

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34 pages, 595 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Analysis of Stakeholder Dynamics for Strategic Electric Bus Adoption in Public Transit Networks

by Thisaiveerasingam Thilakshan, Thusitha Sugathapala, Saman Bandara and Dilum Dissanayake

World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(11), 618; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16110618 - 12 Nov 2025

Viewed by 480

Abstract

Cities are increasingly using electric buses as a viable alternative to diesel buses. This is a crucial undertaking to achieve sustainability in the transport sector. However, integrating them in transport systems in developing countries such as Sri Lanka, which is characterized by environmental and economic challenges, is complex. This work examines the factors that influence the shift from diesel to electric buses with particular attention to the stakeholders, their motivations, and how they seek to achieve their objectives regarding each other, both conflicting and cooperative angles. This study adopts a comprehensive stakeholder-centric methodology to analyze electric bus adoption in the public transit system in Sri Lanka. The research employs a mixed-methods approach that combines qualitative stakeholder analysis with quantitative barrier prioritization, following established project management principles. Based on the case study of Sri Lanka, the research investigates how the electric bus transition can be expedited by leveraging such alliances while considering local challenges like infrastructural deficits, policy gaps, and funding limitations. Lessons learned and best practices from international case studies are considered to provide strategic recommendations to policymakers and other stakeholders to promote the electric bus. By mapping out the interactions between various stakeholders and outlining where key leverage exists, the research provides a roadmap for introducing electric buses. This will be aligned with the sustainability targets and the vision to deliver sustainability goals for the long term. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)

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18 pages, 577 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Total Cost of Ownership of Electric Buses in Europe

by Rishabh Ghotge, Daan van Rooij and Sanne van Breukelen

World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(8), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16080464 - 13 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 6068

Abstract

This study presents the total cost of ownership (TCO) of battery electric buses across Europe (the EU27 + UK + Türkiye). A comprehensive review of the assumptions and data used for the TCO calculation of buses in the literature is provided, along with calculations of the different bus TCO excluding labor costs, across these countries. The calculated TCO is compared with diesel costs in each country to identify the countries in which bus electrification is financially most competitive. The study reveals that the financial case for bus electrification is strongest in Finland, France, Belgium and Greece (TCOs around €750k to €850k and high diesel costs in the range of €1.70 per liter) and is weakest in Malta, Bulgaria and Cyprus. These results are expected to be of interest for operators, academics, policy makers, and financial investors in bus electrification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)

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19 pages, 440 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Cost-Benefit Analysis of Diesel vs. Electric Buses in Low-Density Areas: A Case Study City of Jastrebarsko

by Marko Šoštarić, Marijan Jakovljević, Marko Švajda and Juraj Leonard Vertlberg

World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(8), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16080431 - 1 Aug 2025

Viewed by 2275

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive analysis comparing the implementation of electric and diesel buses for public transport services in the low-density area of the City of Jastrebarsko in Croatia. It utilizes a multidimensional approach and incorporates direct and indirect costs, such as vehicle acquisition, operation, charging, maintenance, and environmental impact costs during the lifecycle of the buses. The results show that, despite the higher initial investment in electric buses, these vehicles offer savings, especially when coupled with significantly reduced emissions of pollutants, which decreases indirect costs. However, local contexts differ, leading to a need to revise whether or not a municipality can finance the procurement and operations of such a fleet. The paper utilizes a robust methodological framework, integrating a proposal based on real-world data and demand and combining it with predictive analytics to forecast long-term benefits. The findings of the paper support the introduction of buses as a sustainable solution for Jastrebarsko, which provides insights for public transport planners, urban planners, and policymakers, with a discussion about the specific issues regarding the introduction, procurement, and operations of buses of different propulsion in a low-density area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)

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17 pages, 706 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Empirical Energy Consumption Estimation and Battery Operation Analysis from Long-Term Monitoring of an Urban Electric Bus Fleet

by Tom Klaproth, Erik Berendes, Thomas Lehmann, Richard Kratzing and Martin Ufert

World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(8), 419; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16080419 - 25 Jul 2025

Viewed by 2204

Abstract

Electric buses are key in the strategy towards a greenhouse-gas-neutral fleet. However, their restrictions in terms of range and refueling as well as their increased price point present new challenges for public transport companies. This study aims to address, based on real-world operational data, how energy consumption and charging behavior affect battery aging and how operational strategies can be optimized to extend battery life under realistic conditions. This article presents an energy consumption analysis with respect to ambient temperatures and average vehicle speed based exclusively on real-world data of an urban bus fleet, providing a data foundation for range forecasting and infrastructure planning optimized for public transport needs. Additionally, the State of Charge (SOC) window during operation and vehicle idle time as well as the charging power were analyzed in this case study to formulate recommendations towards a more battery-friendly treatment. The central research question is whether battery-friendly operational strategies—such as reduced charging power and lower SOC windows—can realistically be implemented in daily public transport operations. The impact of the recommendations on battery lifetime is estimated using a battery aging model on drive cycles. Finally, the reduction in CO₂ emissions compared to diesel buses is estimated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)

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35 pages, 2008 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

From Simulation to Implementation: A Systems Model for Electric Bus Fleet Deployment in Metropolitan Areas

by Ludger Heide, Shuyao Guo and Dietmar Göhlich

World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(7), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16070378 - 5 Jul 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1289

Abstract

Urban bus fleets worldwide face urgent decarbonization requirements, with Germany targeting net-zero emissions by 2050. Current electrification research often addresses individual components—energy consumption, scheduling, or charging infrastructure—in isolation, lacking integrated frameworks that capture complex system interactions. This study presents “eflips-X”, a modular, open-source simulation framework that integrates energy consumption modeling, battery-aware block building, depot–block assignment, terminus charger placement, depot operations simulation, and smart charging optimization within a unified workflow. The framework employs empirical energy models, graph-based scheduling algorithms, and integer linear programming for depot assignment and smart charging. Applied to Berlin’s bus network—Germany’s largest—three scenarios were evaluated: maintaining existing blocks with electrification, exclusive depot charging, and small batteries with extensive terminus charging. Electric fleets need 2.1–7.1% additional vehicles compared to diesel operations, with hybrid depot-terminus charging strategies minimizing this increase. Smart charging reduces peak power demand by 49.8% on average, while different charging strategies yield distinct trade-offs between infrastructure requirements, fleet size, and operational efficiency. The framework enables systematic evaluation of electrification pathways, supporting evidence-based planning for zero-emission public transport transitions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)

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22 pages, 1664 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Techno-Economic Assessment of Alternative-Fuel Bus Technologies Under Real Driving Conditions in a Developing Country Context

by Marc Haddad and Charbel Mansour

World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(6), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16060337 - 19 Jun 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1523

Abstract

The long-standing need for a modern public transportation system in Lebanon, a developing country of the Middle East with an almost exclusive dependence on costly and polluting passenger cars, has become more pressing in recent years due to the worsening economic crisis and the onset of hyperinflation. This study investigates the potential reductions in energy use, emissions, and costs from the possible introduction of natural gas, hybrid, and battery-electric buses compared to traditional diesel buses in local real driving conditions. Four operating conditions were considered including severe congestion, peak, off-peak, and bus rapid transit (BRT) operation. Battery-electric buses are found to be the best performers in any traffic operation, conditional on having clean energy supply at the power plant and significant subsidy of bus purchase cost. Natural gas buses do not provide significant greenhouse gas emission savings compared to diesel buses but offer substantial reductions in the emission of all major pollutants harmful to human health. Results also show that accounting for additional energy consumption from the use of climate-control auxiliaries in hot and cold weather can significantly impact the performance of all bus technologies by up to 44.7% for electric buses on average. Performance of all considered bus technologies improves considerably in free-flowing traffic conditions, making BRT operation the most beneficial. A vehicle mix of diesel, natural gas, and hybrid bus technologies is found most feasible for the case of Lebanon and similar developing countries lacking necessary infrastructure for a near-term transition to battery-electric technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)

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19 pages, 304 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Analysis of Electric Buses as a Sustainable Transport Mode Using Multicriteria Decision-Making Methods

by Antonio Barragán-Escandón, Henry Armijos-Cárdenas, Adrián Armijos-García, Esteban Zalamea-León and Xavier Serrano-Guerrero

World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(5), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16050263 - 9 May 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1879

Abstract

The transition to electric public transportation is crucial for reducing the carbon footprint and promoting environmental sustainability. However, successful implementation requires strong public policies, including tax incentives and educational programs, to encourage widespread adoption. This study identifies the optimal electric bus model for Cuenca, Ecuador, using the multicriteria decision-making methods PROMETHEE and TOPSIS. The evaluation considers four key dimensions: technical (autonomy, passenger capacity, charging time, engine power), economic (acquisition, operation, and maintenance costs), social (community acceptance and accessibility), and environmental (reduction of pollutant emissions). The results highlight passenger capacity as the most influential criterion, followed by autonomy and engine power. The selected electric bus model emerges as the most suitable option due to its energy efficiency, low maintenance costs, and long service life, making it a cost-effective long-term investment. Additionally, its adoption would enhance air quality and improve the overall user experience. Beyond its relevance to Cuenca, this study provides a replicable methodology for evaluating electric bus feasibility in other cities with different geographic and socioeconomic contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)

20 pages, 6264 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Practical Learning on Electric Bus Conversion to Support Carbon Neutrality Policy in Thailand’s Transport Sector

by Natin Janjamraj, Chaiyoot Changsarn, Somchai Hiranvarodom and Krischonme Bhumkittipich

World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(3), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16030181 - 17 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2231

Abstract

Climate change is one of the problems that affects the climate, natural disasters, and lives, economies, and industries around the world. Since the main cause is the combustion of fossil fuels, the transportation sector is a significant factor in causing these problems. Therefore, many countries, including Thailand, have policies to promote the increased use of electric vehicles. However, past measures have focused mostly on promoting the use of personal electric vehicles. For public transportation, buses are a major part of creating pollution and the problems of particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5-micron (PM 2.5), which is another major problem in Thailand because Thailand has many old buses. However, pushing transport operators to switch from internal combustion engine (ICE) buses to electric buses requires a large budget. Therefore, the conversion of old ICE buses into electric buses is one approach that can help promote the use of electric buses to become more possible. Another issue that makes transport operators afraid to switch from ICE buses to electric buses is the shortage of maintenance personnel. Therefore, this action research focuses on creating knowledge and practical skills related to electric vehicle modification and maintenance in the education sector. From the results of this practical research, the researcher was able to modify the old ICE bus into an electric bus and passed the test according to the research objectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)

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31 pages, 6282 KB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Consumption Prediction for Electric Buses Based on Traction Modeling and LightGBM

by Jian Zhao, Jin He, Jiangbo Wang and Kai Liu

World Electr. Veh. J. 2025, 16(3), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj16030159 - 10 Mar 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2895

Abstract

In the pursuit of sustainable urban transportation, electric buses (EBs) have emerged as a promising solution to reduce emissions. The increasing adoption of EBs highlights the critical need for accurate energy consumption prediction. This study presents a comprehensive methodology integrating traction modeling with a Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM)-based trip-level energy consumption prediction framework to address challenges in power system efficiency and passenger load estimation. The proposed approach combines transmission system efficiency evaluation with dynamic passenger load estimation, incorporating temporal, weather, and driving pattern features. The LightGBM model, hyperparameter tuned through Bayesian Optimization (BO), achieved a mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 3.92% and root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.398 kWh, outperforming traditional methods. SHAP analysis revealed crucial feature impacts on trip-level energy consumption predictions, providing valuable insights for operational optimization. The model’s computational efficiency makes it suitable for real-time IoT applications while establishing precise parameters for future optimization strategies, contributing to more sustainable urban transit systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zero Emission Buses for Public Transport)

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