Veterinary Sciences — Open Access Journal

Based on the anatomical premise that, in bovines, the medial (inner) hoof is larger than the lateral (outer) one in the forelimb, we hypothesized that this implies a phalangeal form difference. To test this hypothesis, asymmetries of the forelimb acropodia (phalangeal series) were studied on calves belonging to the Brown Pyrenean breed, a meat breed managed under extensive conditions in NE Spain. Dorso-palmar radiographs were obtained for each acropodium in a sample of 17 paired left and right forelimbs. Size and shape were analysed by means of geometric morphometrics on medial and lateral acropodial series (III and IV series respectively) for each left and right limb. Shape coordinates were computed by Generalized Procrustes Analysis. Medial and lateral acropodial series appeared similar in size, but their shape expressed an especially high directional asymmetry, with distal phalanges (pedal bones) being abaxially (outwards) oriented. Such morphological observations may be an important reconsideration of “normal” radiographic acropodial symmetry evaluation. This can be explained not only by an unevenly distributed ground reaction force between acropodial series, but also between right and left limbs, making medial and lateral hoof surfaces differently prone to overloading and, accordingly, to injuries to the limb. Full article

The Borrelia genus contains two major clades, the Lyme borreliosis group, which includes the causative agents of Lyme disease/borreliosis (B. burgdorferi sensu stricto and other related B. burgdorferi sensu lato genospecies), and the relapsing fever borreliosis group (B. hermsii, B. turicatae, and B. parkeri). Other unclassified reptile- and echidna-associated Borrelia spp. (i.e., B. turcica and ‘Candidatus Borrelia tachyglossi’, respectively) do not belong in either of these two groups. In North America, Borrelia spp. from both of the major clades are important pathogens of veterinary and public health concern. Lyme disease is of particular interest because the incidence in the northeastern United States continues to increase in both dogs and humans. Birds have a potentially important role in the ecology of Borrelia species because they are hosts for numerous tick vectors and competent hosts for various Borrelia spp. Our goal was to investigate the prevalence of Borrelia spp. in four free-living species of upland game birds in Pennsylvania, USA including wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), and American woodcock (Scolopax minor). We tested 205 tissue samples (bone marrow and/or spleen samples) from 169 individuals for Borrelia using a flagellin gene (flab) nested PCR, which amplifies all Borrelia species. We detected Borrelia DNA in 12% (24/205) of samples, the highest prevalence was in wild turkeys (16%; 5/31), followed by ruffed grouse (13%; 16/126) and American woodcock (3%; 1/35). All pheasants (n = 13) were negative. We sequenced amplicons from all positive game birds and all were B. burgdorferi sensu stricto. Our results support previous work indicating that certain species of upland game birds are commonly infected with Borrelia species, but unlike previous studies, we did not find any relapsing fever borreliae. Full article

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is the causative agent of Johne’s disease in dairy cattle populations around the world. The objective of this study was to evaluate MAP antibody kinetics in serum and milk samples throughout the lactation period in dairy cattle. The samples were collected simultaneously from eight MAP-positive and two healthy MAP-negative (control group) cows. The MAP antibody was detected by using serum and milk ELISA. The serum and milk MAP antibody titers fluctuated between the positive and negative cut-off values in this study. Specifically, cattle with low MAP antibody titer (<100) showed fluctuation between the cut-off values. Variable changes of MAP antibody titer were also observed after parturition. Between the serum and milk MAP antibody titers, there was a positive correlation (R² = 0.5358) observed throughout the assessment period. The milk MAP ELISA test had low diagnostic performance in cows with low MAP titer due to its weak correlation (R² = 0.0198). Finally, this study suggest that the periodic MAP ELISA test is recommended for the application of Johne’s eradication program due to the fluctuating nature of MAP antibody kinetics. Full article

The prevention of avian colibacillosis has historically been investigated through vaccination, with variable outcomes. Commercial live (attenuated) and inactivated vaccines are reported to have limited efficacy in the context of heterologous challenge. Autogenous vaccination, using field isolates, is widely used, but scarcely documented. Different vaccination programs, including a live commercial vaccine and/or an inactivated autogenous vaccine, were compared for three different avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) strain (serotypes O78, O18 and O111) challenges. On the pullet farm, four groups of conventional pullets received different vaccination protocols. Group A was kept unvaccinated (control group). Group B was vaccinated three times with a live commercial O78 E. coli vaccine (at one day old, 59 and 110 days of age). Group C was immunized twice (at 79 and 110 days) with a three-valence autogenous vaccine (O78, O18 and O111). Group D was vaccinated first with the commercial vaccine (at one day old and 59 days), then with the autogenous vaccine (110 days). Birds were transferred to the experimental facility at 121 days of age and were challenged 10 days later. In each group, 20 birds were challenged with one of the three APEC strains (O78, O18, O111); in total, 80 birds were challenged by the same strains (20 per group). The recorded outcomes were: mortality rate, macroscopic lesion score in target organs and the bacterial recovery of the challenge strain from bone marrow and pooled organs. When challenged with O78 or O111 strains, birds from groups C and D proved to be significantly better protected, in terms of lesion scoring and bacteriological isolation, than those of groups A and B. With the O18 challenge, only birds of group D presented a statistically significant reduction of their lesion score. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first report on the efficacy of an immunization program in poultry that combines commercial and autogenous vaccines. Full article

RNA viruses are characterized by high mutation and recombination rates, which allow a rapid adaptation to new environments. Most of the emerging diseases and host jumps are therefore sustained by these viruses. Rapid evolution may also hinder the understanding of molecular epidemiology, affect the sensitivity of diagnostic assays, limit the vaccine efficacy and favor episodes of immune escape, thus significantly complicating the control of even well-known pathogens. The history of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) fits well with the above-mentioned scenario. Despite being known since the 1930s, it still represents one of the main causes of disease and economic losses for the poultry industry. A plethora of strategies have been developed and applied over time, with variable success, to limit its impact. However, they have rarely been evaluated objectively and on an adequate scale. Therefore, the actual advantages and disadvantages of IBV detection and control strategies, as well as their implementation, still largely depend on individual sensibility. The present manuscript aims to review the main features of IBV biology and evolution, focusing on their relevance and potential applications in terms of diagnosis and control. Full article

Virtually every cellular process is affected by diet and this represents the foundation of dietary management to a variety of small animal disorders. Special attention is currently being paid to a family of naturally occurring lipid amides acting through the so-called autacoid local injury antagonism, i.e., the ALIA mechanism. The parent molecule of ALIAmides, palmitoyl ethanolamide (PEA), has being known since the 1950s as a nutritional factor with protective properties. Since then, PEA has been isolated from a variety of plant and animal food sources and its proresolving function in the mammalian body has been increasingly investigated. The discovery of the close interconnection between ALIAmides and the endocannabinoid system has greatly stimulated research efforts in this field. The multitarget and highly redundant mechanisms through which PEA exerts prohomeostatic functions fully breaks with the classical pharmacology view of “one drug, one target, one disease”, opening a new era in the management of animals’ health, i.e., an according-to-nature biomodulation of body responses to different stimuli and injury. The present review focuses on the direct and indirect endocannabinoid receptor agonism by PEA and its analogues and also targets the main findings from experimental and clinical studies on ALIAmides in animal health and wellbeing. Full article

DNA methylation of different gene components, including different exons and introns, or different lengths of exons and introns is associated with differences in gene expression. To investigate the methylation of porcine gene components associated with the boar taint (BT) trait, this study used reduced representation bisulfite sequencing (RRBS) data from nine porcine testis samples in three BT groups (low, medium and high BT). The results showed that the methylation levels of the first exons and first introns were lower than those of the other exons and introns. The first exons/introns of CpG island regions had even lower levels of methylation. A total of 123 differentially methylated promoters (DMPs), 194 differentially methylated exons (DMEs) and 402 differentially methylated introns (DMIs) were identified, of which 80 DMPs (DMP-CpGis), 112 DMEs (DME-CpGis) and 166 DMIs (DMI-CpGis) were discovered in CpG islands. Importantly, GPX1 contained one each of DMP, DME, DMI, DMP-CpGi, DME-CpGi and DMI-CpGi. Gene-GO term relationships and pathways analysis showed DMP-CpGi-related genes are mainly involved in methylation-related biological functions. In addition, gene–gene interaction networks consisted of nodes that were hypo-methylated GPX1, hypo-methylated APP, hypo-methylated ATOX1, hyper-methylated ADRB2, hyper-methylated RPS6KA1 and hyper-methylated PNMT. They could be used as candidate biomarkers for reducing boar taint in pigs, after further validation in large cohorts. Full article

The effects of veterinary drugs, dietary supplements and non-protein amino acids on the European honey bee (Apis mellifera ligustica Spinola, 1806) ventriculum microbial profile were investigated. Total viable aerobic bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, staphylococci, Escherichia coli, lactic acid bacteria, Pseudomonas spp., aerobic bacterial endospores and Enterococcus spp. were determined using a culture-based method. Two veterinary drugs (Varromed^® and Api-Bioxal^®), two commercial dietary supplements (ApiHerb^® and ApiGo^®) and two non-protein amino acids (GABA and beta-alanine) were administered for one week to honey bee foragers reared in laboratory cages. After one week, E. coli and Staphylococcus spp. were significantly affected by the veterinary drugs (p < 0.001). Furthermore, dietary supplements and non-protein amino acids induced significant changes in Staphylococcus spp., E. coli and Pseudomonas spp. (p < 0.001). In conclusion, the results of this investigation showed that the administration of the veterinary drugs, dietary supplements and non-protein amino acids tested, affected the ventriculum microbiological profile of Apis mellifera ligustica. Full article

The public perception of the veterinary medicine profession is of increasing concern given the mounting challenges facing the industry, ranging from student debt loads to mental health implications arising from compassion fatigue, euthanasia, and other challenging aspects of the profession. This analysis employs social media listening and analysis to discern top themes arising from social and online media posts referencing veterinarians. Social media sentiment analysis is also employed to aid in quantifying the search results, in terms of whether they are positivity/negativity associated. From September 2017-November 2019, over 1.4 million posts and 1.7 million mentions were analyzed; the top domain in the search results was Twitter (74%). The mean net sentiment associated with the search conducted over the time period studied was 52%. The top terms revealed in the searches conducted revolved mainly around care of or concern for pet animals. The recognition of challenges facing the veterinary medicine profession were notably absent, except for the mention of suicide risks. While undeniably influenced by the search terms selected, which were directed towards client–clinic related verbiage, a relative lack of knowledge regarding veterinarians’ roles in human health, food safety/security, and society generally outside of companion animal care was recognized. Future research aimed at determining the value of veterinarians’ contributions to society and, in particular, in the scope of One Health, may aid in forming future communication and education campaigns. Full article

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is a common pathogen responsible for pig erysipelas. However, the molecular basis for the pathogenesis of E. rhusiopathiae remains to be elucidated. In this study, the complete genome sequence of the E. rhusiopathiae strain WH13013, a pathogenic isolate from a diseased pig, was generated using a combined strategy of PacBio RSII and Illumina sequencing technologies. The strategy finally generated a single circular chromosome of approximately 1.78 Mb in size for the complete genome of WH13013, with an average GC content of 36.49%. The genome of WH13013 encoded 1633 predicted proteins, 55 tRNAs, as well as 15 rRNAs. It contained four genomic islands and several resistance-associated genes were identified within these islands. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that WH13013 was close to many other sequenced E. rhusiopathiae virulent strains. The comprehensive comparative analysis of eight E. rhusiopathiae virulent strains, including WH13013, identified a total of 1184 core genes. A large proportion (approximately 75.31%) of these core genes participated in nutrition and energy uptake and metabolism as well as the other bioactivities that are necessary for bacterial survival and adaption. The core genes also contained those encoding proteins participating in the biosynthesis and/or the components of the proposed virulence factors of E. rhusiopathiae, including the capsule (cpsA, cpsB, cpsC), neuraminidase (nanH), hyaluronidase (hylA, hylB, hylC), and surface proteins (spaA, rspA, rspB). The obtaining of the complete genome sequence of this virulent strain, WH13013, and this comprehensive comparative genome analysis will help in further studies of the genetic basis of the pathogenesis of E. rhusiopathiae. Full article

Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5 viruses have pandemic potential, cause significant economic losses and are of veterinary and public health concerns. This study aimed to investigate the distribution and diversity of hemagglutinin (HA) subtypes of avian influenza virus (AIV) in poultry and wild birds in Bangladesh. We conducted an avian influenza sero-surveillance in wild and domestic birds in wetlands of Chattogram and Sylhet in the winter seasons 2012–2014. We tested serum samples using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA), and randomly selected positive serum samples (170 of 942) were tested using hemagglutination inhibition (HI) to detect antibodies against the 16 different HA sero-subtypes. All AIV sero–subtypes except H7, H11, H14 and H15 were identified in the present study, with H5 and H9 dominating over other subtypes, regardless of the bird species. The diversity of HA sero-subtypes within groups ranged from 3 (in household chickens) to 10 (in migratory birds). The prevalence of the H5 sero-subtype was 76.3% (29/38) in nomadic ducks, 71.4% (5/7) in household chicken, 66.7% (24/36) in resident wild birds, 65.9% (27/41) in migratory birds and 61.7% (29/47) in household ducks. Moreover, the H9 sero-subtype was common in migratory birds (56%; 23/41), followed by 38.3% (18/47) in household ducks, 36.8% (14/38) in nomadic ducks, 30.6% (11/66) in resident wild birds and 28.5% (2/7) in household chickens. H1, H4 and H6 sero-subtypes were the most common sero-subtypes (80%; 8/10, 70%; 7/10 and 70%; 7/10, respectively) in migratory birds in 2012, H9 in resident wild birds (83.3%; 5/6) and H2 in nomadic ducks (73.9%; 17/23) in 2013, and the H5 sero-subtype in all types of birds (50% to 100%) in 2014. The present study demonstrates that a high diversity of HA subtypes circulated in diverse bird species in Bangladesh, and this broad range of AIV hosts may increase the probability of AIVs’ reassortment and may enhance the emergence of novel AIV strains. A continued surveillance for AIV at targeted domestic–wild bird interfaces is recommended to understand the ecology and evolution of AIVs. Full article

Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is considered an important biomarker of kidney dysfunction. The aims of the study were to evaluate SDMA in dogs with acute pancreatitis (AP) and its relationship with the presence of kidney injury and mortality. A cohort study including fifty-four dogs with AP diagnosed using compatible clinical and laboratory parameters, abnormal SNAP cPL and compatible abdominal ultrasound within 48 h from admission, was conducted. Dogs with history of renal and/or urinary diseases were excluded, along with dogs exposed to nephrotoxic drugs. Serum urea and creatinine and urinary output (UO) were recorded. Acute kidney injury (AKI) was diagnosed and graded using International Renal Interest Society (IRIS) guidelines. SDMA was measured using high performance liquid chromatography. Fifty-four dogs were included and divided in non-AKI (n = 37) and AKI dogs (n = 17). Twenty-three dogs (14 non-AKI) had SDMA > 15 μg/dL. Median SDMA was higher in AKI dogs than non-AKI dogs (25.7 vs. 13.93 μg/dL; p = 0.03). Dogs with normal creatinine (AP and AKI 1 dogs) had SDMA above reference range in 38% and 33% of cases, respectively. In AKI dogs, SDMA and creatinine were positively correlated (p = 0.006 r = 0.7). SDMA was not significantly different between survivors and non-survivors. Although further studies are warranted, SDMA may be a useful tool in canine AP, as a high SDMA may be related to subclinical kidney impairment. Full article

Heat stress compromises efficient poultry production by impairing growth performance and increasing mortality. Mechanisms to dissipate excess heat divert energy from efficient production. This includes increased energy expenditure for respiration, oxidative stress and micronutrient absorption. The fortification of diets with particular feed additives has been known as one of the most important approaches to minimize the negative impacts of heat stress on broiler production. In this context, the promising functional feed additives appeared to be selenium and vitamins E and C. The fortification of broiler diets with these feed additives has been proven to enhance the function of vital organs, immune system response and growth performance of broilers under heat stress. The current review highlights recent successful experiences in the alleviation of heat stress symptoms in broilers using the above-mentioned additives. Selenium and vitamins E and C enhanced production performance in broiler chickens challenged with acute heat stress. The combination of these additives, by employing multiple mechanisms and through synergistic effects, improves heat stress symptoms more efficiently than their individual forms. Emerging literature reveals that selenium and vitamins E and C are involved in close interactions to protect proteins and lipids from oxidative damage and boost immune system function. Full article

Bovine Ocular Squamous Cell Carcinoma is considered the most common bovine tumour, causing significant economic losses, mainly by abattoir condemnations. To obtain a better insight into the genesis and neoplastic transformation, 19 samples collected at slaughter from Holstein Friesian cattle and diagnosed as Ocular Squamous Cell Carcinoma were studied. Tumours were histologically classified into three categories: poorly (26.3%), moderately (26.3%), and well differentiated (47.4%). Expression of keratins (MNF116 and LP34) and of cornified envelope precursors (involucrin and profilaggrin) was studied. Expression of MNF116 was observed in all carcinomas. LP34 immunostaining was seen in all but three carcinomas, one from each degree. Involucrin immunoreaction was observed in all but one poorly differentiated carcinoma. Profilaggrin was present in only two moderately differentiated carcinomas, in all but one well differentiated, and in all but one poorly differentiated. MNF116 is a useful marker to confirm the epithelial origin of the tumour and stain most neoplastic cells in these tumours. The expression of involucrin and LP34 demonstrates that, in all tumours, cells have reached the final program of differentiation, regardless of the grade. The expression of profilaggrin could indicate molecular changes during malignant transformation but their expression does not seem to be of diagnostic value. Full article

Chicken meat is a food of high nutritional quality; its production requires birds called broilers breeders and looking after all aspects that influence their reproductive capacity. An ongoing controversy exists among researchers related to the weight of the rooster and its fertilization capacity. By histological and biochemical tests, the association between weight and age with oxidant damage, testicular parenchyma and antioxidant capacity was evaluated in Ross 308 roosters. Testicular integrity was assessed by histological analysis, oxidative stress was determined by malondialdehyde content, non-enzymatic antioxidant capacity was determined by oxygen radical absorbance capacity assay and enzymatic antioxidant capacity through glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase and glutathione-S-transferase activities. Histological analysis showed vacuolization of the epithelium from the seminiferous tubules. A significant negative association was observed between malondialdehyde and the deterioration of the integrity of the seminiferous epithelium, as well as between age and integrity of the seminiferous epithelium. It became evident that oxidative damage directly affects the quality of testicular parenchyma. Weight and age were not associated with the antioxidant enzymes activities, but with non-enzymatic capacity. The data obtained suggest that weight is not the most important factor that influences the fertility of the rooster. Full article

Objective: To report the physical and technical principles, clinical applications, and outcomes of the minimal invasive piezoelectric osteotomy in a consecutive veterinary neurosurgical series. Methods: A series of 292 dogs and 32 cats underwent an osteotomy because a neurosurgical pathology performed with a Mectron Piezosurgery^® bone scalpel (Mectron Medical Technology, Genoa, Italy) was retrospectively reviewed. Efficacy, precision, safety, and blood loss were evaluated intraoperatively by two different surgeons, on a case-by-case basis. Postoperative Rx and CT scans were used to assess the selectivity and precision of the osteotomy. A histological study on bony specimens at the osteotomized surface was carried out to evaluate the effects of piezoelectric cutting on the osteocytes and osteoblasts. All the patients underwent a six-months follow-up. A series of illustrative cases was reported. Results: All the osteotomies were clear-cut and precise. A complete sparing of soft and nervous tissues and vasculature was observed. The operative field was blood- and heat-free in all cases. A range of inserts, largely different in shape and length, were allowed to treat deep and difficult-to-reach sites. Two mechanical complications occurred. Average blood loss in dogs’ group was 52, 47, and 56 mL for traumatic, degenerative, and neoplastic lesions, respectively, whereas it was 25 mL for traumatized cats. A fast recovery of functions was observed in most of the treated cases, early on, at the first sixth-month evaluation. Histology on bone flaps showed the presence of live osteocytes and osteoblasts at the osteotomized surface in 92% of cases. Conclusions: Piezosurgery is based on the physical principle of the indirect piezo effect. Piezoelectric osteotomy is selective, effective, and safe in bone cutting during neurosurgical veterinary procedures. It can be considered a minimal invasive technique, as it is able to spare the neighboring soft tissues and neurovascular structures. Full article

Hemangiosarcomas (HSA) are common neoplasms of dogs that often metastasize and are typically fatal. Recently it was demonstrated that thalidomide extends the survival time of dogs with HSA, potentially due to thalidomide-induced inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) production by the neoplastic cells. To investigate this, immunostaining was used to evaluate VEGF within HSA metastases that developed after thalidomide treatment. The immunostaining was then compared to VEGF immunostaining in primary tumors from the same dogs prior to treatment with thalidomide and in metastatic tumors from untreated dogs with splenic HSA. Immunostaining was scored from 1 to 4 for each sample. Immunostaining in the metastatic lesions that had been treated with thalidomide had a mean immunostaining score of 1.4 which was significantly lower than the mean score in the corresponding primary splenic HSA (3.8, p = 0.02) and in metastases from untreated dogs (3.5, p = 0.02). This supports the hypothesis that thalidomide prolongs survival time in dogs with HSA due to inhibition of VEGF production by the neoplastic cells. As VEGF remained visible within HSAs exposed to thalidomide, additional treatments to inhibit VEGF production may further prolong survival times of dogs with these common canine neoplasms. Full article

Cattle are susceptible to infection with multiple serovars of pathogenic leptospires, resulting in abortion, stillbirth, premature birth, reproductive failure and milk drop syndrome. Cattle also act as a reservoir host for L. borgpetersenii serovar Hardjo which is excreted from renal tubules via urine into the environment where it persists in suitable moist conditions. Our previous work demonstrated that 7% of urine samples from beef cattle were positive for L. borgpetersenii serovar Hardjo by culture and/or the fluorescent antibody test (FAT). In this study, a real-time PCR (rtPCR) assay was applied to determine the relative performance of rtPCR based detection of L. borgpetersenii serovar Hardjo compared to previously reported culture and FAT techniques. Of 42 bovine urine samples positive for leptospires by culture and/or FAT, 60% (25/42) were positive by rtPCR. Of 22 culture-positive samples, 91% (20/22) were rtPCR-positive. Of 32 FAT-positive samples, 50% (16/32) were rtPCR-positive. For 10 samples that were culture-positive but FAT-negative, 90% (9/10) were rtPCR-positive. For 20 samples that were FAT-positive but culture-negative, 25% (5/20) were rtPCR-positive. Collectively, these results indicate that no single assay is optimal, and the use of more than one assay to detect leptospires in urine from naturally infected cattle is recommended. Full article

In this study, the protective efficacy of an E. coli live attenuated vaccine was compared to the preventive administration of lectin preparation before the challenge. Two hundred broiler chicks were divided into eight equal groups. The first group was used as a negative control group. Three groups were vaccinated at day 1 with the avian colibacillosis live vaccine of which one group served as a vaccinated nonchallenged group. Another two groups were treated with lectin product (0.5 mL/L drinking water) for three days before the challenge. The last two groups served as challenge control for either E. coli O₇₈ or O₁₂₅ strains. The challenge was conducted at three weeks of age with either homologous O₇₈ or heterologous O₁₂₅ E. coli strains, using 0.5 mL/bird of each avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) strain (~10⁸ colony forming units “CFU”/mL)/subcutaneously. The bodyweight and feed conversion ratios (FCR) were calculated for four weeks. Clinical signs and gross and histopathological lesions were scored at two and seven days post inoculation (dpi). The heart and liver of euthanized chickens at 2 dpi were removed aseptically and homogenized to evaluate pathogenic E. coli colonization. Results showed that live avian colibacillosis vaccine reduced mortalities and APEC colonization in the homologous challenge group but not in the heterologous challenge group. Lectin-treated groups showed 20% and 16% mortality after challenge with E. coli O₇₈ and O₁₂₅, respectively, and both groups showed performance parameters, clinical signs, and histopathological lesion scores comparable to the negative control group, with variable E. coli colonization of heart and liver. The study demonstrated the efficacy of live attenuated avian colibacillosis vaccine against homologous but not heterologous APEC challenge in broiler chickens. The lectin-containing products can be used as a preventive medication to reduce the clinical impacts of colibacillosis regardless of the challenge strain. Standardization of the evaluation parameters for APEC vaccines is recommended. Full article