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Insects

Insects is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on entomology published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, PubAg, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Entomology) / CiteScore - Q1 (Insect Science)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 2.9 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.3 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2075-4450

Latest Articles

20 pages, 4850 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cell Structure of the Preoral Mycangia of Xyleborus (Coleoptera: Curculiondiae) Ambrosia Beetles

by Ross A. Joseph, Esther Tirmizi, Abolfazl Masoudi and Nemat O. Keyhani

Insects 2025, 16(6), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060644 - 19 Jun 2025

Ambrosia beetles have evolved specialized structures termed “mycangia”, which house and transport symbiotic microbes. Microbial partners include at least one obligate mutualistic filamentous fungus used as food for larvae and adults, and potentially secondary filamentous fungi, yeasts, and bacteria. Beetles in the genus [...] Read more.

Ambrosia beetles have evolved specialized structures termed “mycangia”, which house and transport symbiotic microbes. Microbial partners include at least one obligate mutualistic filamentous fungus used as food for larvae and adults, and potentially secondary filamentous fungi, yeasts, and bacteria. Beetles in the genus Xyleborus possess paired pre-oral mycangial structures located within the head on either side of the mouth parts. Mycangia develop in pupae, with newly emerged adults acquiring partners from the environment. However, information concerning the cellular structure and function of Xyleborus mycangia remains limited. We show that in X. affinis, mycangia are lined with a layer of striated dense material, enclosing layers of insect epithelial cells, with diverse spine-like structures. Larger (5–10 μm) projections were concentrated within and near the entrance of mycangia, with smaller filaments (4–8 μm) within the mycangia itself. Rows of “eyelash” structures lined the inside of mycangia, with fungal cells free-floating or in close association with these projections. Serial sections revealed mandibular articulations, and mandibular, pharyngeal, and labial muscles, along with the mycangial entry/exit channel. Sheets of comb-like spines at the mycangial entrance and opposite the mycangia attached to the roof of the labrum or epipharynx may serve as an interlocking mechanism for opening/closing the mycangia and guiding fungal cells into entry/exit channels. Additionally, mandibular fibra (muscle tissue) potentially enervating and affecting the mechanism of mycangial functioning were noted. These data add crucial mechanistic detail to the model of pre-oral mycangia in Xyleborus beetles, their cellular structures, and how they house and dispense microbial symbionts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Physiology, Reproduction and Development)

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13 pages, 2955 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of the Ecdysone Receptor on the Regulation of Reproduction in Coccinella septempunctata

by Ying Cheng, Yuhang Zhou and Cao Li

Insects 2025, 16(6), 643; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060643 - 19 Jun 2025

The effects of the gene encoding the ecdysone receptor (EcR) on the reproduction of the ladybug Coccinella septempunctata was evaluated. EcR transcription was measured by quantitative real-time PCR in ladybug adults reared on artificial diets with and without 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E). EcR [...] Read more.

The effects of the gene encoding the ecdysone receptor (EcR) on the reproduction of the ladybug Coccinella septempunctata was evaluated. EcR transcription was measured by quantitative real-time PCR in ladybug adults reared on artificial diets with and without 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E). EcR expression levels in 5 d old male and female ladybugs supplied with the 20E-amended artificial diet were lower than expression levels in ladybugs reared on an artificial diet lacking 20E. However, EcR expression levels in 10 d old ladybugs supplied with the 20E artificial diet were higher than those lacking 20E supplementation. The regulatory effects of EcR were studied in female and male ladybugs by RNA interference. EcR expression in female ladybugs injected with EcR-dsRNA was significantly downregulated after 5 d but remained unaffected in 10 d old females. EcR expression levels in males microinjected with EcR-dsRNA were significantly lower at 5 and 10 d after microinjection than GFP-dsRNA-treated males. The ovary volume in females injected with EcR-dsRNA at 5 d was smaller than females microinjected with GFP-dsRNA, but volumes at 10 d were larger than in GFP-dsRNA-treated females. The testes of males injected with EcR-dsRNA were larger than those injected with GFP-dsRNA at 5 d but the testes at 10 d after injection with EcR-dsRNA were smaller than those injected with GFP-dsRNA. When females were microinjected with EcR-dsRNA and mated with noninjected males, egg production decreased by 34.80% for 20 days. When males were microinjected with EcR-dsRNA and mated with noninjected females, egg production decreased by 30.38% for 20 days. Injection of female and male ladybugs with EcR-dsRNA had no significant effect on egg hatching rates. Our results show that EcR plays an important role in the development of reproductive organs and egg development in C. septempunctata. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Physiology, Reproduction and Development)

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14 pages, 4491 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Suitable Habitat for Glipa (Coleoptera: Mordellidae: Mordellinae) Under Current and Future Climates Using MaxEnt Modeling

by Xie Su, Xianheng Ouyang, Xiaoqun Ding, Yang Wang, Wangang Liu and Yang Liu

Insects 2025, 16(6), 642; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060642 - 18 Jun 2025

Beetles of the family Mordellidae, important global pollinators, include Glipa, the third largest genus, which retains plesiomorphic traits related to pollination and is mainly found between 38° S–38° N. Existing studies on Glipa focus largely on taxonomy and systematics. The ecological response [...] Read more.

Beetles of the family Mordellidae, important global pollinators, include Glipa, the third largest genus, which retains plesiomorphic traits related to pollination and is mainly found between 38° S–38° N. Existing studies on Glipa focus largely on taxonomy and systematics. The ecological response of Glipa to climate change remains poorly understood. Our objective was to investigate how the distribution of Glipa may respond to climate change using a species-level MaxEnt based model with 297 geographic distribution data points and seven bioclimatic environmental variables. The study showed that the MaxEnt model had a high predictive accuracy, with an Area Under the Curve (AUC) value of 0.963. The maximum temperature of the warmest month, mean annual precipitation, and mean precipitation of the driest quarter were the three most important factors affecting the distribution of Glipa. Currently, the suitable distribution areas of Glipa are mainly located in East Asia, Southeast Asia, eastern North America, South America, and central and western Africa. Under future climate scenarios, the area of suitable habitat is expected to increase gradually as global temperatures rise. Under the SSP585 scenario in the 2070s, the suitable habitat area is projected to expand by 53.89% compared to the present. Additionally, the centroid of suitable habitat is expected to shift northward. This study not only deepens the understanding of the distribution patterns of Glipa and their response to climate change but also provides important scientific evidence for the conservation of pollinator diversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Revival of a Prominent Taxonomy of Insects)

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12 pages, 1922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nosemosis in Russian Apis mellifera L. Populations: Distribution and Association with Hybridization

by Milyausha Kaskinova, Luisa Gaifullina, Gleb Zaitsev, Alexandr Davydychev and Elena Saltykova

Insects 2025, 16(6), 641; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060641 - 18 Jun 2025

One of the common causes of mass death in bee colonies is the infectious disease nosemosis, which is caused by two types of microsporidia, Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae. Of the many factors contributing to the spread of nosemosis, in this paper [...] Read more.

One of the common causes of mass death in bee colonies is the infectious disease nosemosis, which is caused by two types of microsporidia, Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae. Of the many factors contributing to the spread of nosemosis, in this paper we consider the hybridization of subspecies of Apis mellifera L. In most of Russia, the native subspecies is the dark forest bee Apis mellifera mellifera, which is representative of the evolutionary lineage M. The export of bee packages and queens from the southern regions of Russia and other countries has led to the fragmentation of the range of these subspecies. First, we determined the maternal and paternal ancestry of 349 honey bee colonies across 12 beekeeping regions of Russia using the mitochondrial tRNAleu-COII locus and nine nuclear SSR markers (Ap243, 4a110, A024, A008, A43, A113, A088, Ap049, and A028). Among them, 140 colonies belonged to subspecies A. m. mellifera, 58 colonies were of hybrid origin, and 151 colonies belonged to evolutionary lineage C. Then, using microscopy and PCR analysis, we performed diagnostics of nosemosis in the studied colonies: N. apis was detected in 87 colonies, N. ceranae in 102 colonies, and coinfection was observed in 36 colonies. The results of our study indicate that the main reservoir of Nosema microsporidia was bees of evolutionary lineage C. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Bee Parasite, Pathogen, and Predator Interactions)

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22 pages, 27621 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploration of the Effects of Different Beauveria bassiana Strains on Dioryctria sylvestrella Larvae from the Perspective of Oxidative Stress

by Ruting Chen, Meiling Wang, Hanwen Zhang, Jianjiao Xu, Xiaomei Wang, Defu Chi and Jia Yu

Insects 2025, 16(6), 640; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060640 - 18 Jun 2025

(1) Background: The larvae of Dioryctria sylvestrella typically bore into the shoots and cones of Pinus koraiensis, increasing tree breakage risk and reducing cone yield. (2) Methods: Five Beauveria bassiana strains were evaluated for virulence against fourth-instar larvae. And the levels of [...] Read more.

(1) Background: The larvae of Dioryctria sylvestrella typically bore into the shoots and cones of Pinus koraiensis, increasing tree breakage risk and reducing cone yield. (2) Methods: Five Beauveria bassiana strains were evaluated for virulence against fourth-instar larvae. And the levels of T-AOC and MDA in the larvae infected by each strain were measured. To assess larval responses to different strains, we measured the activities of six enzymes (SOD, CAT, POD, PPO, CarE, GST) and the levels of GSH and H₂O₂ in larvae treated with each strain. Additionally, the infection process of highly pathogenic B. bassiana in larvae was explored using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). (3) Results: Strain CGMCC3.2055 demonstrated the highest toxicity to larvae, achieving a cumulative corrected mortality of 80.56% on the 4th day and an LT₅₀ of 3.248 days. The T-AOC of larvae treated with strain CGMCC3.2055 was inhibited within 48 h. The relative MDA content in this group was significantly higher than that in other strain-treated groups at 6, 12, and 24 h. In Bb01-treated larvae, H₂O₂ accumulation at 6 and 24 h post-infection was influenced by POD activity rather than GSH levels; in BbZ1-treated larvae, the activities of CAT and POD were upregulated at 6 and 36 h, while the activity of SOD was downregulated, but the content of H₂O₂ increased significantly, resulting in accumulation; in CFCC81428-treated larvae, a decline in T-AOC coincided with substantial H₂O₂ accumulation over 48 h, while a concomitant increase in GSH content bolstered tolerance to lethal oxidative damage; in CGMCC3.2055-treated larvae, H₂O₂ only accumulated significantly at 24 and 48 h, yet upregulated CAT and POD were insufficient to effectively scavenge the excess H₂O₂; and in bio-21738-treated larvae, SOD-driven dismutation generated substantial H₂O₂ from 12 to 48 h, leading to pronounced accumulation from 6 to 48 h, yet limited upregulation of POD (only at 6 and 12 h) and CAT (only at 12 and 48 h) were insufficient to mitigate H₂O₂ buildup. PPO activity was upregulated within 48 h in all treatment groups except for BbZ1, where no upregulation was observed at 12 and 48 h. GST activity was upregulated in all treatment groups except for CGMCC3.2055, where a downregulation was observed at 12 h post-infection. CarE activity was significantly upregulated within 48 h in both CFCC81428 and CGMCC3.2055 groups; in the Bb01 group, CarE was upregulated only at 6 and 48 h; in the BbZ1 group, CarE was downregulated only at 48 h; and in the bio-21738 group, CarE showed no upregulation at 24 and 48 h. Through SEM, the infection process of the strain CGMCC3.2055 on the surface of the larvae was further determined, which mainly included adhesion, the appearance of bud-like protrusions, the growth of germ tubes along the epidermis and penetration of the epidermis, as well as the colonization of the strain and its emergence from the surface of the larvae. (4) Conclusions: This study first screened the highly pathogenic B. bassiana strain CGMCC3.2055 by evaluating its virulence to larvae and post-infection T-AOC and MDA levels. It also clarified the strain’s infection process and the larvae’s immune responses to various strains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Behavior and Pathology)

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22 pages, 4600 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trends and Emerging Hotspots in Toxicology of Chironomids: A Comprehensive Bibliometric Analysis

by Wen-Bin Liu, Wen-Xuan Pei, Zi-Ming Shao, Jia-Xin Nie, Wei Cao and Chun-Cai Yan

Insects 2025, 16(6), 639; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060639 - 17 Jun 2025

(1) Background: Aquatic organisms are more sensitive to pollutants than terrestrial ones, making them ideal for ecotoxicology studies. Chironomids, a key bioindicator species, have been widely used in environmental pollution research. With the continuous deepening of research on water environmental pollution and the [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Aquatic organisms are more sensitive to pollutants than terrestrial ones, making them ideal for ecotoxicology studies. Chironomids, a key bioindicator species, have been widely used in environmental pollution research. With the continuous deepening of research on water environmental pollution and the continuous development of molecular biology, it is therefore very important to understand the current research progress of the toxicology of chironomids. (2) Methods: This study used bibliometrics to analyze 1465 publications on chironomid toxicology from the Web of Science and PubMed databases, aiming to reveal research trends, hotspots, and future directions. The data analysis involved Microsoft Excel, VOS viewer, CiteSpace, and ChatGLM. (3) Results: Heavy metals, pesticides, and microplastics were the main pollutants studied, with Chironomus riparius being the most researched species. The analysis indicated a growing research trend since 1998, reflecting an increasing global concern over aquatic pollution. This study concludes that more molecular-level research is needed to uncover toxic mechanisms and improve environmental risk assessments. (4) Conclusions: This work will aid scientists and policymakers in developing better pollution control strategies and conservation efforts for aquatic ecosystems, ultimately contributing to environmental protection and public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Other Arthropods and General Topics)

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29 pages, 7911 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Dysregulation of Tuning Receptors and Transcription Factors in the Antennae of Orco and Ir8a Mutants in Aedes aegypti Suggests a Chemoreceptor Regulatory Mechanism Involving the MMB/dREAM Complex

by Matthew M. Cooke, Michael S. Chembars II and Ronald Jason Pitts

Insects 2025, 16(6), 638; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060638 - 17 Jun 2025

Olfaction has been extensively studied in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. This species uses its sense of smell to find blood hosts and other resources, contributing to its impact as a vector for human pathogens. Two major families of protein-coding genes, [...] Read more.

Olfaction has been extensively studied in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. This species uses its sense of smell to find blood hosts and other resources, contributing to its impact as a vector for human pathogens. Two major families of protein-coding genes, the odorant receptors (Ors) and the ionotropic receptors (Irs), provide the mosquito with sensitivities to distinct classes of volatile compounds in the antennae. Individual tuning receptors in both families require co-receptors for functionality: Orco for all Ors, and Ir8a for many Irs, especially ones that are involved in carboxylic acid detection. In Drosophila melanogaster, disruptions of Orco or Ir8a impair receptor function, tuning receptor expression, and membrane localization, leading to general anosmia. We reasoned that Orco and Ir8a might also be important for coordinated chemosensory receptor expression in the antennal sensory neurons of Ae. aegypti. To test this, we performed RNAseq and differential expression analysis in wildtype versus Orco^−/− and Ir8a^−/− mutant adult female antennae. Our analyses revealed Or and Ir tuning receptors are broadly under-expressed in Orco^−/− mutants, while a subset of tuning Irs are under-expressed in Ir8a mutants. Other chemosensory and non-chemosensory genes are also dysregulated in these mutants. Furthermore, we identify differentially expressed transcription factors including homologs of the Drosophila melanogaster Mip120 gene. These data suggest a previously unknown pleiotropic role for the Orco and Ir8a co-receptors in the coordination of expression of chemosensory receptors within the antennae of Ae. aegypti by participating in a feedback loop involving amos and members of the MMB/dREAM complex. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Molecular Biology and Genomics)

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15 pages, 1480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a New Trapping System with Potential Implementation as a Tool for Mosquito-Borne Arbovirus Surveillance

by Luísa Maria Inácio da Silva, Larissa Krokovsky, Rafaela Cassiano Matos, Gabriel da Luz Wallau and Marcelo Henrique Santos Paiva

Insects 2025, 16(6), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060637 - 17 Jun 2025

Mosquitoes of the Aedes and Culex genera are primary vectors of arboviruses such as the dengue, Zika, chikungunya (CHIKV), Oropouche, and West Nile viruses, causing millions of infections annually. Standard virus detection in mosquitoes requires capturing, transporting, and processing samples with a cold [...] Read more.

Mosquitoes of the Aedes and Culex genera are primary vectors of arboviruses such as the dengue, Zika, chikungunya (CHIKV), Oropouche, and West Nile viruses, causing millions of infections annually. Standard virus detection in mosquitoes requires capturing, transporting, and processing samples with a cold chain to preserve RNA, which is challenging in resource-limited areas. FTA cards preserve viral RNA at room temperature and have been used to collect mosquito saliva, a key sample for assessing transmission. However, most FTA-based traps require electricity or CO₂, limiting use in low-resource settings. This study adapted and evaluated the BR-ArboTrap, a low-cost trap derived from an oviposition trap, integrating a sugar-based attractant with FTA cards to collect mosquito saliva, without electricity or refrigeration. Aedes aegypti exposed to CHIKV were used in three experiments to evaluate: (i) RNA preservation under different conditions, (ii) the minimum number of positive mosquitoes for detection, and (iii) RNA amounts on FTA versus blood. RT-qPCR detected CHIKV RNA in 90% of FTA cards and 96% of exposed mosquitoes. RNA remained stable under varying conditions, with no significant difference compared to blood. BR-ArboTrap is an effective, affordable, and field-ready tool to enhance arbovirus surveillance in remote and low-resource areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Control and Surveillance of Mosquitoes to Reduce the Spread of Mosquito-Borne Disease)

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27 pages, 12102 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome Annotation of Molting-Related Protein-Coding Genes in Propsilocerus akamusi Reveals Transcriptomic Responses to Heavy Metal Contamination

by Wenbin Liu, Anmo Zhou, Ziming Shao, Jiaxin Nie, Chuncai Yan, Shaobo Gao and Yiwen Wang

Insects 2025, 16(6), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060636 - 17 Jun 2025

The exoskeleton of insects, known as the cuticle, necessitates regular renewal during molting and metamorphosis, with chitin being its primary structural component. Consequently, the molting and metamorphosis processes in insects are characterized by periodic degradation and synthesis of chitin, which are tightly regulated [...] Read more.

The exoskeleton of insects, known as the cuticle, necessitates regular renewal during molting and metamorphosis, with chitin being its primary structural component. Consequently, the molting and metamorphosis processes in insects are characterized by periodic degradation and synthesis of chitin, which are tightly regulated by juvenile hormone (JH) and 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E). Propsilocerus akamusi, a species that plays a crucial role in freshwater ecosystems, demonstrates remarkable resilience to environmental pollutants, including metallic elements found in industrial waste. In this investigation, we systematically analyzed and summarized the metabolic pathways associated with JH, 20E, chitin, and heavy metal transport in P. akamusi. Based on previous genome assembly, we conducted a systematic annotation and functional analysis of genes involved in these metabolic pathways in P. akamusi. This was achieved by querying conserved domains using Pfam and SMART, as well as identifying gene-specific classical consensus regions through amino acid sequence alignment using DNAMAN. Through our validation, a total of 109 genes were definitively categorized into four distinct metabolic pathways: 27 genes were involved in the JH metabolic pathway, 24 in the 20E metabolic pathway, 27 in the chitin metabolic pathway, and 31 in metal transport pathways. A total of 30 genes failed our validation and were temporarily excluded. Furthermore, through RNA sequencing (RNA-seq)-based transcriptome analysis, we observed that under copper (Cu) stress, the expression levels of the majority of genes participating in these metabolic pathways in P. akamusi were altered. This finding suggests that copper exposure influences the molting process in P. akamusi. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Insects Biodiversity and eDNA Monitoring)

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13 pages, 845 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Temperature Phosphine Fumigation Is Effective Against Drosophila suzukii in Sweet Cherry

by Hang Zou, Li Li, Jun Zhang, Baishu Li, Yu Xiao, Yonglin Ren, Ju Huang, Wei Chen and Tao Liu

Insects 2025, 16(6), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060635 - 17 Jun 2025

Drosophila suzukii, classified as a quarantine pest in some countries, poses a serious threat to global trade due to its ability to damage berries and cherries. Recent studies indicate that low-temperature phosphine (PH₃) fumigation effectively controls this pest without compromising [...] Read more.

Drosophila suzukii, classified as a quarantine pest in some countries, poses a serious threat to global trade due to its ability to damage berries and cherries. Recent studies indicate that low-temperature phosphine (PH₃) fumigation effectively controls this pest without compromising fresh produce quality. However, the specific protocol for managing D. suzukii larvae in cherries using this method remains underexplored. This study evaluates the efficacy of low-temperature PH₃ fumigation in controlling D. suzukii larvae across three cherry varieties at 3 °C and investigates potential effects on key quality metrics. Tolerance assessments revealed that 3rd instar larvae exhibit the highest resistance to PH₃ among all developmental stages. A concentration of 800 mL/m³ PH₃ for 84 h at 3 °C achieved phytosanitary efficacy for 0.99997 with no negative effect on the quality attributes of the tested cherry varieties. These results support low-temperature PH₃ fumigation as a viable postharvest treatment for D. suzukii management in sweet cherries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Pest and Vector Management)

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18 pages, 6771 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Functional Differentiation Reconfiguration in the Midgut of Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) Based on Transcriptomics: Multilayer Enrichment Analysis and Topological Network Interpretation

by Dongyue Yu, Jingyu Liang and Wenjun Bu

Insects 2025, 16(6), 634; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060634 - 16 Jun 2025

The present investigation systematically elucidates the distinct functional specialization within the M1–M3 midgut sections of the significant agricultural pest, Nezara viridula. Employing an integrated transcriptomic analysis, three pivotal discoveries were achieved: (1) each midgut segment possesses unique gene expression signatures; (2) metabolic [...] Read more.

The present investigation systematically elucidates the distinct functional specialization within the M1–M3 midgut sections of the significant agricultural pest, Nezara viridula. Employing an integrated transcriptomic analysis, three pivotal discoveries were achieved: (1) each midgut segment possesses unique gene expression signatures; (2) metabolic and signal transduction pathways exhibit coordinated regulatory patterns; and (3) parallel expression changes occur between neuroreceptor (e.g., TACR/HTR) and metabolic enzyme (e.g., GLA/NAGA) genes within identical midgut segments. These data reveal that the M1 region is primarily enriched in metabolic processes and neural signaling; the M2 region emphasizes cellular junctions and immune responses, while the M3 region is mainly responsible for cellular senescence and renewal. These discoveries advance the understanding of feeding adaptation mechanisms in Hemipteran insects and propose a “metabolism–defense–regeneration” functional model for the midgut. The established multi-level analytical framework provides a robust methodology for subsequent dissection of complex biological systems, identification of key molecular targets for functional validation, and for the development of novel pest control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Molecular Biology and Genomics)

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13 pages, 1288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrophysiological and Behavioral Responses of Thrips hawaiiensis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) to the Floral Volatiles of the Horticultural Plant Magnolia grandiflora (Magnoliales: Magnoliaceae)

by Tao Zhang, Yuping Yang, Filippo Maggi, Feiyu Jiang, Rongrong Yuan, Lujie Huang, Xueyan Zhang, Yu Cao and Yulin Gao

Insects 2025, 16(6), 633; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060633 - 16 Jun 2025

Volatile cues are important in the host detection and discrimination of phytophagous insects, allowing them to find suitable hosts. Here, the electroantennography (EAG) and behavioral responses of female Thrips hawaiiensis to the floral volatiles of different plants, Magnolia grandiflora L. (Magnoliales: Magnoliaceae), Gerbera [...] Read more.

Volatile cues are important in the host detection and discrimination of phytophagous insects, allowing them to find suitable hosts. Here, the electroantennography (EAG) and behavioral responses of female Thrips hawaiiensis to the floral volatiles of different plants, Magnolia grandiflora L. (Magnoliales: Magnoliaceae), Gerbera jamesonii Bolus (Asterales: Asteraceae), Lilium brownii Baker (Liliales: Liliaceae), and Rosa rugosa Thunb. (Rosales: Rosaceae), were studied. Y-tube olfactometer bioassays revealed that M. grandiflora was the preferred host for T. hawaiiensis. Fifty-two compounds were identified from the volatile profile of M. grandiflora by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis, of which β-elemen (15.39%), bicyclogermacren (11.99%), and (E)-α-bisabolene (6.05%) showed the highest relative contents. The EAG bioassays revealed that the antennae of T. hawaiiensis could perceive these tested volatile compounds at different concentrations. In six-arm olfactometer bioassays, T. hawaiiensis showed significant positive responses to β-elemen and (E)-α-bisabolene at various concentrations, and 10 μg/μL was found to be the most attractive concentration for β-elemen, and 50 and 100 μg/μL for (E)-α-bisabolene. Based on the four-arm olfactometer bioassays, β-elemen was more attractive than (E)-α-bisabolene to T. hawaiiensis when compared at their optimal concentrations. Therefore, T. hawaiiensis could perceive and distinguish the floral volatiles from the preferred host plant (M. grandiflora). These findings assist in better understanding the mechanism of host preferences of T. hawaiiensis from a chemoecological perspective. In particular, β-elemen showed the greatest potential to be developed as a novel attractant for the monitoring and control of T. hawaiiensis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Pest and Vector Management)

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22 pages, 3403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Invertebrates of Siberia, a Potential Source of Animal Protein for Innovative Food and Feed Production: Biomass Nutrient Composition Change in the Earthworm Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826) and the House Cricket Acheta domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758)

by Sergei E. Tshernyshev, Andrei S. Babenko, Irina B. Babkina, Ruslan T.-O. Baghirov, Vera P. Modyaeva, Margarita D. Morozova, Ksenia E. Skribtcova, Elena Y. Subbotina, Mikhail V. Shcherbakov and Anastasia V. Simakova

Insects 2025, 16(6), 632; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060632 - 16 Jun 2025

The possibility of designing the nutrient composition of invertebrate biomass was investigated. Two model species of terrestrial invertebrates, the house cricket Acheta domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) and the earthworm Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826), were studied after feeding on substrates alternately enriched with certain nutrient [...] Read more.

The possibility of designing the nutrient composition of invertebrate biomass was investigated. Two model species of terrestrial invertebrates, the house cricket Acheta domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758) and the earthworm Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826), were studied after feeding on substrates alternately enriched with certain nutrient precursors proposed in single and double doses. Crickets and earthworms showed similar tendencies to increase the B vitamin content of those vitamins whose initial level was high. Double-dose enrichment of the food substrate increased the levels of vitamin C, fat-soluble vitamins and most B vitamins. In a control group of crickets, vitamin C levels were 1.5 times lower than in a control group of earthworms. After enrichment of the feed substrate, the vitamin C content in the biomass of the crickets did not change significantly, but in the earthworms it increased significantly. The content of a wide range of minerals did not change after single-dose enrichment, but some micro-elements such as Pb and Se decreased significantly in earthworms after double-dose enrichment of the feed substrate. The calorific value of crickets was twice that of earthworms and did not change significantly after double-dose enrichment. It is shown that the nutrient composition of invertebrate biomass can be increased by enriching the feed substrate with precursors. The most effective increases are observed for all vitamins and several minerals. The results can be used to achieve specific nutrient concentrations in biomass for food and medical purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insects as the Nutrition Source in Animal Feed)

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17 pages, 1640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Time to Emergence of the Lyme Disease Pathogen in Habitats of the Northeastern U.S.A.

by Dorothy Wallace, Michael Palace, Lucas Eli Price and Xun Shi

Insects 2025, 16(6), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060631 - 16 Jun 2025

Ticks carry a range of pathogens, the best known of which causes Lyme disease, prevalent in the northeastern United States. Emerging diseases do not yet consist of a wide range of Lyme diseases, raising the question of how long it takes for a [...] Read more.

Ticks carry a range of pathogens, the best known of which causes Lyme disease, prevalent in the northeastern United States. Emerging diseases do not yet consist of a wide range of Lyme diseases, raising the question of how long it takes for a newly introduced tick-borne disease to establish itself. The aim of this study was to address this question, with the agent of Lyme disease used as the test case. A prior process-based model of the Ixodes scapularis (Say 1821) life cycle and the transmission of Borrelia burgdorferi (Burgdorfer 1982) between this tick and its various hosts was used to predict the dynamics of disease introduction into a new area. The importance of temperature, infection probabilities, and tick host populations, relative to that of other factors, was established by a global sensitivity analysis using Latin hypercube sampling. The results of those samples were analyzed to determine the time to near-equilibrium. Eight locations in New Hampshire were chosen for high/low temperature, high/low mouse, and high/low deer values. Mammal abundance was estimated by relating the known mammal density from previous studies to a MaxEnt analysis output. The time required to reach Borrelia endemicity in the ticks of New Hampshire ranged from 8 to 20 years in regions where the tick population is viable, with a strong dependency on susceptible tick host populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medical and Livestock Entomology)

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13 pages, 1115 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution Characteristics and Driving Factors of Formicidae in Small Watersheds of Loess Hilly Regions

by Yu Tian, Fangfang Qiang, Guangquan Liu, Changhai Liu and Ning Ai

Insects 2025, 16(6), 630; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060630 - 15 Jun 2025

This study takes the Jinfoping Small Watershed in the Loess Hilly Region as the research area. Through field investigation and laboratory analysis, combined with methods such as spatial autocorrelation analysis, the ordinary least squares method (OLS), and the geographically weighted regression model (GWR), [...] Read more.

This study takes the Jinfoping Small Watershed in the Loess Hilly Region as the research area. Through field investigation and laboratory analysis, combined with methods such as spatial autocorrelation analysis, the ordinary least squares method (OLS), and the geographically weighted regression model (GWR), it deeply explores the spatial distribution characteristics and driving factors of Formicidae in the study area. The research results are as follows: (1) Spatial autocorrelation analysis indicates that the distribution of Formicidae is significantly regulated by spatial dependence and has significant spatial autocorrelation (global Moran’s I = 0.332; p < 0.01). (2) The spatial visualization analysis of the GWR model reveals that soil physical and chemical properties and topographic factors have local influences on the spatial distribution of Formicidae. Available phosphorus (AP) and slope (SLP) were significantly positively correlated with the number of ants. Hydrogen peroxidase (HP) and topographic relief (TR) were significantly negatively correlated with the number of ants. This study reveals the spatial distribution pattern of Formicidae in the Loess Hilly Region and its complex relationship with environmental factors, and clarifies the importance of considering spatial heterogeneity when analyzing ecosystem processes. The research results provide a scientific basis for the protection and management of soil ecosystems, and also offer new methods and ideas for future related research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances on Conservation of Biodiversity, Monitoring Programs and Trend Assessment)

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15 pages, 1849 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sublethal Effects of Abamectin and Acetamiprid on the Longevity, Fecundity and Detoxification Enzyme Activity of Rhopalosiphum padi

by Bokun Wang, Hongming Hui, Xingye Li, Xueqing Yang and Yuting Li

Insects 2025, 16(6), 629; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060629 - 15 Jun 2025

The bird cherry-oat aphid Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) poses a significant threat to wheat production, resulting in substantial yield reductions. Abamectin and acetamiprid are frequently utilized for management. This study assessed the sublethal effects of abamectin and acetamiprid on R. padi through life table [...] Read more.

The bird cherry-oat aphid Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) poses a significant threat to wheat production, resulting in substantial yield reductions. Abamectin and acetamiprid are frequently utilized for management. This study assessed the sublethal effects of abamectin and acetamiprid on R. padi through life table analysis and enzyme activity assays. At 24 h, the LC₁₀ and LC₃₀ values for abamectin to R. padi were 0.063 mg/L and 0.252 mg/L, respectively, while, for acetamiprid, the corresponding values were 0.065 and 0.293 mg/L. The results indicated that exposure to sublethal concentrations of abamectin (AB-LC₁₀) extended the longevity of R. padi F₀ generation, while acetamiprid (AC-LC₁₀ and AC-LC₃₀) decreased it. Furthermore, the fecundity of the F₀ generation was significantly reduced following exposure to AB-LC₃₀, AC-LC₁₀ and AC-LC₃₀. In the F₁ generation, exposure to sublethal concentrations of acetamiprid negatively impacted on R. padi, as evidenced by a significant reduction in longevity; fecundity and population parameters (R₀, r, λ, s_xj, l_x, l_xm_x, v_xj and e_xj). Conversely, sublethal concentrations of abamectin did not significantly affect these parameters. Additionally, population projections revealed a significantly smaller total population size of R. padi in the acetamiprid-exposed group compared to both the abamectin-exposed and control groups. Except these population-level effects, the activities of detoxification enzymes, including cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450), glutathione S-transferases (GST) and carboxylesterases (CarE), changed differently after treatments. These results suggest that sublethal concentrations of acetamiprid, but not abamectin, significantly inhibit the population growth of R. padi. These insights are crucial for R. padi control and facilitate the development of effective control strategies that take into account these sublethal effects in integrated pest management strategies targeting R. padi. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Insecticide Resistance and Toxicology: Challenges in Pest Management and Basic Research—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 1232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wohlfahrtia nuba (Wiedemann, 1830) (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) Development and Survival Under Fluctuating Temperatures

by Abeer S. Yamany, Manal F. Elkhadragy and Rewaida Abdel-Gaber

Insects 2025, 16(6), 628; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060628 - 13 Jun 2025

The flesh fly, Wohlfahrtia nuba (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Sarcophagidae), is one of the first necrophagous insects to arrive on a cadaver and is vital for understanding decomposition. Environmental factors, especially temperature, influence insect development, which is crucial for estimating postmortem interval (PMI) in forensic [...] Read more.

The flesh fly, Wohlfahrtia nuba (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Sarcophagidae), is one of the first necrophagous insects to arrive on a cadaver and is vital for understanding decomposition. Environmental factors, especially temperature, influence insect development, which is crucial for estimating postmortem interval (PMI) in forensic entomology. This study explored how seasonal temperature variations affect the survival and development of W. nuba’s immature stages. The W. nuba colony was reared in the laboratory for four seasons from 3 October 2023 to 30 September 2024. The duration of the larval and pupal phases, the percentage of survival and mortality of the larvae and pupae, the larval growth rate, the percentage of emergence, fecundity, the sex ratio, and the pre-larviposition period were among the many life cycle characteristics that were documented during the study. Research indicates that seasonal changes affect development, shortening the growth period as temperatures rise. Flies raised at an average temperature of 38.3 °C grew faster but experienced higher larval mortality and lower survival rates. The average duration of larval and pupal stages was reduced, with an optimal development temperature of 27.9 °C showing higher survival rates, maximum body weight, and fecundity. The largest mortality rate occurred during winter at an average temperature of 18.5 °C, with males and females showing significant pupal elongation. The findings could help forensic entomologists working on legal investigations to ascertain PMI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Physiology, Reproduction and Development)

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14 pages, 5097 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potentially Suitable Habitat for the Pest Histia rhodope Based on Its Host Plant Bischofia polycarpa and Climatic Factors in China

by Huicong Du, Jingxin Shen, Wenping Luo, Zi Yang, Daizhen Zhang and Xiangbo Kong

Insects 2025, 16(6), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060627 - 13 Jun 2025

Histia rhodope is a defoliating pest that feeds mainly on the ornamental garden plant Bischofia polycarpa. Recently, frequent outbreaks of H. rhodope in Southern China have severely affected cityscapes and people’s lives. To provide a predictive early-warning program for the spread risk [...] Read more.

Histia rhodope is a defoliating pest that feeds mainly on the ornamental garden plant Bischofia polycarpa. Recently, frequent outbreaks of H. rhodope in Southern China have severely affected cityscapes and people’s lives. To provide a predictive early-warning program for the spread risk of H. rhodope in China and reduce damage to B. polycarpa, we used the MaxEnt model to investigate the potentially suitable spread characteristics of H. rhodope and its host B. polycarpa under different climate scenarios for the years 2050 and 2070. The results showed that the potentially suitable habitat of H. rhodope under the SSP5-8.5 scenario will reach an area of 3174.55 × 10³ km² in the 2070s, an increase of 1010 × 10³ km² from the current distribution. The potentially suitable habitat of B. polycarpa under the SSP5-8.5 scenario will reach 2618.01 × 10³ km² in the 2070s (an increase of 464 × 10³ km²). The potentially suitable habitats of H. rhodope and B. polycarpa are expected to shift to higher elevations under future climate scenarios. We also identified ten key environmental factors, of which Precipitation of Warmest Quarter (bio18) had the greatest influence on the probability of moth and host plant occurrence. Our results highlight the risk of further expansion of the potentially suitable area for H. rhodope and the important role of the host plant in this process, and provide a firm scientific basis for the monitoring and management of H. rhodope and B. polycarpa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Environment and Food Stress on Insect Population)

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14 pages, 3023 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Distribution Pattern and Change Prediction of Luprops orientalis (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) Suitable Area in East Asia Under Climate Change

by Jieqiong Wang, Shuangyi Wang, Yunchun Li, Shuangmei Ding, Zhonghua Wei, Aimin Shi and Ding Yang

Insects 2025, 16(6), 626; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060626 - 13 Jun 2025

Luprops orientalis (Motschulsky, 1868) is an economically important pest in traditional Chinese medicines, widely distributed in East Asia. However, the primary limiting factors affecting its distribution, potential suitable areas, as well as its response to global warming, remain largely unknown. Utilizing 295 filtered [...] Read more.

Luprops orientalis (Motschulsky, 1868) is an economically important pest in traditional Chinese medicines, widely distributed in East Asia. However, the primary limiting factors affecting its distribution, potential suitable areas, as well as its response to global warming, remain largely unknown. Utilizing 295 filtered distribution points and 10 environmental variables (9 climate variables and 1 land cover type), this study uses the MaxEnt model to predict the potential distribution of L. orientalis under near-current and future environmental change scenarios. The results indicated that precipitation of the warmest quarter (bio18), temperature seasonality (bio04), and precipitation of the wettest month (bio13) were the most significant environmental variables affecting the distribution of suitable habitats for L. orientalis, while the contribution of average variation in daytime temperature (bio2) was the smallest. Under the near-current climate, the areas of low, moderate, and high suitability for L. orientalis are approximately 1.02 × 10⁶ km², 1.65 × 10⁶ km², and 8.22 × 10⁵ km², respectively. The suitable areas are primarily located in North China, Central China, the Korean Peninsula, and Central and Southern Japan. Under future climate conditions, the potential suitable areas are expected to expand significantly, especially in Central China. However, the high-suitability areas in North China are predicted to experience a slight reduction. With the increase in carbon emission concentrations, the suitable area shows an increasing trend in the 2050s, followed by a declining trend in the 2090s. The centroids of suitable areas will shift to the northeast in the future. These findings enhance our understanding of how climate change affects the distribution of L. orientalis and will assist governments in formulating effective pest control strategies, including widespread monitoring and stringent quarantine measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Insect Pest and Vector Management)

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24 pages, 14728 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Death-Leading Envenomization of Rabbits with Snake Versus Scorpion Venoms: A Comparative Forensic Investigation of Postmortem Decomposition and Beetle Succession

by Afnan Saleh Al-Qurashi, Mohammed Saleh Al-Khalifa, Hathal Mohammed Al Dhafer, Mahmoud Saleh Abdel-Dayem, Hossam Ebaid and Ashraf Mohamed Ahmed

Insects 2025, 16(6), 625; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060625 - 13 Jun 2025

Background:Envenomation by poisonous creatures is a major global cause of mortality. Its concomitant impact on the postmortem corpse decomposition and associated insect succession pattern is still poorly understood. Purpose of the study: This study comparatively investigates the impact of envenomization with [...] Read more.

Background:Envenomation by poisonous creatures is a major global cause of mortality. Its concomitant impact on the postmortem corpse decomposition and associated insect succession pattern is still poorly understood. Purpose of the study: This study comparatively investigates the impact of envenomization with the venoms of the snake Walterinnesia aegyptia L. versus the scorpion, Androctonus crassicauda L., on rabbit corpse decomposition and beetle succession. Methods: Three groups of rabbits (five animals each) were injected with the snake venom, the scorpion venom, or 0.9% saline (control) prior to euthanasia with CO₂. The corpse decomposition stages and beetle succession were monitored over 11 days. Results: Four stages of decomposition with venom-dependent duration variation were observed. The scorpion-envenomized corpses showed a longer decay stage and a delayed dry stage. A total of 1094 beetles belonging to 27 species of 14 families were reported. Histeridae, Dermestidae, Scarabaeidae, and Tenebrionidae were the most diversified and prevalent families. Chrysomelidae, Elateridae, Hybosoridae, and Ptinidae were incidentally attracted to control corpses, while Nitidulidae and Zopheridae were only found on control and snake-envenomized ones. Four species belonging to the families Anthicidae, Histeridae, Scarabaeidae, and Tenebrionidae were predominant on all corpses. Four species belonging to the families Chrysomelidae, Curculionidae, Elateridae, and Hybosoridae were distinctively associated with the control corpses. Conclusions: These findings provided evidence that envenomation impacted the decomposition process and beetle succession in a venom-dependent manner, which could be significant for forensic investigations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Role of Insects in Human Society)

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