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Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development

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A special issue of Veterinary Sciences (ISSN 2306-7381). This special issue belongs to the section "Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Immunology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2026 | Viewed by 10061

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Dr. Penggang Liu

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Guest Editor

College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
Interests: animal reproductive development; pathogenic mechanisms
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Shifeng Pan

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Guest Editor

College of Veterinary Sciences, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
Interests: animal growth regulation; interaction between intestinal microorganisms and hosts
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Liangli Song

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Guest Editor

College of Animal Science & Technology, Ningxia University, Yinchuan 750021, China
Interests: animal reproductive physiology; animal obstetric diseases

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Intestinal homeostasis is crucial for maintaining the balance between nutrient absorption, immune defense, and microbial ecology, fundamental processes for optimal animal growth and development. Disruptions in gut homeostasis can impair digestive efficiency, alter lipid and energy metabolism, and increase susceptibility to infections, ultimately compromising growth performance and health. Recent advances in molecular biology, microbiome research, and nutritional interventions have provided new insights into the complex regulatory networks that link gut physiology with systemic growth pathways, including hormonal signaling, epigenetic modifications, and metabolic regulation. Moreover, the gut microbiota has emerged as a key regulator of nutrient utilization, immune maturation, and host resilience to environmental stressors, thereby directly influencing growth efficiency in livestock and companion animals. Understanding the mechanisms underlying intestinal homeostasis and its regulatory role in growth and development is essential for improving animal health, enhancing feed efficiency, and promoting sustainable animal production systems. This Special Issue aims to highlight current research and innovative strategies that explore the interplay between gut homeostasis, growth regulation, and animal well-being.

Dr. Penggang Liu
Prof. Dr. Shifeng Pan
Dr. Liangli Song
Guest Editors

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Keywords

intestinal homeostasis
gut microbiota
animal growth
developmental biology
nutrient metabolism
lipid metabolism
Immune regulation
host–microbe interactions
feed efficiency
sustainable animal production

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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34 pages, 4687 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (BT6) Restores Intestinal Homeostasis in Escherichia coli O157:H7-Challenged Mice

by Mohamed Osman Abdalrahem Essa, Nosiba S. Basher, Cheng Cheng, Saber Y. Adam, Nasir A. Ibrahim, Hosameldeen Mohamed Husien, Ahmed A. Saleh and Darong Cheng

Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(4), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13040324 - 27 Mar 2026

Viewed by 602

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection disrupts intestinal homeostasis, causing dysbiosis, barrier dysfunction, and inflammation. This study aimed to evaluate the protective efficacy and mechanisms of a novel probiotic, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron type strain ATCC 29148, isolated from goat feces, against E. coli O157:H7-induced colitis. Methods: This study assessed the protective potential of the probiotic strain Bacteroides thetaiotaomicronBT6 and BT7 in vitro for GI tolerance, adhesion, and no adverse effects were observed. For the in vivo experiment, male C57BL/6J mice were divided into groups treated with Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (BT6), PBS, E. coli O157:H7, or a combination. We employed integrated analyses including 16S rRNA gene sequencing, antioxidant status, cytokine profiling, and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) measurement. Results: In vitro, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (BT6 and BT7) showed high gastrointestinal tolerance (71.89–93.22% survival). In vivo, it significantly mitigated infection-associated weight loss and disease activity (p < 0.05). Probiotic treatment enhanced barrier integrity, reduced colonic inflammation, and modulated systemic immune responses, notably increasing anti-inflammatory IL-10 while decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 (p < 0.05). It also alleviated oxidative stress by reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) and elevating antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, GSH) and ATP. Fecal SCFA profiling revealed increased propionic and butyric acid. 16S sequencing indicated that B. thetaiotaomicron (BT6) administration increased beneficial families (Lactobacillaceae, Muribaculaceae) and suppressed pathobionts. Conclusions: B. thetaiotaomicron (BT6) probiotic with potential for mitigating enteropathogenic infection, an effect mainly determined by its capacity to reestablish the intestinal epithelial barrier and enhance global host health, and modulating the inflammatory response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development)

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18 pages, 7097 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of N-Acetylneuraminic Acid on Intestinal Microbial Composition and Metabolic Activity in a Piglet Model

by Jiaqi Zhang, Runhan Ye, Xuan Li, Xiaoyi Liu, Kaifeng Lian, Ran Xu, Yahui Chen, Weiyun Zhu and Kaifan Yu

Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(3), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13030295 - 21 Mar 2026

Viewed by 418

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac) on intestinal microbial composition and metabolic activity in piglets using two complementary approaches: in vitro fermentation and in vivo dietary supplementation with coated Neu5Ac. In vitro fermentation results demonstrated that Neu5Ac stimulates higher production of formate and acetate by piglet intestinal microbiota compared with other human milk-derived monosaccharides (p < 0.05). In vivo feeding trials showed that dietary coated Neu5Ac significantly increased microbial α-diversity and altered the overall microbial composition in both the jejunum and colon (p < 0.05). For instance, coated Neu5Ac reduced the relative abundances of ASV1 Clostridium and ASV17 Clostridium in the jejunum, while raising the relative abundances of ASV3 Veillonella, ASV4 Veillonella, ASV7 Lactobacillus salivarius, ASV11 Actinobacillus porcitonsillarum in the jejunum, and ASV41 Xylanibacter in the colon (p < 0.05). Furthermore, coated Neu5Ac significantly elevated formate and acetate concentrations in the jejunum (p < 0.05) and exhibited a trend toward increased acetate levels in the colon (0.05 < p < 0.1). Collectively, using piglets as a model, this study demonstrates that Neu5Ac facilitates the intestinal colonization of beneficial microbes (e.g., Lactobacillus), leading to enhanced production of microbial metabolites, particularly formate and acetate, which may contribute to improved gut homeostasis in early life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development)

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19 pages, 5853 KB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship Between Histomonas meleagridis Infection and Cecal Intestinal Microbiota of Chickens

by Qiaoguang Chen, Yaxin Liu, Wendi Zhu, HsuPan Aye, Ruting Li, Zhaofeng Hou, Dandan Liu, Yuelan Yin, Jianping Tao and Jinjun Xu

Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(2), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13020118 - 27 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 858

Abstract

Histomonosis, caused by Histomonas meleagridis, leads to economic losses in the poultry and livestock industry. In recent years, studies on the role of intestinal microbiota in host physiological health have attracted growing attention. Understanding the changes in gut bacterial communities of chickens is crucial for improving poultry and livestock production. This study investigated the impact of Histomonas meleagridis infection on the growth performance, overall health, and cecal microbiota composition of chickens. Body weight changes and pathological alterations were assessed at different time points post-infection through animal experiments, with 7 days post-infection defined as the early stage and 14 days as the peak stage of infection. Cecal content samples were collected from the 7-day control group (G1), 7-day infected group (G2), 14-day control group (G3), and 14-day infected group (G4) for 16S rRNA sequencing analysis. The microbial diversity analysis revealed that H. meleagridis infection altered the number of microbial species in the cecal microbiota of chickens. The alpha diversity index was significantly reduced (p < 0.05), and principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) revealed significant structural differences between infected and control groups (p = 0.001). Taxonomic composition analysis showed that beneficial gut bacteria, such as Firmicutes and Lactobacillus spp., decreased in abundance, whereas Bacteroidota, Proteobacteria, Escherichia spp., and Fusobacterium mortiferum were enriched in the infected group. LEfSe analysis indicated that G1 was enriched with Oscillospiraceae and Blautia; G2 with Christensenellaceae; G3 with Verrucomicrobia and Lactobacillus aviarius; and G4 with Proteobacteria and Fusobacteria. In conclusion, H. meleagridis infection markedly altered the cecal microbiota composition by shifting the relative abundances of beneficial and pathogenic bacteria, resulting in reduced microbial diversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development)

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17 pages, 2465 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Effects of Raw Milk and Milk Replacer Feeding on Gut Microbiota Diversity and Function in Cryptosporidium parvum-Infected Neonatal Dairy Calves on a Japanese Farm

by Momoko Yachida, Megumi Itoh and Yasuhiro Morita

Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(1), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13010082 - 14 Jan 2026

Viewed by 773

Abstract

Neonatal diarrhea is a major health concern in the livestock industry, and Cryptosporidium parvum is a key pathogen responsible for this condition in calves. Milk management and gut microbiome regulation may play important roles in preventing cryptosporidiosis symptoms. This study analyzed the gut microbiota of neonatal calves fed raw milk (BM) or milk replacer (MR) using a total of 58 fecal samples collected on the same farm in 2022 and 2024. In milk replacer-fed calves, alpha diversity was significantly higher in C. parvum-positive (P) calves without diarrhea (N) (PN, n = 5) than in C. parvum-positive calves with diarrhea(D) (PD, n = 18) (Shannon p = 0.0358; Chao1 p = 0.0598). Beta diversity also differed between PN and PD (PERMANOVA, R² = 0.1763, p = 0.0092). Predicted microbial taxa such as Faecalibacterium (ALDEx2, effect size = 2.31, p = 0.00003) and Butyricicoccus (effect size = 1.31, p = 0.0041) were enriched in PN calves in MR. Comparison between milk types (BM vs. MR) further showed higher species richness in PN calves in MR than in those (n = 5) in BM(Chao1, p = 0.0088), along with significant differences in beta diversity (R² = 0.4112, p = 0.0069). These findings suggest that microbial diversity and the presence of specific taxa may be associated with reduced diarrheal symptoms. Predicted metabolic pathway profiling using a computational functional profiling approach showed the distinct metabolic pathways, including amino acid, carbohydrate, lipid, and vitamin biosynthesis, were enriched in healthier calves in both groups. These results suggest certain functional features of the microbiome could be associated with anti-inflammatory activity and short-chain fatty acid production, potentially mitigating diarrheal symptoms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development)

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17 pages, 6244 KB

Open AccessArticle

Host-Adapted Ruminal Microbiota Investigation and Functional Validation of Duolang Sheep-Derived Ligilactobacillus salivarius KS1018

by Zixuan Wang, Yuchen Jia, Shiyu Duan, Hui Jiang, Cong Peng, Mingwei Mao, Yiping Zhu and Jing Li

Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(12), 1177; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12121177 - 10 Dec 2025

Viewed by 611

Abstract

This study characterized the rumen microbiota of Duolang sheep, a Xinjiang local breed, to identify potential probiotics for Hu sheep. 16S rRNA sequencing revealed that Duolang sheep possessed a distinct rumen microbial structure (beta-diversity, p < 0.05), lower diversity (higher Simpson index, p < 0.01), and a higher Firmicutes-to-Bacteroidetes ratio compared to Hu sheep. Subsequently, a Duolang-derived strain, Ligilactobacillus salivarius (L. salivarius) KS1018, was evaluated in a 56-day feeding trial with Hu sheep. Supplementation enhanced systemic immunity (serum IgG and IgM) and antioxidant status (SOD) (p < 0.05). Metabolic profiles were also modified, with serum β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) level increasing significantly in both medium-dose (p < 0.001) and high-dose (p < 0.05) groups, whereas BUN and lipid markers (TG, CHOL) elevated significantly in the medium-dose (p < 0.05) and high-dose group (p < 0.05), respectively. The strain with medium- and high-dose also reduced fecal crude fat (p < 0.01) and influenced mucosal secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) by increasing levels in the duodenum while decreasing them in the rumen (p < 0.05). Ruminal histology was also altered (p < 0.01). Spearman’s correlation analysis showed that Prevotellaceae_UCG-003 was positively correlated with serum BUN (p < 0.001), IgM (p < 0.05), BHB (p < 0.01), and SOD (p < 0.01). Overall, L. salivarius KS1018 improved antioxidant capacity, systemic and mucosal immunity, and ruminal structure in Hu sheep, demonstrating its potential to influence host–microbe interactions in livestock. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development)

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15 pages, 276 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) Leaf Powder Supplementation in Broiler Diets on Performance, Gut Health, and Meat Quality

by Hüseyin Çayan and İsa Coşkun

Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(12), 1148; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12121148 - 2 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 844

Abstract

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation with different levels of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) leaf powder on growth performance, internal organ development, cecal microbiota, intestinal histomorphology, meat quality characteristics, and breast meat malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in broiler chickens. A total of 160 one-day-old male Ross 308 broiler chicks of uniform health status and body weight were randomly allocated to four treatment groups, each consisting of four replicates with 10 birds per replicate. The experimental diets were formulated by supplementing the basal diet with 0, 2, 4, or 8 g/kg of sage leaf powder. The trial was conducted for 21 days in four-tier battery cages under controlled environmental conditions, with feed and water supplied ad libitum. At the end of the experiment, dietary inclusion of sage leaf powder at 2 g/kg significantly improved daily body weight gain (p < 0.05), while feed intake and feed conversion ratio were not affected (p > 0.05). No significant differences were detected among the treatment groups in carcass traits, meat pH, or color parameters. However, marked improvements were observed in intestinal histomorphology. In addition, breast meat samples from birds receiving sage-supplemented diets displayed slightly lower MDA concentrations during storage compared to the control group. In conclusion, dietary supplementation with sage leaf powder improved growth performance, enhanced intestinal health, and demonstrated potential as a natural feed additive for broiler nutrition; however, it did not exert a statistically significant effect on lipid oxidation under the conditions of this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development)

25 pages, 3465 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Bacteroides fragilis and Enterococcus faecium Administration as Probiotic Candidates: Impact on Growth Performance, Organ Indices, and Gut Microbiota Balance in Mice

by Mohamed Osman Abdalrahem Essa, Cheng Cheng, Liang Chen, Geng-Yu Chi, Layla Ahmed Mohammed Abdelhadi, Huda Ahmed Hassan, Saniya Yaqoob, Saber Y. Adam, Hosameldeen Mohamed Husien, Ahmed A. Saleh and Darong Cheng

Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(11), 1093; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12111093 - 17 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1450

Abstract

This research was conducted to evaluate the safety and effects of two probiotic candidate strains, Enterococcus faecium (E. faecium) and B. fragilis (BF), which were isolated from healthy sheep, on various factors such as intestinal structure, growth performance, organ indices, and gut microbiota in female C57BL/6J mice. A total of fifty mice were categorized into five groups: BF108, BF109, EF108, EF109, and a control group. The results indicated that mice in the EF108 and BF109 groups experienced a significant increase in body weight by day 28 compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Additionally, the liver index in the BF108 and EF108 groups was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than that of the control group. The length of the colon was also significantly greater (p < 0.05) in the EF109 and BF109 groups relative to the control group. According to the linear discriminant analysis effect size (LEfSe), the presence of probiotics led to an increased relative abundance of Pediococcus acidilactici in the EF109 and BF109 groups, while Lactiplantibacillus plantarum was the most prevalent strain in the EF108 and BF108 groups. Finally, Spearman correlation analysis demonstrated a positive association between Bacillota and Bacteroidota as well as Verrucomicrobiota. Additionally, Bacteroidota displayed positive relationships with Verrucomicrobiota and Planctomycetota, while showing a negative correlation with Actinomycetota and Gemmatimonadota, supporting its potential use as next-generation probiotics. In summary, our results indicate probiotics may have a role in promoting intestinal health by enhancing intestinal shape and histological characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development)

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15 pages, 13069 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Metabolomic and Transcriptomic Analysis Decodes Heat Stress-Induced Metabolic Shifts in Gilt Granulosa Cells

by Peng Tang, Xiangyu Si, Xun Xie, Xiaomei Liu, Jianzhen Huang, Yun Shi and Chao Yin

Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(11), 1087; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12111087 - 14 Nov 2025

Viewed by 952

Abstract

While previous studies have extensively demonstrated that summer heat stress (HS) impairs oocyte quality via follicular granulosa cell (GC) mediation, the molecular mechanisms underlying HS-induced GC-mediated oocyte damage—particularly at the multi-omics level—remain poorly understood. This study integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses of GCs from gilts under seasonal thermal stress (winter CON vs. summer HS) to elucidate GC-mediated regulatory networks affecting oocyte quality. Non-targeted metabolomics identified 45 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs, p < 0.05), with 69% being lipids/lipid-like molecules enriched in pathways such as glycerophospholipid metabolism, choline metabolism, linoleic acid metabolism, the adipocytokine signaling pathway, and the sphingolipid signaling pathway. Parallel transcriptomics revealed 9085 differentially expressed genes (DEGs, Padj < 0.05), of which the predominant genes were associated with lipid metabolism, hormone synthesis, and cellular senescence pathways. Cross-omics integration highlighted significant correlations between DAMs and DEGs, particularly for lysoPC(20:4) and 1-hexadecyl-2-eicosatrienoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, which showed co-regulation with 69 and 48 genes, respectively. Notably, candidate genes like TMEM94, SLIT3, DACT3, and CEBPD, were identified as key regulators of GCs metabolic reprogramming. This study demonstrates for the first time that in vivo HS compromises oocyte developmental competence by disrupting the GC metabolic activities, particularly through lipid metabolism and associated pathways. The identified metabolic signatures and regulatory genes offer mechanistic insights into seasonal infertility and potential biomarkers for thermo-protective strategies in swine reproduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development)

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Review

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22 pages, 2183 KB

Open AccessReview

β-Casein Polymorphism as a Potential Evolutionary Trade-Off: The Rise of A1 Under Intensive Selection and Its Implications for Gastrointestinal Tolerance and Agroecological Resilience

by András József Tóth, Szilvia Kusza, Gergő Sudár, Atilla Kunszabó, Márton Battay, Miklós Süth and András Bittsánszky

Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(5), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13050473 - 13 May 2026

Abstract

This narrative review summarizes evidence on the bovine β-casein (CSN2) A1/A2 polymorphism as a case study of how intensive dairy selection and global gene flow can reshape allele frequencies in ways that matter for consumers, processing and agroecological resilience. We draw together evidence from (i) population-genetic surveys of CSN2 in contrasting cattle populations, including a descriptive summary of published genotype-frequency studies; (ii) controlled human studies that separate A1-containing from A2-only dairy exposure; and (iii) dairy technology and the authenticity literature relevant to identity-preserved A2 value chains. Across intensively selected Holstein-Friesian populations, A1 was consistently present at substantial frequency (approximately one-third), whereas indigenous, beef and zebu-adjacent populations were typically A2-enriched, highlighting the role of historical breed formation and modern introgression in shaping apparent geographic and climatic patterns. Human intervention studies most consistently support improved short-term gastrointestinal tolerance with A2-only milk in susceptible individuals, while evidence for longer-horizon systemic outcomes remains mixed and insufficient for causal disease claims. Processing and analytical studies suggest that β-casein genotype can modestly affect coagulation and product behavior in a context-dependent manner and that validated proteoform quantification coupled with traceability is essential for credible A2 labeling at scale. We discuss implications for breeding programs, including staged A2 selection that avoids performance trade-offs, and emphasize governance of artificial insemination and supply-chain segregation as levers to limit inadvertent allele diffusion while supporting climate-relevant genetic resources in locally adapted breeds. Collectively, the reviewed evidence suggests that A1/A2 β-casein can be usefully interpreted within a One Health framework spanning animal genetics, dairy systems and human tolerance research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development)

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17 pages, 1412 KB

Open AccessReview

Roles of Tight Junction Proteins in Intestinal Barrier Function and Health of Weaned Piglets: A Review

by Shijia Zhang, Guosheng Zhang, Jiqiu Xu, Danni Chen, Chenggang Yin, Jing Wang, Xianren Jiang and Chengwei Wang

Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(2), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13020131 - 29 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1317

Abstract

Growth stagnation or weight loss is prevalent in weaned piglets, with post-weaning diarrhea severely compromising intestinal health, underscoring the criticality of intestinal structural integrity for preventing digestive disorders. Tight junction proteins (TJPs), core components of intestinal intercellular junctions, play indispensable roles in maintaining barrier function, nutrient absorption, and intestinal homeostasis by regulating paracellular permeability and mediating immune defense-related signaling pathways. Dysregulated TJP expression disrupts these processes and impairs piglet growth performance. Despite recent progress in characterizing TJP-mediated regulation of intestinal health in weaned piglets, key knowledge gaps remain regarding the specific regulatory mechanisms by which distinct TJP subtypes modulate intestinal microbiota–immune crosstalk. Future research should prioritize elucidating the effects of nutritional interventions on TJP expression and intestinal health, as well as the molecular mechanisms underlying TJP involvement in intestinal diseases. These efforts will provide theoretical support for developing novel feed additives and nutritional strategies to improve weaned piglet health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development)

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22 pages, 1956 KB

Open AccessReview

Host-Microbe Interactions: Understanding the Mechanism of Autophagy in Viral Replication and Immune Evasion

by Ziyuan Fu, Xiaowen Li, A. M. Abd El-Aty, Ridvan Yagan, Xianghong Ju and Yanhong Yong

Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(12), 1200; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12121200 - 15 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1527

Abstract

Autophagy is a highly conserved catabolic process in eukaryotic cells that maintains cellular homeostasis by degrading damaged or superfluous intracellular components. Autophagy plays a dual, paradoxical role during viral infection. However, for most viruses, the induction of autophagy provides a favorable intracellular environment for the full completion of their life cycles. Most viruses that benefit from autophagy adopt a “regulate but not destroy” strategy, i.e., they initiate the autophagic process while suppressing their immune system through mechanisms such as blocking autophagosome-lysosome fusion. This allows them to avoid self-elimination while redirecting other functions of the autophagic machinery—for instance, utilizing autophagy-derived structures such as autophagosomes and double-membrane vesicles (DMVs) as specialized sites for viral genome replication, particle assembly, and maturation. The maintenance of cellular homeostasis by autophagy is crucial for the establishment of viral infection, as it provides a viable cellular microenvironment for viral replication; after infection occurs, inhibiting the degradative function of autophagy becomes a key strategy for viruses. Although canonical degradative autophagy exerts a negative effect on most viruses, redirected nondegradative autophagic structures and repurposed autophagic mechanisms are essential for the efficient replication of various viruses. In-depth analysis of this dynamic virus-autophagy interplay will provide important insights for elucidating virus-host interactions and developing autophagy-targeted antiviral strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intestinal Homeostasis and Its Regulatory Role in Animal Growth and Development)

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