Design Strategies for Building-Integrated Photovoltaics in High-Rise Buildings: A Systematic Review

Abstract

This systematic review examined the use of building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPVs) in high-rise buildings, focusing on early-stage design strategies to enhance energy performance. With limited rooftop space in tall buildings, façades offer a promising alternative for solar energy generation. Using the PRISMA framework, 41 articles were synthesized to identify key parameters influencing the effectiveness of BIPV systems. This included environmental and urban contexts, building form and orientation, façade configuration, and typology-specific characteristics for residential, office, and mixed-use buildings. The findings highlight the importance of integrating BIPV from the earliest stages of the design process. Local climate and latitude guide optimal façade orientation and form, while module efficiency can be improved with ventilation, air gaps, and appropriate spacing. Urban density, site placement, and shading patterns also significantly affect overall energy output. Podiums and multifaceted building forms enhance solar exposure and reduce self-shading, while building height, orientation, and spacing further influence BIPV potential. Different building types require tailored strategies to balance energy generation, daylight, and architectural quality. Finally, the review identified research gaps and proposed future directions to support architects, designers, and urban planners in effectively incorporating photovoltaic systems into high-rise building design.

1. Introduction

As urbanization accelerates and over 55% of the world’s population lives in urban areas, cities face increasing pressure to accommodate growing populations within limited land areas [1]. By 2050, urban population is expected to increase to 68%, driven by population growth and the migration of people from rural to urban regions [1]. In response, cities are incorporating higher density and vertical expansion in urban development, making high-rise buildings a defining feature of modern cityscapes [2]. High-rise buildings are typically defined as multi-story structures with an occupied floor or roof located more than 23 m above the lowest level of fire department vehicle access. This can usually be buildings with more than seven stories, depending on the floor-to-floor height [3]. The scale and complexity of these buildings results in high energy demands, particularly for cooling, heating, lighting, and ventilation systems [4]. Consequently, enhancing the energy efficiency of high-rise buildings presents a significant opportunity for reducing buildings’ overall energy use and environmental footprint [5], which are responsible for approximately 36% of total final energy use and contribute nearly 39% of energy-related carbon dioxide emissions [6].

Energy efficiency in buildings refers to balancing all aspects of the building’s energy use by an optimized mix of passive design measures, efficient equipment, and integrated renewable sources of energy [7]. There is growing emphasis on harnessing solar energy as a key step toward concepts like zero-energy buildings, aligning with global efforts to achieve net zero emissions by 2050 [6,8]. In high-rise buildings, research has similarly identified the key parameters, including the design of the building envelope, building form, its orientation, and its height, along with ventilation strategies, carbon emissions, integration of renewable energy systems, and occupant behavior [5]. High-rise buildings, with their expansive façade area exposed to solar radiation, offer a valuable opportunity to utilize solar energy to contribute to its high energy demand. One of the promising strategies in this regard involves the application of BIPVs, as roof space is limited and vertical surface is more prevalent. BIPV modules are available in a range of colors, shapes, and transparency levels, which often come at the cost of reduced electrical efficiency. These customizations offer the possibility to either emphasize the PV cells as a design feature or integrate them subtly to improve the overall aesthetic and visual cohesion of the system within the building design [9]. As illustrated in Figure 1, BIPV products may be incorporated into different components of a building, such as roofs, façades, and external devices using a variety of semi-transparent modules and cladding systems [10].

The performance of BIPV modules depends on both the type of photovoltaic cell technology and on the design characteristics that determine how they integrate with the building envelope [11]. As building components, BIPV systems must be weather-proof and capable of withstanding rain, thermal stress, and wind loads. Further performance considerations include seismic loads, mechanical stability, acoustic insulation, and thermochemical and electrical degradation. Along with the module orientation, tilt angle, transparency, and method of integration for the BIPV systems. Together, these factors directly influence the building’s energy efficiency, daylighting, thermal comfort, visual quality, and envelope performance [12,13,14]. BIPV technologies have evolved through successive generations of photovoltaics. The first generation, based on crystalline silicon wafer cells, was primarily used for roofing and cladding. This was followed by more flexible systems based on thin-film PVs, which comprised the second generation of PV technology. Among these, amorphous silicon (a-Si) is frequently chosen for its ability to withstand environmental stress. The third PV generation includes the use of materials like perovskite, quantum dot solar cells (QDSCs), organic photovoltaics (OPV), dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC), as well as copper zinc tin sulfide (CZTS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) [10,11]. These technological advancements have broadened the scope of BIPV applications to include façades and other components of the building envelope [10,15].

Existing research has investigated the different available and advancing technologies, types of BIPV products, integration methods for buildings, or retrofitting approach for existing buildings [4,16,17]. Although there is a growing focus on façade integration into building envelopes, the focus has largely been limited to technological aspects and energy performance [17]. For example, Riaz et al. [18], in their review, discussed the potential of PV systems for both electricity and thermal energy generation when integrated into building façades. The review primarily focused on studies conducted at a small scale or involving low-rise buildings. Zhou & Herr [19] discussed the specific challenges associated with the application of BIPVs in high-rise buildings focusing primarily on system optimization and technical performance evaluation [19]. Vassiliades et al. [20] in their review moved beyond the typical focus on energy performance to examine the architectural integration possibilities of active solar systems. They identified BIPV systems as the most practical and cost-effective solution for planar, single-façade applications and categorized these systems based on geometry and façade application type. However, the study focused on buildings in general rather than specifically on high-rise buildings. This limits a broader, more holistic understanding of how building design factors, such as façade articulation, orientation, and architectural decision-making, affect the successful integration BIPVs in high- rise buildings.

With rising interest in this area of research, studies have explored the interaction between architectural design decisions and successful integration of BIPVs. Several studies have analyzed the solar potential of BIPVs across different building types and urban contexts, assessing how urban morphology and environmental conditions influence shading and energy performance [21,22,23]. Advanced analytical tools such as machine learning and parametric simulation have been employed to map façade-level solar potential and inform efficient module placement [24,25]. Façade systems represent another major area of investigation, encompassing double-skin and ventilated façades, curtain walls, and applications as cladding, spandrel panels, or part of glazing [26,27,28]. Studies have further examined how variations in façade geometry or projection influence energy yield [29]. The focus on façades in these investigations can be seen as a response to the characteristics of high-rise buildings, where limited roof area makes vertical surfaces a considerable opportunity for integrating BIPV systems. Research has also extended to shading components, integrating BIPV into elements such as overhangs and louvers to balance daylight access and visual comfort [30,31]. While adaptive systems have been explored to mitigate self-shading and enhance solar capture [32,33,34].

However, these insights remain scattered, and there is a lack of consolidated and comprehensive synthesis of the studies to guide architectural decision-making, particularly during the early design phase of high-rise buildings. Thus, the goal of this review is to critically analyze and synthesize existing literature on the incorporation of BIPVs in high-rise buildings. The paper adopts a design-oriented lens, aiming to examine architectural and design considerations, and to identify the factors that should guide early design decisions. In particular, the review considers the impact of environmental and urban context, façade composition, building form and orientation, configuration of building elements, and typology-specific characteristics for residential, office, mixed-use, and other common high-rise building types. The aim of this review is to discern key architecture parameters that impact BIPV integration in high-rise buildings, and to synthesize design considerations that can guide early-stage architectural decisions.

2. Materials and Methods

This study employed a systematic review approach to examine existing research on BIPVs in high-rise buildings, with a particular focus on architectural considerations in their design and integration. The systematic review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 framework using Scopus and Google Scholar and was not registered in any public registry. Considering the qualitative and design-oriented nature of the study, conventional statistical methods to avoid reporting bias were not applicable. Instead, this was mitigated through comprehensive searches across peer-reviewed journals using two major research databases to minimize selective reporting of studies.

A Boolean search string was developed to identify relevant literature on BIPVs in high-rise buildings. The search employed keywords such as “BIPV façades,” “high-rise buildings,” “energy-efficient design,” “solar energy,” and other related terms to ensure a comprehensive coverage of the topic. In the Scopus database, the specific search string applied was TITLE-ABS-KEY ((“high-rise buildings” OR “tall building” OR “skyscraper” OR “multi-story building”) AND (“building-integrated photovoltaic” OR “BIPV” OR “solar energy” OR “façade-integrated photovoltaic” OR “solar building envelope” OR “photovoltaic façade”)). This initial search yielded 255 documents. The Boolean terms were carefully chosen to capture studies addressing both BIPVs and high-rise buildings. Multiple synonyms and related phrases were included to account for variations in terminology across the literature, ensuring the results were both comprehensive and focused. Furthermore, a manual selection of relevant papers from Google Scholar was undertaken, increasing the total number of identified studies to 275.

To ensure the inclusion of up-to-date research, the first automatic exclusion criterion restricted the selection to documents published in English within the last ten years (2014–2025). This time frame was considered appropriate to capture recent advancements in the field of BIPVs while filtering out older studies that may no longer reflect present technologies or design practices. Applying this criterion reduced the pool to 188 documents. Subsequently, a second exclusion criterion was applied to focus exclusively on peer-reviewed journal articles, as these sources are generally regarded as more rigorous and reliable. As a result, conference papers, book chapters, editorials, and other non-journal publications were excluded, since they often provide preliminary findings or less comprehensive discussions. After applying this criterion, the dataset was further refined, leaving 87 documents considered suitable for full-text review and analysis.

After the initial selection stage, a manual abstract screening was conducted to verify the relevance of each document to research objectives. Only studies meeting all inclusion criteria were advanced for full-text review and thematic analysis. The exclusion process was based on the following criteria: (1) documents that did not address BIPVs or solar energy systems; (2) studies without a clear focus on high-rise building applications; (3) research outside the study scope, such as stand-alone photovoltaic systems, low-rise buildings, or policy-only analyses; and (4) papers that concentrated primarily on technological or engineering aspects without considering architectural integration. This procedure ensured inclusion of only the most relevant literature, resulting in 41 documents for detailed examination (Figure 2). Additionally, multiple studies were reviewed to provide a theoretical background on BIPVs. A list of the reviewed studies is shown in

Table 1. Articles included in the review.

No.	Citation	Year	Scope of Study	Building Type	Location
1.	Evola & Margani [35]	2016	Energy and cost analysis of BIPV integration in apartment renovation	Residential	Italy
2.	Agathokleous & Kalogirou [36]	2016	Thermal performance and design review of double-skin façades with BIPV	Not applicable	Not applicable
3.	Betancur [26]	2017	BIPV integration combined with passive solar control in high-rise curtain wall façades	Office	South Korea
4.	Athienitis et al. [37]	2018	Energy and thermal impact of façade BIPV/T systems	Office	Italy
5.	Gao et al. [33]	2018	Photovoltaic window systems and adaptive shading for daylight and energy management	Not Applicable	China
6.	Hachem-Vermette [38]	2018	Influence of multi-story building envelope designs on energy and photovoltaic performance	Residential	Canada
7.	Chen et al. [39]	2019	Effects of façade design and urban context on integrated photovoltaics in commercial buildings	Commercial	Hongkong
8.	Yang et al. [40]	2019	Optimization of building and BIPV configurations for maximizing solar energy generation	Commercial	China
9.	Shirazi et al. [41]	2019	Prioritized energy, economic, and carbon performance of PV installation in urban areas	Not Applicable	Iran
10.	Goncalves et al. [42]	2019	BIPV performance across climates, orientations, and temperatures.	Office	Multiple
11.	Mendis et al. [43]	2020	Optimized BIPV façades in tropical climates for energy and cost effectiveness	Office	Sri Lanka
12.	Barman et al. [44]	2021	Relationship between BIPV façade placement and environmental impact	Institutional	Bangladesh
13.	Gholami & Røstvik [45]	2021	Climatic effect on incident radiation and different BIPV technology	Not Applicable	Multiple
14.	Fathi & Kavoosi [46]	2021	Photovoltachromic windows and effective window-to-wall ratios for application	Office	Iran
15.	Sun et al. [23]	2021	Tool for feasible BIPV application considering aesthetic and solar potential	All Types	Singapore
16.	Xiang & Matusiak [29]	2022	Design strategies for holistic balanced application of FIPV in balconies	Residential	Norway
17.	Bezaatpour et al. [47]	2022	Effect of wind loads on BIPV module temperature and performance in façades	Unspecified	Belgium
18.	An et al. [48]	2023	Solar energy potential and economic viability across residential area morphology types	Residential	China
19.	Feng et al. [49]	2023	Net zero target for residential buildings with BIPV façades across climate zones	Residential	Multiple
20.	Rababah et al. [50]	2023	Influence of dense urban context characteristics on vertical façade solar energy potential	Unspecified	Malyaia
21.	Zhao & Gou [24]	2023	Role of urban block types in BIPV potential within mixed-use neighborhoods	Not Applicable	Australia
22.	Hamzah & Go [51]	2023	BIPV design and performance for iconic tropical buildings, balancing energy, and aesthetics.	Mixed-Use	Malyaia
23.	Safavi & Khoshbakht [27]	2024	Energy and cost assessment of STPV and TPV solar façades in semi-arid climates	Residential	Iran
24.	El Samanoudy et al. [28]	2024	BIPV application and energy savings in high-rise office buildings	Office	UAE
25.	Riantini et al. [52]	2024	Effect of envelope renovation and PV integration on hotel energy use	Hotel	Indonesia
26.	Al-Rashidy & Azooz [53]	2024	Performance and feasibility of vertical PV integration	Not Applicable	Multiple
27.	Susan & Bin Zakaria [54]	2024	Evaluation of transparent BIPV application for net zero target in tropical regions	Institutional	Indonesia
28.	Ito & Lee [55]	2024	Flexible PV-integrated shading devices for energy generation and daylight access	Not Applicable	Japan
29.	Bezaatpour et al. [56]	2024	Effect of wind on energy yield of high-rise PV façades	Not Applicable	Belgium
30.	Ito & Lee [32]	2024	Adjustable PV louvers for improved solar energy capture	Office	Japan
31.	Yifan et al. [21]	2024	Urban photovoltaic potential and its distribution across building types, façades, and plots	Not Applicable	China
32.	Tao et al. [25]	2024	Impact of building layout and density on solar irradiance and façade PV placement	Commercial	Hongkong
33.	Li et al. [57]	2025	Spatial variation in solar energy on urban building façades	All Types	USA
34.	Chi & Wu [31]	2025	Integrated solar and passive cooling strategies to support energy-efficient building design.	Residential	China
35.	Wang et al. [34]	2025	Maximizing energy efficiency of high-rise façades using adjustable PV shading systems	Residential	Hongkong
36.	Xu et al. [58]	2025	Combined BIPV façade wall and shading application, and their design effects	Residential	Hongkong
37.	Amini et al. [59]	2025	Optimizing façade-integrated PV systems for energy, cost, and environmental performance	Office	Iran
38.	Lee & Ito [30]	2025	Design of airflow-integrated PV shading devices for building façades	Not Applicable	Japan
39.	Yu et al. [60]	2025	Feasibility and performance evaluation of BIPV for sustainable urban energy systems	Not Applicable	China
40.	Wang et al. [22]	2025	High-rise building configurations for maximum photovoltaic potential	Residential	Hongkong
41.	Hu et al. [61]	2025	Aesthetic and energy considerations of semi-transparent PV curtain walls	Office	China

.

3. Findings and Discussion

This section presents the main findings from the reviewed studies on BIPVs in high-rise buildings. Through a synthesis of existing literature, the review highlights the key factors that influence early design decisions and their significance for successful integration. The findings are organized thematically to provide a structured understanding of how different functional building typologies interact with various integration strategies. This organization also reveals the relationships between building characteristics, integration approaches, and their practical outcomes.

3.1. State of the Reviewed Literature

Figure 3 presents the distribution of the reviewed studies by year of publication, climatic context, and high-rise building typology. The selected studies span ten years, from 2016 to 2025, with a total of forty-one publications. The frequency of the research topic shows modest interest between 2016 and 2022, with only one to four relevant studies published per year. A marked increase in the published papers can be observed from 2023 onwards, when the publications reached ten studies in 2024 and nine studies have been identified from 2025, which is yet to conclude. Together, these two years account for nearly half, 46%, of the total reviewed literature. The surge in research on BIPV in high-rise buildings, highlights the increasing significance and growing scholarly attention in contemporary research.

According to Koppen classification system, climate zones can largely be divided into five types. The distribution of the studies across Koppen climate categories shows that the temperate climates accounts for the largest share, representing 49 percent of the cases. Tropical regions represent 18 percent of the studies, followed by dry climates. The research is limited in Continental climates, accounting for about 10 percent. And the polar regions are excluded as, largely, they are not representative of typical urban context. Whereas 10 percent of the studies are based in multiple cities and therefore consider the effects of multiple climate types. This indicates that the research, in the field of BIPVs in high-rise buildings, is concentrated primarily in temperate contexts, with comparatively less attention to other climate types.

As for the distribution of building typologies examined in the reviewed studies, several studies included cases where the focus was broader than a single building. However, 31% of the reviewed studies that considered a single building focused on the integration of BIPV in residential buildings, followed by 27% for offices. Institutional and commercial buildings are represented in 9% of the studies, while the remaining constitute of hotels and mixed-use buildings appearing only in 3% of the reviewed articles. Studies that did not specify the building type make up 18%. Overall, residential and office buildings received greatest research interest, reflecting their prominence as primary contexts for BIPV application in high-rise architecture.

3.2. Influential Factors for BIPVs Utilization

High-rise buildings are typically situated in dense urban settings. The potential for façade-integrated photovoltaic systems often far exceeds that of rooftop PV installations, due to the extensive surface area of façades compared to roofs, which are frequently occupied by utility and service systems. A review of existing studies reveals key themes that are critical when designing BIPV systems in high-rise buildings. These include external and environmental influences, urban context, location-specific factors, climatic conditions, and the building’s form and orientation. Recognizing and considering these overarching themes provides a foundation for assessing solar exposure, energy performance, and the feasibility of BIPV integration in complex urban environments. Understanding these external and environmental influences and their relationship to building design, is an important first step in evaluating how photovoltaic systems can be effectively incorporated into tall buildings (Figure 4).

3.2.1. Location, Climate, and Environmental Context

The location of a high-rise building is a primary determinant of its climate conditions, which in turn affect the performance of building-integrated photovoltaic systems. Local environmental factors, such as solar irradiation, cloud cover, temperature, and wind, influence the energy output, thermal performance, and long-term efficiency of BIPV installations. For instance, Barman et al. [44], in an analysis of environmental factors affecting BIPVs in high-rise buildings, investigated the cloud shadow impact for a model building in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Both the rooftop (horizontal) and façade (vertical) placements were investigated. Cloud presence led to a reduction in performance of the panels on the rooftop by 30% in comparison to 26% for the façade-mounted. The study also highlighted the importance of façade-integrated PV to be a valuable consideration. Therefore, in regions with frequent cloud cover or diffuse-light conditions, façade-integrated photovoltaic systems may offer more stable performance than rooftop installations, making their consideration particularly relevant for high-rise buildings in humid or tropical climates.

Another study demonstrated the effect of climate, focusing on the efficiency of different BIPV technologies. BIPVs like DSSC and organic SC are more affected by climatic variation than other technologies like c-Si and CIGS. This is because different technologies have different spectral responses. In regions where overcast conditions are common and diffuse radiation is higher, devices that rely on Infrared (IR) radiation, will experience a significant drop in efficiency. According to this, DSSC and Organic SC-based BIPV systems could have a more stable performance, even though other technologies have better efficiency [26,45].

Simulations performed on typical office buildings in different locations with five types of climates revealed that c-Si BIPV yield is significantly dependent on the plane of array-POA (of the BIPV module) irradiation [42]. Although in places like Riyadh, despite the higher average global irradiance compared to other places, the BIPV yield on vertical surfaces is lower due to location latitude and its relationship with façade orientation. In lower-latitude locations, using east and west façades alongside the southern façade can help balance annual energy yield. Overheating of BIPV modules can also lead to reduced efficiency. So, places with lower BIPV temperatures due to wind effect, and relatively high solar irradiation, have better performance ratios. Architectural strategies, such as spacing BIPV modules from the façade or incorporating ventilated façade systems, can promote airflow to reduce overheating and improve performance.

Latitude plays a critical role in determining the solar potential and performance of building-integrated photovoltaic systems. Ito & Lee [32] showed that PV-integrated shading systems are more beneficial in warmer, lower-latitude regions and less effective in colder, higher-latitude areas. Solar shading louvers most effectively reduced cooling loads by 1500 MJ/y in mid- and low-latitude cities such as Nagoya and Naha, but increased heating loads by 18,000 MJ/y in high-latitude Sapporo. Similarly, Mendis et al. [43] in their study on horizontal PV-integrated shading system, showed that high solar elevation angle, typical in low-latitude regions, reduces the solar radiation intensity on vertical façades. Feng et al. [49] calculated PV potential of residential buildings across several cities in China. In high-latitude cities, south façades capture the highest solar irradiation of 83.8% relative to other façades, making them the best option after rooftops, while east and west façades are secondary, and north façades are only suitable in low-irradiation or frequently cloudy areas. In contrast, for low-latitude cities, the difference in irradiation between façades is smaller ranging from 47 to 59.9%, so east, west, and even north façades can contribute meaningfully, though rooftops remain optimal.

The performance of BIPV systems is further influenced by solar azimuth angles and diffuse radiation, which vary with latitude. Al-Rashidy & Azooz [53] studied the effectiveness of PV in façades of residential buildings in several cities across the globe, when installed at optimum tilt angles. At latitudes above 45 degrees, vertical PV modules can achieve 80–90% of the optimum energy output. And in some cases, even surpass the rooftop module output. This is due to smaller winter azimuth angles and higher levels of diffuse radiation. As a result, in locations higher than 55-degree latitude, the PV modules can be installed completely flat vertically. In mid-latitude regions, vertical façade output ranges from 60 to 80%. Although cities near the equator have high solar incident radiation, they achieve only about 50% output due to higher sun azimuth angle. Yu et al. [60] on evaluating BIPV potential across multiple climates in China, found that solar irradiation peaks near the equator and decreases toward higher latitudes. Façade-integrated PV systems are particularly sensitive to latitude variations. Therefore, effective BIPV integration should account not only for latitude and longitude but also for the influence of a city’s topography.

Overall, these findings highlight that latitude- and location-specific solar conditions are fundamental considerations for the design and placement of BIPV systems (

Table 2. Climate and latitude design implications for BIPV.

Climate/Latitude	Key Climate Considerations	Design/Performance Implications
Tropical/Low-latitude	High solar irradiation, frequent cloud cover, high temperatures	All façades can be utilized for energy generation. Prefer diffuse-light-tolerant technologies (DSSC, organic SC). Incorporate ventilated façades to reduce overheating and integrate shading systems. Consider mid-range tilt angles (15–45°). Rooftops are slightly better than façades; high sun azimuth reduces vertical façade output. Utilize horizontal overhangs or kinetic louvers.
Temperate/Mid-latitude	Moderate solar irradiation, seasonal variation	Prioritize south façades; use east/west moderately. Select c-Si and CIGS technologies. Spacing or tilt optimization improves annual energy yield; shading systems reduce cooling loads. Vertical placement can be considered for energy output (60-80%)
High-latitude/Cold	Low sun elevation, frequent overcast, seasonal extremes	South façades capture most irradiation (83.8%); east/west secondary; north façades useful in cloudy areas. c-Si and CIGS preferred. Vertical modules reach 80–90% of optimum output, may surpass rooftop; flat vertical placement is viable; consider heating load trade-offs.

). Façade orientation, module tilt, and technology selection must be tailored to local solar angles, diffuse radiation, and climatic patterns to maximize energy generation. Accounting for these factors ensures that high-rise buildings can effectively exploit both façade and rooftop surfaces, optimizing the overall performance of integrated photovoltaic systems.

3.2.2. Urban Context

The site selection of the building and the setback considerations can impact the efficiency of the design, especially in higher density urban areas. The presence of surrounding buildings and vegetation needs to be taken into consideration. An assessment by Sun et al. [23] examined BIPV installations on building surfaces in a densely packed environment, and investigated its visual appeal. The study found that the façades higher up on the building, compared to being nearer to the ground, were less likely to be shaded by the surroundings, and therefore had more solar exposure. The urban environment had a significant impact on maximizing the benefits of BIPV as the power generation can vary when accounting for urban context from the stand-alone assessment, with reductions of up to 79%. An et al. [48] conducted a numerical modeling study evaluating the influence of urban morphology on solar radiation received by buildings in four residential neighborhoods in China. Although façades received less solar radiation than roofs, south-oriented façades demonstrated significant potential for photovoltaic integration. The most optimum façade direction is dependent on the location of the project.

Shirazi et al. [41] in a techno-economic analysis for BIPV potential in a model dense urban area in Tehran, investigated the optimization of both rooftop- and façade-integrated PVs considering shading and location characteristics. Two models were studied: single building scale (modeled as a rectangular façade surface) and on multiple buildings for evaluation on an urban scale. Optimizing for appropriate tilt angle can significantly contribute to improved energy production on each available façade. On an urban scale, surfaces should be assessed for their potential and to minimize shading from surrounding buildings, including partial shading of the panels. This must be implemented along with optimum angles of installation. The placement of the building within the site should be carefully evaluated. As high-rise buildings tend to be built in dense urban contexts, façade exposure to sunlight can be greatly affected. Therefore, proper spacing should be considered in relation to surrounding buildings. Rababah et al. [50] investigated the impact of surrounding buildings with varying heights on a twenty-story building. The study concluded that a separation distance of forty meters is sufficient to increase solar exposure and improve energy generation of the BIPV façades, even if the building is surrounded by taller structures. Similarly, Zhao & Gou [24] analyzed mixed-use neighborhood urban blocks with varying density and height. It was discovered that, in Australia, even though high-rise buildings in a high-density context are not ideal in terms of reduced solar potential due to mutual shading, commercial building façades could achieve 28% of demand.

In situations where shading is unavoidable, it is important to consider the type of shadow, as it can significantly influence BIPV performance. Gao et al. [33] demonstrated that BIPV windows are less affected by diffuse shading compared to complete shadows of similar size, indicating that partial or scattered shading may have a smaller impact on energy generation than fully obstructive shadows. This distinction is critical for designing high-rise façades in dense urban environments, where varying shadow patterns from neighboring structures are common. Additionally, upper floors generally receive higher levels of solar radiation compared to lower floors, which are more likely to be shaded by surrounding buildings or vegetation. In BIPV applications, the viability and efficiency are largely shaped by the characteristics of the urban context. Factors such as building density, site placement, surrounding structures, and shading patterns directly affect solar exposure and energy yield. By carefully analyzing urban morphology and considering both complete and diffuse shading, designers can optimize façade orientation, spacing, and PV placement, ensuring that BIPV systems achieve maximum efficiency.

3.2.3. Building Form, Shape, and Orientation

Building form, shape, and orientation have long been studied for their influence on energy performance, not only in high-rise buildings but across building typologies. These factors have been proven to impact the energy performance in high-rise buildings [5]. These factors are equally important when integrating photovoltaic systems, as they affect solar accessibility, shading, and overall energy generation. Chen et al. [39] investigated the PV-integrated envelope of a reference commercial building model, focusing on building shape, size, urban context, and loads generated internally. The shape of the building plan was shown to not have much influence on optimizing the PV envelope. Different plan shapes with the same area were assessed, such as rectangle, square, etc. Floor plans in the form of L, U, T, and H shapes tended to experience self-shading. However, they have a high shape coefficient, defined as the relationship between the outer surface area and the enclosed volume of the air-conditioned space. This results in higher energy saving potential and increased PV energy generation despite the self-shading effect.

The integration of PVs in high-rise building rooftops and podium roofs was studied by optimizing the shape and orientation of the building and podium [40]. The study investigated the impact of building self-shadow on BIPVs by varying parameters such as the height of installation, tilt angle, spacing, and system arrangement in Shanghai, China. It found that circular and square buildings have the best sunlight distribution for the placement of PV on the podium roof. U-shaped podium buildings were found to have the best sunlight exposure regardless of the high-rise building shape. Orientation considerations were explored by Amini et al. [59]. They examined BIPV façade systems as wall panels and overhang modules for a high-rise building in Tehran. The findings showed that all façades and overhangs, including northern ones, should have PV panels; PV panel type should be selected per surface based on solar irradiation, with high-efficiency panels on sunlit sides and low-cost, low-efficiency panels on shaded sides. Moreover, for buildings in Tehran, optimal BIPV solutions favor façades oriented toward the cardinal directions that receive more consistent and maximized solar exposure throughout the day and year. Further, Evola & Margani [35] emphasized that similar specifications cannot be applied as a rule for the same building typology with a different orientation. As buildings oriented in a N-S direction require more PV surface than those oriented E-W.

High-rise buildings are subjected to significant wind loads. As building height increases, challenges related to wind loads, structural vibration, and movement become more significant. Variations in wind exposure and airflow across various levels of the building can lead to uneven cooling, causing differences in panel temperature that affect energy output. Bezaatpour et al. [47] explored the impact of wind loads on BIPV on the façades of mid-rise and high-rise buildings. The study highlighted that module performance can vary across the façade, considering the placement on the edges and corners of the building or the center. The convective heat losses occur more on the edges and corners of the building, allowing modules to have higher electrical efficiency. In contrast, modules in the middle and lower sections of the building experience highest wind loads, which are greater in high rises, reaching up to 140 N. In a further study, Bezaatpour et al. [56] assessed BIPV/T systems on different façades of high-rise building, showing that wind conditions significantly affect their performance. CFD simulations revealed that the leeward façade generated more electricity, while the windward and lateral façades were better suited for thermal energy storage. The study also showed that low wind speeds enhance thermal storage and efficiency, while higher wind speeds increase heat loss and lower energy output. Lee and Ito [30] studied vertical PV louvers with ventilation openings at the top and bottom, allowing airflow around the modules. When installed at a greater height above the ground, the system achieved higher energy generation, with performance further enhanced when the louvers were set at the optimal tilt angle.

The placement of photovoltaic modules on different façades and roof surfaces must be carefully considered, as building form, orientation, and local environmental conditions directly influence solar exposure and energy generation. An investigation was conducted on the potential of various colored BIPV systems for use in high-rise buildings located in Malaysia’s tropical climate [51]. For the particular location, the most feasible applications were found to be the rooftop, followed by east and west façades. Upon conducting a return on investment (ROI) analysis, the west façade was not a feasible option as the ROI was negative. Optimal angles of 10 degrees for the roof and 60 degrees for the façades were revealed through a sensitivity analysis of the module tilt angle.

The reviewed studies demonstrate that building form, shape, and orientation can influence the effectiveness of BIPV systems in high-rise buildings. While the plan shape has a limited impact on solar potential, architectural features such as podium configurations, façade articulation, and surface distribution strongly affect sunlight accessibility and self-shading patterns. Cardinal orientation of façades generally provides the most consistent solar exposure, although optimal placement varies with local climate, latitude, and environmental conditions. Wind loads and height-dependent variations in airflow further affect module performance, underscoring the importance of site-specific design. Ultimately, effective BIPV integration in high-rise buildings requires a coordinated approach that considers building geometry, façade orientation, environmental conditions, and module placement to maximize energy generation while maintaining economic feasibility.

3.3. Integration Strategies of BIPV in Different Building Types

High-rise buildings exhibit a wide range of architectural features that directly influence BIPVs integration [62,63]. Residential towers often include overhangs, balconies, solid façade sections, and recessed window areas, which provide surfaces suitable for thin PV strips, semi-flexible modules, or opaque panels, allowing energy generation without affecting views or usability. Commercial high rises frequently feature extensive curtain wall systems, spandrel panels, and rooftop terraces, making them ideal for semi-transparent PV modules, opaque façade panels, and roof-mounted PV membranes. Mixed-use towers combine these elements with podiums, atriums, canopies, and sky gardens, creating additional opportunities for PV skylights, balustrade-integrated modules, and shading devices. Some examples in this regard are presented in Figure 5.

Empirical studies further illustrate the influence of building type on PV potential. Yifan et al. [21] assessed the solar potential variability in different urban areas located in Xinghualing district of China. The results showed that land plots with multi-story residential buildings had the highest potential of energy generation. In the context of high-rise development, it is iterated that the PV potential largely lies in façade integration as plots with office buildings accounting for 100% and 54% in context of residential towers. This variation is observed due to different building types having differing requirements for daylight. Office buildings, which often prioritize consistent natural illumination to support productivity and reduce reliance on artificial lighting during working hours, demonstrate a significantly higher potential for window-integrated PVs reaching about 68 percent. In contrast, residential buildings, where daylight use patterns are more irregular and privacy considerations limit window area, show a much lower potential around 10 percent.

Architectural variations such as twisting, curved, or setback towers require flexible or custom-shaped PV modules to match non-planar surfaces while maintaining the intended aesthetic. Sunshades, louvers, and vertical fins can incorporate PV shading devices that simultaneously reduce solar heat gain and generate electricity. Contemporary design trends, including high window-to-wall ratios, double-skin façades, multifunctional envelopes, and adaptive shading systems, explicitly determine the selection, placement, and type of BIPV products, ensuring that energy generation, daylighting, thermal performance, and visual coherence are fully optimized in the building design. Addressing these characteristics helps in identifying factors specific to the building typology that influence the integration of BIPVs. For example, Riantini et al. [52] conducted a study to enhance the energy efficiency of a high-rise hotel in Jakarta, Indonesia, in the context of renovation scenarios. Along with enhancing the roof and envelope with insulation, BIPV integration was compared both as curtain wall and as double-skin façade. The findings showed that implementing BIPV as double-skin façade achieved 8.6% EUI, performing better compared to curtain wall system. This is mainly due to reduction in the cooling demands, by the shading effects of the double-skin façade. Therefore, to maximize the potential of PV systems, distinctive design strategies need to be explored and optimized in the early planning stage.

3.3.1. BIPV in High-Rise Residential Buildings

Residential high-rise buildings present unique challenges and opportunities for photovoltaic integration due to their scale, function, and urban context. They often consist of multiple towers arranged in clusters, with varying heights and orientations to accommodate light, views, and ventilation for occupants. This clustering affects solar access, as towers can mutually shade each other, particularly in dense urban areas. Wang et al. [22] assessed the photovoltaic potential of different residential building clusters representing the urban morphology of Hong Kong. Among the configurations examined were tower-only developments and mixed-use complexes combining towers with podiums. A north-high, south-low height gradient was found to be favorable, with central open spaces further enhancing solar access. Dispersed or staggered high-rise layouts also reduced mutual shading, thereby improving energy performance in dense urban blocks. Optimized cluster designs achieved rooftop and façade gains of up to 8–9% and 22–23%, respectively. Optimized designs consistently achieved higher geographical and technological PV potential than larger continuous building surfaces, which do not automatically maximize output due to overshadowing and orientation constraints.

BIPV louvers and shading devices are widely studied for residential applications, particularly in hot climates where they can reduce heat gain and glare. They can also provide screening benefits; however, in primary living spaces they may obstruct views and limit daylight, making them less suitable. Fixed louvers have these limitations, while adjustable or kinetic systems can balance daylight access, solar control, and energy generation. In regions with limited sunlight, louvers may block valuable natural light, making alternatives such as semi-transparent PV panels or façade-integrated glazing more appropriate.

Wang et al. [34] addressed the problem of PV shades or louvers obstructing daylight by designing a kinetic PV shading device (PVSD) to be installed above windows, tilting along the wall to avoid obstructing views in Hong Kong. Maintaining a panel width-to-spacing ratio below 1:10 was found to prevent vertical shading between adjacent PVSDs. On overcast days, the panels can lie flush against the wall to maximize daylight. Among control strategies, real-time hourly adjustment achieved the highest energy savings (36.5%), followed by monthly adjustment (31.9%), and a fixed optimal angle (25%). In contrast, fixed PV shades can lose up to 67% of potential energy output due to self-shading effects. Similarly, Chi and Wu [31] developed a dynamic sun-tracking photovoltaic louver with radiative cooling for residential buildings in China, aiming to provide shading without glare. The design combines three passive strategies: shading, thermal insulation, and radiative cooling, with shading being the most effective for energy efficiency as the study reports that the building’s overall energy efficiency improves by 26.9 percent. The air gap between the louvers and the window acts as insulation at night when the louvers are closed and flat.

Considering BIPV as a second skin of the building is beneficial as it can allow for passive cooling of the modules and allows for better performance of the system. For example, Safavi and Khoshbakht [27] considered solar thermophotovoltaics in the façade of residential buildings. On creating a 12mm air gap between the PV panels and the building façade, the heat emitted by the panels is much better controlled by allowing airflow. This enhances the module efficiency. Residential high-rise buildings are made up of stacked apartment units, each creating its own façade surface. This results in multiple vertical surfaces. These multiple façades are punctuated with window recesses and balcony projections for each unit resulting in a highly articulated, rather than flat, surface.

Combining the strategies of optimally tilted shading devices with the effective use of façade wall surfaces in residential buildings can maximize the potential for photovoltaic integration, expanding both shading and vertical applications. For instance, Xu et al. [58] investigated the application of colored BIPV wall panels and shading devices, testing their performance through regression analysis and parametric simulation models. The study found that wider spacing between shading elements increased solar radiation on lower panels, though beyond a certain distance the effect was negligible. PV shadings demonstrated higher energy efficiency than solar walls due to improved solar incidence and module efficiency; however, excessive shading reduced available wall area and total energy output, emphasizing the need for geometric optimization. Achieving a 70% energy harvesting threshold required a tilt of 61–63°, which reduced usable wall space, while a 50% threshold was identified as a more balanced solution that also supported aesthetic considerations. Obtaining an appropriate balance between aesthetics, energy efficiency, and occupant comfort requires detailed analysis of geometric proportions, panel tilt, and spatial arrangement. Such integration strategies must consider not only the technical optimization of energy harvesting but also the visual impact on the building envelope and the trade-off with available wall area.

A study [38] evaluated three variations in envelope design for a residential high rise in Canadian context. Using a high-performance planar façade as the benchmark, a multifaceted façade design was assessed for its performance. Results showed that having multifaceted or folded façade design (saw tooth, rectangular pyramid, triangular pyramid) did not affect the thermal performance of the building too much, while also increasing the potential for PV energy generation as it can provide a more optimally tilted surface for BIPV. Combining the façade design with building layouts that maximize south exposure can further improve energy generation. Further, a horizontal sawtooth façade for the south and vertical iteration for the east and west was found to be most effective.

Depending on their projection and orientation, balconies may shade portions of the façade, reducing the effectiveness of PV modules, or they may serve as suitable surfaces for panel installation if arranged thoughtfully. Xiang and Matusiak [29] considered the effect of incorporating architectural component like balconies and their potential for façade BIPV application in residential buildings. Cantilevered balconies can be considered for BIPV application. They tested different balcony configurations to figure out the optimum condition where the shade from the balcony has less impact on the other potential areas for BIPV application. For a Nordic climate, the results favored the side balconies over other arrangements like staggered and aligned on the southern façade where the solar potential is high. Moreover, the southern balconies received solar radiation comparable to the roof areas, and higher than the main southern façade.

3.3.2. BIPV in High-Rise Office Buildings

High-rise office buildings present specific architectural and design challenges for photovoltaic integration due to their façade typologies and functional requirements. BIPVs should be considered as part of the energy-efficient design of office buildings. High-rise office buildings achieve energy efficiency and comfort through strategies closely tied to their layout, form, and climate. In general, office buildings require ample natural light, with workstations often located near façades. They may feature open floor plans and can be designed either compactly or with more perforated layouts incorporating atria and courtyards [68,69].

Raji et al. [70] explained in a study that both active and passive ventilation strategies can significantly reduce cooling energy consumption of office buildings, particularly in temperate and sub-tropical climates. The performance of natural ventilation can be enhanced through architectural features such as central or peripheral atria and indoor sky gardens, which also allow daylight to penetrate deeper into the building plan. This can allow for more window BIPV integration. Fully glazed curtain walls are typical for offices. Hu et al. [61] demonstrated that integrating semi-transparent perovskite photovoltaic glass into high-rise curtain walls can reduce cooling energy use by 5.82% and generate electricity sufficient to meet 96.6% of lighting and heating demand. Compared to conventional Low-E glass, it offers superior daylight quality and glare control while being more cost-effective. A hybrid approach, with PV glass applied to upper levels and Low-E glass on lower levels, further reduces costs, while mixed façade strategies and optimized PV configurations can enhance performance. A study on the federation of Korean Industries head office highlighted how the 50-story building was designed to incorporate BIPV into the façade, right from the conceptual stage [26]. The process focused on balancing human comfort metrics alongside BIPV integration. The resulting custom curtain wall design featured a horizontal zig-zag design, where the upper part, inclined outward, housed the PV panel and the lower part, inclined inwards, provided daylight. The PV placement started beyond the 14th floor, considering shading effects.

Double-skin façades equipped with operable windows, ventilated cavities, and automated blinds are commonly used in sustainable office buildings usually in temperate climates. Athienitis et al. [37] investigated a ventilated façade BIPV/T in an office building focusing both on energy generation, consumption, and passive effects, in multiple climates across Europe. This allowed for the stack effect. For wintry weather, the system was able to reduce heating consumption along with improving electricity generation of the panels. Single and multiple air inlet options were evaluated. Multiple inlets proved to be more effective by reducing consumption by 2.5% and production up to 1%. This essentially creates a double-skin façade, which can be a potential way of retrofitting existing buildings. The two strategies of active and passive combined show immense potential for achieving zero-energy building targets.

Office designs in tropical climates may favor more compact forms, with a need to balance solar gain since energy demand can be higher than in other regions. Façade overhangs and limited window areas should be considered, meaning that opaque wall panels and overhangs can be effectively utilized for BIPVs in these cases. Amini et al. [37] explored multiple factors and their optimization for BIPV integration as wall panels or overhangs, from a technical and economical point of view for an office building. The design consisted of ribbon windows on the façade accounting for 36%. The examined decision variables included building orientation, overhang depth and angle, façade wall panel width, and PV panel type for each surface. In optimal configurations, the wall panels served as a layer of insulation, reducing the heating loads, although increasing cooling loads. This is compensated by the shading effect of the overhang panels which reduce annual cooling energy demand. The overhang panels also in effect prevented the wall panels form overheating. And, for instance, El Samanoudy et al. [28] focused on an energy efficiency high-rise office building with BIPV and window-to-wall ratio (WWR) of 80%. The strategies included replacing the curtain wall with thin-film Low-E PV glazing and substituting exterior wall panels with PV cladding, effectively reducing WWR to 40% and introducing a hybrid model. Using this approach, energy consumption was reduced by 13.2% and 32.8% for heating and cooling. Fathi and Kavoosi [46], in their study, found that using optimized WWR along with photovoltachromatic (BIPV with electro chromatics) windows can reduce energy consumption in high-rise office buildings by 10–20%. And optimal window size depends on climate cooling needs (CDD-cooling degree days) rather than city latitude.

Integrating PV in shading devices can have its own challenges. As the system may cause a self-shading effect on the PV modules, reducing the efficiency and power generation. Mendis et al. [43] studied integrated PV horizontal shading devices in an office building, with varying distance and length of panels, orientation, and tilt angles. Although spacing panels close to each other led to self-shading effect, it allowed for more installed panels resulting in higher generation, and reduction in building cooling loads due to passive effect. Wider placement allows for more solar exposure for each module. As for the tilt angles, a steeper setup led to better placement but compromised on natural light. Therefore, mid-range tilt angles (15–45 degrees) worked best for the tropical climate. Ito and Lee [55] used parametric modeling to optimize the design of flexible photovoltaic-integrated shading devices (louvers) for high-rise offices. The results featured cross section semi-circular curvature in the upper part and trapezoid elevation in the lower section. While the optimized results reduce cooling energy demand, the lighting energy consumption increases. Thereby, this kind of installation may not be suitable for residences or even offices. It may be more appropriate for building areas, or typologies which require controlled solar gain and rely more on artificial lighting.

However, static shading devices can reduce daylight penetration and outdoor visibility, increasing dependency on artificial lighting [71]. Ito and Lee [32] investigated an adjustable PV louver system with sun-tracking in offices. The results showed that installing horizontal compared to vertical adjustable louvers on south-facing windows is most effective for maximizing energy gains and reducing cooling loads. With horizontal louvers achieving 9.3% electricity generation compared to 7.3% of vertical louvers with respect to fixed installations. The model showed better performance than fixed shading models, but experienced self-shading caused losses in energy performance. This can be addressed by using sun-tracking blinds or louvers. For example, Gao et al. [33] developed an innovative sun-tracking PV shades model, having three-degree freedom of rotation. The proposed system was evaluated in multiple city climates, performing better than one or two degrees of freedom. Although these systems can be mechanically more complicated, it allows for optimization as energy generation improved by 27.4% and can allow for better daylight access without glare. Such dynamic installations can be particularly effective on office or mixed-use high rises with complex façade geometries, where PV-integrated shading devices adapt to varying angles.

3.3.3. BIPV in High-Rise Buildings: Commercial, Mixed-Use Buildings, and Others

As commercial and mixed-use buildings are typically located in urban city centers or densely developed areas, they are often surrounded by taller structures. These areas experience high energy demand due to intensive occupancy and continuous operational needs. This context emphasizes the need for carefully considered decisions, ensuring that solar exposure and daylighting are balanced while maximizing energy capture and maintaining the building’s functional and aesthetic qualities. It is possible that parts of the façade may be considered for BIPV application rather than the whole [8,72].

Li et al. [57] proposed a model to study the effects of contextual shading and solar radiation intensity on the façades of high-rise buildings. Using a novel spatial analysis model, the potential of New York City buildings was calculated. The study divided building façades into ten layers, allowing optimization of photovoltaic placement for improved energy efficiency and economic performance. The main findings suggest that due to high density, commercial districts have lower overall potential compared to lower-density areas. Solar radiation intensity increases with height, especially at the top layers, due to higher solar altitude angles and greater sky view factors. Even in high-density areas with lower overall potential, the upper façade layers exhibit high solar radiation intensity and should not be disregarded. Further elaborated by Tao et al. [25] who examined the impact of urban context on façade BIPV in commercial buildings. Due to shading from the surrounding context, the optimized results indicated that the BIPV panel necessitates strategic placement to balance both energy and economic viability. Their study considered both opaque and semi-transparent modules. The optimum solution favored a greater number of opaque panels than semi-transparent: 77 to 49. opaque modules were concentrated on the upper façade to maximize solar gain, while semi-transparent panels were installed in the lower sections to improve daylight penetration. The study also noted that this configuration may be inverted when the building is taller than adjacent structures.

In school and university buildings, classrooms are often arranged along a central corridor, and their configurations can lead to different façade-to-volume ratios. Susan and Bin Zakaria [54] analyzed school buildings in the tropics, with BITPV systems and their optimization in relation to varying classroom module configurations. The classrooms with 1:1 or 3:2 length-to-width ratios performed best when oriented towards east, receiving the highest solar irradiance. While classrooms with ratio of 2:3 performed better with north orientation, as it provides the greatest potential surface area for installation. These findings support layout designs with central corridors and tailored module orientations to optimize photovoltaic performance. They also recognized that although it is suggested to have higher window-to-wall ratios for integration with PV windows, for the locations in the tropics, it is recommended to maintain 20–30%WWR. From the study, it was proven that at a cell coverage of minimum 40–50%, the integrated windows can still achieve at least 20% of the required building energy.

3.4. Design Strategies for BIPV in High-Rise Buildings

The synthesis of the reviewed studies highlights design patterns that correspond with contemporary architectural theories and trends, offering conceptual guidance for integrating BIPVs in high-rise buildings (

Table 3. Summary of BIPV design insights from the literature.

Category	Design Parameter/Feature	Design Insights
Orientation and Tilt	Façade direction/building orientation	Cardinal orientations ensure consistent solar exposure, with equator-facing façades maximizing yield. Select module type based on exposure. In staggered or dispersed tower layouts, rooftop PV can generate 8–9% more energy and façade-integrated PV up to 22–23%.
	Roof and façade tilt/module angle	Optimized tilt angles enhance solar capture: roof (~10°) and façade (~60°) reach 80-90% output depending on climate. Local sensitivity analysis is recommended. Mid-range tilt (15–45°) works best in tropical climates. Maintain proper spacing between panels and shading devices. Wider spacing increases solar radiation on lower panels, but excessive tilt can reduce usable wall area.
Form and Placement	Building form and podium shape	Use simple podium shapes (square/circle) to maximize rooftop sunlight. Complex plans (U, L, H) may self-shade, but higher surface-area-to-volume ratio can compensate for energy potential.
	Site setback and building spacing	Maintain spacing (~40 m) between buildings and dispersed/staggered towers reduces mutual shading.
Environmental Factors	Wind and airflow	Edge and corner modules benefit from convective cooling, improving efficiency. Leeward façades favor electricity generation; windward façades support thermal storage. Use ventilated façades, louvers, or air gaps (~12 mm) behind BIPV modules to enhance passive cooling, reduce overheating, and improve overall module efficiency.
	Solar exposure/shading	Partial or diffuse shading impacts energy generation less than full shadows; adjustable or kinetic devices mitigate self-shading and improve output (up to 36.5%).
Façade Design and Integration	Double-skin façade	Reduces cooling demand through shading; improves BIPV energy performance compared to curtain wall by leveraging passive airflow.
	Curtain wall	Strategically place semi-transparent modules and hybrid glazing to improve daylight quality, reduce cooling demand, and optimize energy and cost efficiency.
	Window-to-wall ratio (WWR)	Optimize WWR (~40) with BIPV to reduce heating and cooling energy consumption; optimal ratio depends on climate.
	Shading devices/louvers	Use adjustable or kinetic BIPV louvers to balance daylight, and heat gain. Real-time adjustment can improve energy savings (up to 36.5%); fixed louvers are less efficient due to self-shading (with 25% energy savings).
	Façades articulation	Use balconies and folded/multifaceted surfaces to create additional surfaces for BIPV and improve module tilt and energy capture. Horizontal sawtooth (south) and vertical folds (east/west) further optimize solar gain while maintaining aesthetics.
	Façade zoning and module placement	Place opaque panels on upper façade area and semi-transparent on lower façade area optimize solar access, daylight, and visual comfort
Material Selection	Module type/efficiency	Utilize high-efficiency panels for sunlit façades; low-cost or lower-efficiency panels for shaded façades. Colored PV can balance aesthetics and ROI.

). Concepts like biophilic design, emphasizing connection with natural elements, daylight access, and visual comfort are prevalent and can guide strategies such as semi-transparent modules and adaptive shading systems [73,74]. Biomimicry focuses on emulating natural forms and processes to achieve efficiency and responsiveness, offering insights for kinetic or adjustable BIPV shading devices [75]. High-performance envelope strategies prioritize thermal regulation and passive cooling, aligning with ventilated façades or double-skin systems to improve module performance [76], while adopting parametric and performance-based design can provide methods to optimize module placement, tilt, and spacing across complex high-rise geometries [77]. Bioclimatic design principles address climate-sensitive strategies, supporting decisions based on local solar angles, wind patterns, and temperature variations [78]. These concepts and frameworks can act as reference points for architects when designing high-rise buildings, serving as a basis for translating the design patterns identified in the literature into strategies that enable effective incorporation of BIPVs.

4. Conclusions

Building envelope design holds particular importance in high-rise structures due to their extensive surface area and increased exposure to external environmental conditions. Beyond the role of passive design, the building offers valuable opportunity for active energy generation. In this context, BIPVs offer a distinct advantage over traditional roof-mounted PV systems, as they eliminate the need for a dedicated space or separate installation structures. This review synthesizes existing research on BIPVs in high-rise buildings, highlighting key factors that influence early-stage design decisions and integration strategies. Successful implementation requires a comprehensive understanding of environmental, contextual, architectural, and functional factors, which shape both energy performance and overall feasibility of BIPVs in high-rise buildings.

The study identified several influential factors that affect BIPVs utilization in this regard. One important factor is the location and environmental context. Low-latitude regions with high solar angles favor multifaceted or tilted façades to maximize exposure, whereas high-latitude locations benefit from equator-facing vertical surfaces, where diffuse radiation allows even vertical modules to achieve near-optimal energy output. Façade-integrated PVs maintain more consistent performance than rooftop installations in areas with frequent clouds or high diffuse radiation, making them particularly advantageous in humid or tropical climates. Another important factor that affects BIPVs utilization is urban context. Urban density, site placement, surrounding structures, and shading patterns have a direct impact on BIPV performance. Therefore, upper façades should be prioritized for BIPV placement, and building spacing, setbacks, and tower clustering should be optimized to enhance solar exposure and energy yield.

Building form, shape, and orientation are also commonly investigated factors that affect the utilization of BIPVs in high-rise buildings. While simple rectangular or square plans have minimal self-shading, complex shapes (U, L, T, or H) may experience self-shading between wings or projections but offer greater external surface area, potentially increasing overall energy generation. Multifaceted or folded façades, such as sawtooth or pyramidal forms, allow panels to be installed at optimal angles, enhancing energy generation without compromising thermal performance. Projections like balconies or overhangs can either obstruct or provide additional BIPV surfaces depending on placement; cantilevered or staggered balconies can minimize shading.

Integration strategies for BIPVs vary depending on building type. In residential towers, dispersed or staggered layouts reduce mutual shading, and north-high to south-low height gradients optimize rooftop and façade gains. Well-designed balconies and façade articulation enable BIPV application without blocking daylight, and shading devices, including adjustable louvers, maintain daylight while improving energy yield. Office towers benefit from curtain walls with semi-transparent or spandrel BIPVs and adaptive shading systems, maintaining a balance between daylight, glare, occupancy patterns and lighting demands. Commercial and mixed-use buildings require careful consideration of urban density and surrounding obstructions, with podiums and open spaces enabling higher solar access. Opaque modules are suitable for upper-level façades, while semi-transparent modules preserve daylight quality in lower floors. The study concluded with a summary of BIPV design insights. The synthesis of the reviewed studies highlighted design patterns that align with contemporary architectural trends, offering conceptual guidance for the effective integration of BIPVs in high-rise buildings.

5. Future Research Directions

Drawing on the insights gathered from existing studies reveals several research gaps and future directions that remain insufficiently explored within the scope of integrating PVs in high-rise buildings. The reviewed articles are predominantly from tropical regions, while studies in other climate zones have received comparatively less attention. Similarly, residential and office high-rise buildings dominate the literature, while hotels, mixed-use, and commercial buildings are less frequently examined. Some studies do not specify a building type or address cross-typology aspects, leaving gaps in the research coverage for certain building categories. Methods of photovoltaic integration require further investigation, as many studies rely on simplified approaches that often do not account for factors such as shading, building density, or other urban constraints, particularly in high-density environments. In many cases, buildings are treated as single, uniform surfaces without variation. The height of BIPV placement on façades is typically overlooked, and the façade is assumed to be homogeneous from top to bottom, which reduces results accuracy.

BIPVs in high-rise buildings represent a complex and multifaceted topic, frequently examined from a predominantly technical standpoint. There remains a pressing need for more research adopting a design-oriented perspective to provide architects, designers, and urban planners with practical recommendations from the outset. Translating technical insights into practical recommendations is essential for early-stage integration. Although the literature does discuss integration opportunities in the context of high-rise buildings, the focus has largely been on BIPV louvers or shading devices, façade panels, and glazing, with other forms of integration receiving little attention, thereby limiting a broader understanding of the design potential of these systems. Finally, future research should explore high-rise building renovations using BIPV systems, including applications such as façade cladding and curtain wall integration. Further research should develop guidelines for BIPV placement along varying façade heights to enable context-sensitive integration in high-rise buildings. It should also advance methodologies that address urban-scale constraints, including shading and high-density conditions, for accurate evaluation of BIPV applications and to inform effective design strategies. These solutions could not only improve energy efficiency but also enhance aesthetics and extend the functional life of aging building envelopes.