Architecture, Volume 5, Issue 4 (December 2025) – 11 articles

Traditional housing is a type of housing that emerged during a specific era in history, when inhabitants designed and built their own houses with the help of the entire community. In Togo, a West African country, and specifically in the urban area of Kara, traditional housing is characterized by a variety of styles due to socio-temporal changes. This study aims to analyze the dynamics of traditional housing in this urban area following these changes. The results were obtained using a methodological approach based on documentary research, interviews, field observations, GPS surveys and sketches of existing traditional buildings in the urban agglomeration of Kara. Qualitative and quantitative data were also collected. According to the methodology adopted, a total of 327 households out of a total of 24,512 were surveyed and 34 interviews were conducted. This approach reveals that the urban agglomeration of Kara has three (03) types of traditional housing depending on changes and evolution within the community. The first type, known as the original type, is characterized by round-shaped houses covered with straw and built using purely traditional methods. The second type is marked by a change in the original forms. In addition to the original round shapes, rectangular or square shapes are added, using traditional materials and techniques, with the beginning of the use of imported materials. The third type is characterized by the use of modern materials, creating a mix of shapes and materials. Full article

Deep-learning generative AI promises to transform architectural design, yet its potential employment and ready-to-use capacity for professional workflows are unclear. This study presents a systematic review conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines, synthesizing peer-reviewed work from 2015 to 2025 to assess how GenAI methods align with architectural practice. A total of 1566 records were initially retrieved across databases, of which 42 studies met eligibility criteria after structured screening and selection. Each was evaluated using five indicators with a three-tier rubric: Output Representation Type, Pipeline Integration, Workflow Standardization, Tool Readiness, and Technical Skillset. Results show that most outputs are raster images or non-editable objects, with only a minority producing CAD/BIM-ready geometry. Workflow pipelines are often fragmented with manual hand-offs and most GenAI methods map only onto the early conceptual design stage. Prototypes frequently require bespoke coding and advanced expertise. These findings indicate a persistent gap between experimentation with ideation-oriented GenAI and the pragmatism of CAD/BIM-centered delivery. By framing the proposed rubric as a workflow maturity model, this review contributes a replicable benchmark for assessing practice readiness and identifying pathways toward mainstream adoption. For GenAI to move from prototypes to mainstream architectural design practice, it is essential to address not only technical barriers, but also cultural issues such as professional skepticism and reliability concerns, as well as ecosystem challenges of data sharing, authorship, and liability. Full article

Achieving optimal daylighting in buildings necessitates complex and expensive control systems. This research addresses this challenge by proposing a simple and more practical solution: a parametric louver system based on rotating slats controlled by stepper motors, powered by an Integrated Circuit platform (Arduino board), which can translate the digital figures (the rotation angles) to a physical action. The system automatically adjusts the slats in accordance with solar altitudes and reflects them to specific targets over the ceiling. This ensures a uniform and comfortable distribution of daylight throughout a room. This system was developed using Grasshopper as the parametric software, with future control planned via a user-friendly mobile app through a preliminary prototype. This daylighting system prioritises human visual comfort while targeting a significant 53% reduction in electrical lighting energy consumption. The system aims to enhance occupant well-being to significantly increase energy savings, making it a compelling solution for sustainable building design. Full article

Co-design plays a pivotal role in architectural design and urban planning for the green transition, facilitating collaboration among designers and stakeholders to create contextually appropriate solutions. This study examines the balance between stakeholder input and designer agency within co-design practices aimed at addressing the complex challenges posed by the green transition. Looking at how designers’ mindsets and methods are influenced by co-design, this study is carried out by analysing two contrasting case studies from the Future Island-Island project: Field Operations, an immersive residential on Rathlin Island, and DesignLink, a structured design sprint with organisational partners. Employing the terminologies of autogenic (designer-led) and allogenic design (stakeholder-led), the research critically explores how these modalities influence design outcomes and designers themselves. Field Operations exemplifies a more allogenic approach characterised by collaborative brief development through local immersion, while DesignLink primarily illustrates an autogenic process where predefined objectives guided creative synthesis. The study reveals that effective co-design requires oscillation between these approaches, underscoring the necessity for designers to harness both community insights while ensuring their own creative agency. The findings in this study advocate for a refined co-design framework that optimally integrates stakeholder contributions without compromising the integrity and coherence of the design process, emphasising the importance of contextual sensitivity, innovation, and timely decision-making in addressing complex societal challenges such as the green transition. Full article

One of the sometimes-neglected fields is the landscape design of hospital premises. This study focuses on the perception and preferences of responders regarding hospital site design. The objective was to determine if people are aware of the benefits of restorative contact with nature and if there were preferences for any specific landscape type. The online questionnaire with color figures was distributed using emails and social media from 4 May to 2 August 2024. Some 110 respondents returned the questionnaire. Most of the respondents were women under 25. Most respondents declared that the surroundings of the healthcare building influence the health and well-being of patients (96%) and health personnel (86%). The results confirmed the awareness of the importance of contact with nature (89%). Moreover, this study demonstrated a preference for calm garden compositions, stimulating physical and mental recovery with trees, flowers, and water features, as well as stabilized paths and sheltered sitting places. The results confirm previous studies and demonstrate the importance of landscape architecture design of hospital premises for the well-being of patients. The findings may influence urban landscape planning and the design of hospital sites. Full article

Signs of the passage of time can come as an unwelcome reminder of our own eventual passing. Historically, many cultures have sought refuge from the march of time in the notion of a timeless present. More recently, studies have shown that presence achieved through meditation lowers stress. This essay explores how the built environments where we spend most of our lives might help us to be more fully present. Rather presenting a comprehensive theory of the present in architecture, its intent is to make a series of design suggestions. Full article

Urban planning in post-industrial cities is often limited by stakeholders’ understanding of the potential for intensifying mixed industrial and cultural uses, and the benefits to each of their co-location. In Brussels, differences in language and governance pose additional challenges to actors trying to bring together diverse stakeholders to cooperatively plan for urban regeneration. As part of a wider action research project on regeneration of the city, five co-design workshops were held across Brussels in 2017–2019 and interviews with participants were conducted. Later, in 2023, the researchers returned to the city to assess the practical outcomes of the project. This paper explores the role of the workshops in harnessing the untapped potential for integrating and expanding mixed industrial and cultural uses, and highlights the factors required to inspire and motivate diverse stakeholders to drive sustainable innovation and growth. Full article

This systematic literature review investigates the factors influencing indoor environmental satisfaction in vernacular architecture, with particular attention to sustainability and sociocultural contexts. Drawing on 105 peer-reviewed studies published over the past two decades, the analysis employed thematic synthesis and cluster analysis to identify key design features, theoretical underpinnings, and variables affecting occupant satisfaction. Five major theories emerged, with Sustainability Theory, Bioclimatic Architecture Theory, and Ecological Systems Theory most frequently applied. Cluster analysis of 62 variables produced eight thematic categories, offering a structured basis for hypothesis development and integrative model formulation. The review further identified critical research gaps, including limited empirical validation, methodological inconsistencies, and underutilization of theory in explaining outcomes. Findings reveal that vernacular design features such as courtyards, shading devices, and materiality strongly contribute to SIEQ, while contemporary transitions risk diminishing comfort. This review highlights critical research gaps, particularly evaluation voids and theoretical underuse, and proposes integrative directions for architects and policymakers. Full article

Virtual Reality (VR), particularly when integrated with Building Information Modeling (BIM), is transforming architectural practice in developed economies. However, its adoption in developing countries remains limited due to infrastructural, economic, and organizational challenges. This study addresses this gap by empirically evaluating VR readiness among emerging architectural professionals in Oman through a novel integrated framework. This framework combines the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), which focuses on functional drivers like usefulness, with Presence Theory, which captures experiential drivers like immersion. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was employed to analyze the survey data and assess VR readiness. The analysis revealed that prior VR exposure significantly predicts adoption intention, a relationship that is partially mediated by perceived usefulness. Organizational support emerged as a key moderator, effectively mitigating the impact of technical barriers on adoption decisions. The model explained the variance in adoption intention, highlighting that experiential familiarity, functional evaluation, and institutional support were critical for advancing digital transformation. The findings provide actionable insights for educational institutions, policymakers, and industry stakeholders aiming to prepare the next generation of architects in Oman and similar economies for VR adoption. By validating a dual-pathway adoption framework, this research contributes both theoretically and practically to understanding immersive technology assimilation in resource-constrained professional contexts. Full article

ADHD and misophonia are developmental neurological disorders that are currently increasing in prevalence due to excessive acoustic and visual pollution. ADHD, which is characterized by a lack of attention and excessive impulsive hyperactivity, and misophonia, which is hypersensitivity to sounds accompanied by a severe emotional and psychological reaction, are both affected by the user’s spatial environment to a great extent. Spatial design can contribute to increasing or decreasing these unfavorable sensory triggers that affect individuals with ADHD and/or Misophonia. However, the role of architectural spatial design as a therapeutic approach to alleviate the symptoms of Misophonia and ADHD has never been proposed before in the literature, despite its accumulative and chronic effects on the user’s experience in everyday life in terms of well-being and productivity. Therefore, the current work discusses this problem of neglecting the potential effect of architectural spatial design on alleviating Misophonia and ADHD. Thus, the objective of the current work is to propose customized architectural spatial design as a therapeutic approach to alleviate Misophonia and ADHD through adopting the compatible architectural trends of minimal and metaphysical architecture. The methodology of the current work includes a theoretical proposal of this customized architectural spatial design for alleviating these two special neurological conditions. This includes introducing and analyzing these two neurological conditions and their relation to and interaction with architectural spatial design, analyzing minimal and metaphysical architectural trends employed in the proposed therapeutic architectural design, and then proposing augmented and virtual reality as auxiliary add-ons to the architectural spatial design to boost its therapeutic effect. Minimal architecture achieves the “no emotion” criteria through reduced forms, patterns, and colors and adopts simple geometry and natural materials to reduce sensory stressors or stimuli, in order to alleviate the loss of attention and distraction prevalent in those with ADHD, as well as allowing the employment of acoustic materials to achieve acoustic comfort and noise blockage for Misophonia relief. Metaphysical architecture leads the hierarchy of sensory experience through the symbolistic, dynamic, and enigmatic composition of forms and colors, which enhance the spatial analysis and cognitive capacities of the inhabitants. Meanwhile, the use of customized virtual and augmented reality environments is an effective add-on to minimal and metaphysical architectural spaces thanks to its proven therapeutic effect in alleviating various neurological disorders and injuries. At this level of intervention, VR/AR can be used as an add-on to minimal-architecture design, to simulate varied scenarios, as minimal design offers a clean canvas for simulating these varied virtual environments. The other option is to build these customized VR/AR scenarios around a specific architectural element as an add-on metaphysical architecture design to lead the sensory experience and enable the user to detach from the physical constraints of the space. AI-generated designs were used as a proof of concept for the proposed customized architectural spatial design following minimal and metaphysical architecture, as well as to provide AR and VR scenarios as add-on architecture to enhance the therapeutic effect of these architectural spaces for Misophonia and ADHD patients. Furthermore, the validity of VR/AR as a therapeutic approach, alongside the customized architectural design, was discussed, and it was concluded that this study proves the need for extended clinical studies on its efficiency in the long run, which will be conducted in the future. Full article