You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled.

Search for Articles:

Title / Keyword

Author / Affiliation / Email

Journal

Article Type

Advanced Search

Section

Special Issue

Volume

Issue

Number

Page

Logical OperatorOperator

Search Text

Search Type

Façade Psychology Is Hardwired: AI Selects Windows Supporting Health
Visual Discomfort in the Built Environment: Leveraging Generative AI and Computational Analysis to Evaluate Predicted Visual Stress in Architectural Façades
Experimental Investigation of Vibration Control in Timber–Concrete Composite (TCC) Floors Using Tuned Mass Damper
Comprehensive and Dedicated Metrics for Evaluating AI-Generated Residential Floor Plans
Research on Automated On-Site Construction of Timber Structures: Mobile Construction Platform Guided by Real-Time Visual Positioning System

Journal Description

Buildings

Buildings is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on building science, building engineering and architecture published semimonthly online by MDPI. The International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) is affiliated with Buildings and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within SCIE (Web of Science), Scopus, Ei Compendex, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Construction and Building Technology) / CiteScore - Q1 (Architecture)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 14.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.7 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion Journal: Architecture.
Journal Cluster of Civil Engineering and Built Environment: Architecture, Buildings, CivilEng, Construction Materials, Infrastructures, Intelligent Infrastructure and Construction, NDT and Vibration.

Impact Factor: 3.1 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.2 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2075-5309

Latest Articles

17 pages, 5889 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Three-Dimensional Auxetic Structural Responses to Impact Loading with the Generalized Interpolation Material Point Method

by Xiatian Zhuang, Yu-Chen Su and Zhen Chen

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2878; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162878 (registering DOI) - 14 Aug 2025

Understanding three-dimensional (3D) auxetic structural responses to impact loading remains challenging due to large deformations involving failure evolution and the interaction between geometric and material instabilities. In this study, the Generalized Interpolation Material Point Method (GIMP) is used to investigate representative auxetic structures, [...] Read more.

Understanding three-dimensional (3D) auxetic structural responses to impact loading remains challenging due to large deformations involving failure evolution and the interaction between geometric and material instabilities. In this study, the Generalized Interpolation Material Point Method (GIMP) is used to investigate representative auxetic structures, with the focus on the negative Poisson’s ratio effect on the responses to impact loading. Using a cubic lattice model for 3D re-entrant structures, simulations with different impact speeds are performed to evaluate corresponding energy absorption characteristics and deformation behaviors. Three constitutive models for lattice materials (linear elasticity, elastoplasticity, and damage) are employed to analyze the corresponding variations in auxetic structural performance. The computational results indicate that distinct deformation mechanisms are mainly associated with microstructural geometry, while the constitutive modeling effect is not significant. The findings demonstrate the importance of the process–structure–property relationship in the impact performance of protective structures. Verification against theoretical predictions of the Poisson’s ratio–strain relationship confirms the potential of GIMP in effectively engineering auxetic structures for general applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extreme Performance of Composite and Protective Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 3994 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Implementation of a Novel Bioclimatic-Passive Architecture Concept in Serbian and Polish Residential Building Sectors

by Aleksandar Nešović and Robert Kowalik

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2877; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162877 (registering DOI) - 14 Aug 2025

This paper presents a novel integration of bioclimatic-passive architectural elements—Trombe walls, pergolas, and deciduous climbers—in the context of residential buildings in Eastern and Central Europe, a combination that remains largely underexplored in the current literature. The innovativeness of the proposed concept is reflected [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel integration of bioclimatic-passive architectural elements—Trombe walls, pergolas, and deciduous climbers—in the context of residential buildings in Eastern and Central Europe, a combination that remains largely underexplored in the current literature. The innovativeness of the proposed concept is reflected in the combined use of the following building elements: three types of passive Trombe wall (single-glazed, double-glazed, and triple-glazed), pergolas, and four types of deciduous climbers (V. coignetiae, H. lupulus, W. sinensis, and A. macrophylla). By using meteorological data for the towns Kragujevac and Kielce, the influence of location parameters for two dominant European climate zones (moderate continental and continental) is also included in this investigation. The initial single-family building models were created following the Serbian and Polish rulebooks on energy efficiency for new buildings and equipped with the same thermo-technical systems and people occupancy conditions. Based on the conducted simulations (using Google SketchUp 8 and EnergyPlus 7.1) and obtained results on the annual level, the following main conclusions can be drawn: (1) a moderate continental climate is more suitable for implementing the proposed concept; (2) a single-glazed passive Trombe wall is not energy or environmentally justified; (3) the energy, environmental, and economic benefits for both selected locations are greatest in the case of the combined use of pergolas, V. coignetiae, and triple-glazed passive Trombe wall; and (4) before the wider commercial application of the proposed concept in the future, efforts should be made to explore economic opportunities, which, among other things, involve a focus on market stability and accessibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 6801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Working and Mechanical Properties of Self-Compacting Steel-Fiber-Reinforced High-Strength Concrete

by Huanqin Liu, Nuoqi Shi, Zhifa Yu and Yonglin Zhu

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2875; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162875 (registering DOI) - 14 Aug 2025

This paper discusses the potential of using steel fiber to produce self-compacting high-strength concrete. The effects of water–binder ratio and mortar and steel fiber content on the workability and mechanical properties of high-performance concrete were studied. The working performance of cementitious materials was [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the potential of using steel fiber to produce self-compacting high-strength concrete. The effects of water–binder ratio and mortar and steel fiber content on the workability and mechanical properties of high-performance concrete were studied. The working performance of cementitious materials was evaluated by a slump expansion test, T₅₀₀, L-shaped instrument, U-shaped instrument, and V-shaped funnel. The mechanical properties were evaluated by compressive strength and flexural strength. The results show that when the compressive strength of self-compacting high-strength concrete with steel fiber is 90 MPa, the optimum mix ratio is a water–binder ratio of 0.22, sand ratio of 46%, and steel fiber content of 0.3%. When the steel fiber content is 0.3%, the compressive strength of the time can be increased by more than 4%, and the flexural strength can be increased by more than 5%. When the steel fiber content is 0.6% to 0.9%, the compressive strength of the specimen can be increased by more than 10%, and the flexural strength can be increased by more than 7%. However, with the increase in steel fiber content, self-compacting concrete becomes less and less dense, and the bond strength becomes lower and lower. When the water–binder ratio is 0.20, the fluidity of self-compacting concrete is poor, and the forming effect is not good. When the water–binder ratio is 0.24, the working performance of self-compacting concrete is better, but the cohesion is poor, and it can easily produce segregation. When the water–binder ratio is 0.22, the working performance of self-compacting concrete can be the best, and the strength of concrete is higher and more stable. The optimum sand ratio is 46%. At this time, the compressive strength and flexural strength of self-compacting concrete are the largest, and the working performance is also the best. When the sand ratio is lower than the optimum sand ratio, the self-compacting concrete will produce segregation. When the sand ratio is higher than the optimum sand ratio, the fluidity of self-compacting concrete is poor. This study provides insights into the potential for large-scale and high-value utilization of steel fibers and the development of cost-effective ways to reduce the carbon footprint of self-compacting concrete production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Modern Structural Engineering: From Materials to Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

54 pages, 3867 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of the Influence of the Interaction Between In-Plane and Out-of-Plane Behaviors on the Seismic Response of Non-Framed Unreinforced Masonry Walls

by Amirhossein Ghezelbash, Jan G. Rots and Francesco Messali

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2874; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162874 (registering DOI) - 14 Aug 2025

This study reviews existing research on the effects of the interaction between in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OOP) behaviors on the seismic response of non-framed unreinforced masonry (URM) structures. During earthquakes, masonry buildings exhibit complex behaviors. First, walls may experience simultaneous IP and OOP [...] Read more.

This study reviews existing research on the effects of the interaction between in-plane (IP) and out-of-plane (OOP) behaviors on the seismic response of non-framed unreinforced masonry (URM) structures. During earthquakes, masonry buildings exhibit complex behaviors. First, walls may experience simultaneous IP and OOP actions, or pre-existing IP and OOP damage, deformation, or loads that can alter their unidirectional IP or OOP seismic response. Second, the IP and OOP action of one wall can affect the behavior of its intersecting walls. However, the effects of these behaviors, referred to as “direct IP-OOP interactions” and “Flange effects”, respectively, are often disregarded in design and assessment provisions. To address this gap, this study explores findings from experimental and numerical research conducted at the wall level currently available in the literature, identifying the nature of these interaction effects and the key parameters that affect their extent. The available body of work includes only a few experimental studies on interaction effects, whereas numerical investigations are more extensive. However, most numerical studies focus on how OOP pre-damage/deformation influences the IP behaviors (OOP/IP interactions) and the role of flanges in IP response (F/IP interactions), leaving significant gaps in understanding the effects of IP pre-damage/deformation on the OOP response (IP/OOP interactions) and the OOP response in the presence of flanges (F/OOP interactions). Among the parameters studied, boundary conditions, wall height-to-length aspect ratio, and vertical overburden are found to have the most significant influence on interaction effects because of their relevance for the IP and OOP failure mechanisms. Other parameters, such as the restriction of top uplift, the presence of openings, or changes in slenderness ratio, are not comprehensively studied, and the available data are insufficient for definitive conclusions. Methodologies available in the literature for extrapolating the findings observed at the wall level to building-level analyses are reviewed. The current predictive equations primarily address the effects of OOP pre-load and Flange effects on IP response. Furthermore, only a few macro-element models are proposed for cost-effective, large-scale building simulations. To bridge these gaps, future research must expand experimental investigations, develop more comprehensive design and assessment equations, and refine numerical modeling techniques for building-level applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 5778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Living Lab for Indoor Air Quality Monitoring in an Architecture School: A Low-Cost, Student-Led Approach

by Robiel Manzueta, César Martín-Gómez, Leire Gómez-Olagüe, Amaia Zuazua-Ros, Sara Dorregaray-Oyaregui and Arturo H. Ariño

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2873; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162873 (registering DOI) - 14 Aug 2025

Students and educators spend considerable time in indoor learning spaces on university campuses, where indoor air quality (IAQ), of which particulate matter (PM) is an important component, is a critical concern that architecture students must address. However, IAQ is seldom monitored and very [...] Read more.

Students and educators spend considerable time in indoor learning spaces on university campuses, where indoor air quality (IAQ), of which particulate matter (PM) is an important component, is a critical concern that architecture students must address. However, IAQ is seldom monitored and very rarely, if at all, reported in these spaces. We used a novel living lab approach to provide third-year students of building services with a hands-on learning activity. During a two-week monitoring period, students designed, assembled, and operated low-cost PM sensors using Arduino platforms. The data analysis showed hotspots where the IAQ was consistently compromised and showed repetitive patterns in time. Workshop and laboratory areas repeatedly recorded the highest PM levels in 15 min sampling events distributed over daily two-hour segments, averaging 43.3 and 47.9 μg/m³ PM₁₀, respectively, with maxima of 118.6 and 119.9 μg/m³ PM₁₀. These measurements would have qualified as ‘moderate’ IAQ if sustained over a full day. A distinct weekly pattern was discovered, with Mondays being worse. The results demonstrated a new practical approach to monitoring the building’s IAQ at minimal cost while obtaining reproducible data. This tool provided educators with a valuable teaching tool that provided students with a deeper understanding of indoor air pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation in the Era of Smart Buildings)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

24 pages, 1083 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning-Based Surrogate Ensemble for Frame Displacement Prediction Using Jackknife Averaging

by Zhihao Zhao, Jinjin Wang and Na Wu

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2872; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162872 (registering DOI) - 14 Aug 2025

High-fidelity finite element analysis (FEA) plays a key role in structural engineering by enabling accurate simulation of displacement, stress, and internal forces under static loads. However, its high computational cost limits applicability in real-time control, iterative design, and large-scale uncertainty quantification. Surrogate modeling [...] Read more.

High-fidelity finite element analysis (FEA) plays a key role in structural engineering by enabling accurate simulation of displacement, stress, and internal forces under static loads. However, its high computational cost limits applicability in real-time control, iterative design, and large-scale uncertainty quantification. Surrogate modeling provides a computationally efficient alternative by learning input–output mappings from precomputed simulations. Yet, the performance of individual surrogates is often sensitive to data distribution and model assumptions. To enhance both accuracy and robustness, we propose a model averaging framework based on Jackknife Model Averaging (JMA) that integrates six surrogate models: polynomial response surfaces (PRSs), support vector regression (SVR), radial basis function (RBF) interpolation, eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGB), Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LGBM), and Random Forest (RF). Three ensembles are formed: JMA1 (classical models), JMA2 (tree-based models), and JMA3 (all models). JMA assigns optimal convex weights using cross-validated out-of-fold errors without a meta-learner. We evaluate the framework on the Static Analysis Dataset with over 300,000 FEA simulations. Results show that JMA consistently outperforms individual models in root mean squared error, mean absolute error, and the coefficient of determination, while also producing tighter, better-calibrated conformal prediction intervals. These findings support JMA as an effective tool for surrogate-based structural analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Machine Learning for Structural Engineering: Innovations and Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 2665 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Subjective Perception and Cooling Effect for Dynamic Ventilation with Fluctuating Air Velocity

by Chunfeng Lao, Jing Ling, Jing Li, Jinghua Jiang, Sheng Zhang, Yan Yan, Yue Yin and Mingliang Gu

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2871; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162871 (registering DOI) - 14 Aug 2025

Dynamic ventilation has proven effective in enhancing indoor thermal comfort. However, previous studies often expose participants to inconsistent thermal environments, potentially compromising the accuracy of subjective evaluations. To address this limitation, this study implemented dynamic ventilation with fluctuating air velocity in an accurately [...] Read more.

Dynamic ventilation has proven effective in enhancing indoor thermal comfort. However, previous studies often expose participants to inconsistent thermal environments, potentially compromising the accuracy of subjective evaluations. To address this limitation, this study implemented dynamic ventilation with fluctuating air velocity in an accurately controlled environmental chamber. Objective measurements of indoor air velocity and air temperature distribution are conducted, and subjective thermal sensation votes are collected under thermally consistent environments among participants. During the experiment, all participants experience similar dynamic thermal environments. The results show that participants experience thermal comfort under dynamic ventilation. Dynamic ventilation enhances convective heat transfer between the human body and the surrounding air and stimulates cutaneous cold receptors. The pronounced cooling effect of dynamic airflow contributes to a reduction in skin temperature on the head, chest, upper arm, forearm, hand, and thigh, with a temperature drop ranging from 1.3% to 2.8%. In addition, dynamic ventilation significantly reduces draft risk, with the proportion of participants reporting a dissatisfied sensation decreasing from 10% to 0%. This study demonstrates the advantages of dynamic ventilation in improving thermal comfort and minimizing draft risk under controlled and uniform environmental conditions for all participants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Indoor Environment Comfort)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 3685 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Parameter Optimization and Control Strategy of Air Source Heat Pump Coupled with Thermal Energy Storage System

by Xuan Liu, Wei Chen, Feng Li, Saisai Du, Ge Yao, Pengfei Zhang, Kaiwen Xu and Zhihua Wang

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2870; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162870 (registering DOI) - 14 Aug 2025

The air source heat pump coupled with energy storage system is a key technology for flexibly utilizing clean energy. The capacity configuration parameters and control strategies of this coupled system are two important aspects that significantly affect its performance. In order to explore [...] Read more.

The air source heat pump coupled with energy storage system is a key technology for flexibly utilizing clean energy. The capacity configuration parameters and control strategies of this coupled system are two important aspects that significantly affect its performance. In order to explore the methods of setting configuration parameters and provide reasonable operation strategies, a simulation model of the coupled system under a time-of-use electricity pricing strategy is established and verified with measured data. Through multi-objective optimization of the system, configuration schemes considering economy, energy saving, and flexibility are given. Subsequently, based on the load prediction model, an optimal control strategy is proposed with the objective function of minimizing the operating cost. The optimization amplitude of the schemes considering the three indicators reached 11.09%, 13.37%, and 29.03%, respectively. Under the proposed control strategies, the typical daily electricity consumption decreased by 14.65% to 24.06%, and the operating electricity cost is saved by approximately 17.32%. By reasonably designing the parameters of the coupled system, its economic, energy-saving performance, and flexibility can be improved by more than 11% compared to a system designed using traditional methods. By adopting the control strategy based on hourly load prediction, the operating cost can be reduced significantly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Performance Analysis and Design Optimization of Renewable Energy Heating Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 4081 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of High Curing Pressure on the Unconfined Compressive Strength of Cement-Stabilized Bottom Sediments with High Water Content

by Chengchun Qiu, Yang Li, Xingbing Li, Guizhong Xu and Dan Zhang

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2869; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162869 - 13 Aug 2025

Reusing dredged sediments as cement-stabilized fill material offers a sustainable solution for high-fill construction projects, particularly in regions with limited land resources and strict environmental regulations. Nonetheless, the curing pressure from their weight heavily affects these materials’ mechanical properties. This research examines the [...] Read more.

Reusing dredged sediments as cement-stabilized fill material offers a sustainable solution for high-fill construction projects, particularly in regions with limited land resources and strict environmental regulations. Nonetheless, the curing pressure from their weight heavily affects these materials’ mechanical properties. This research examines the impact of high curing pressure on the stress–strain behavior, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), and stiffness properties of cement-stabilized dredged sediments containing high moisture levels. Laboratory experiments were conducted under controlled conditions, varying initial water content, cement dosage, and curing pressure. Experimental results demonstrate that initial water content and cement dosage are pivotal in determining the material’s strength, regardless of curing pressure. Curing pressure enhanced peak stress and stiffness while increasing brittleness, resulting in a 41.7% increase in secant modulus for specimens cured under elevated pressure. A novel strength prediction model incorporating a curing pressure correction term was developed to quantify material behavior accurately. Microstructural analysis revealed that curing pressure improved material performance through physical densification and chemical activation, enhancing mechanical properties. This study lays scientific groundwork for the optimal design and application of cement-stabilized dredged sediments in large-scale construction projects, addressing the challenges of high water content and high-fill applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Experiment and Simulation Techniques in Engineering)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

41 pages, 8276 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Designing a Scalable Safety Cost Model for the Surveying Industry: A Dual Approach for Routine and High-Risk Projects

by Suk-Bae Lee, Sang-Hoon Lee, Tae-Hoon Kim and Seung-Jun Lee

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2868; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162868 - 13 Aug 2025

The surveying industry, often operating in high-risk environments such as construction sites and transport corridors, currently lacks a standardized framework for estimating and allocating safety management costs. This study proposes a dual-mode safety cost framework designed to address this gap, combining a rate-based [...] Read more.

The surveying industry, often operating in high-risk environments such as construction sites and transport corridors, currently lacks a standardized framework for estimating and allocating safety management costs. This study proposes a dual-mode safety cost framework designed to address this gap, combining a rate-based model for routine projects with an actual-cost model for complex operations requiring detailed labor, equipment, and safety cost estimation. Employing a mixed-methods approach—comprising regulatory analysis, a nationwide survey (n = 63), and expert interviews (n = 4)—we assess the feasibility and institutional applicability of this framework. Our findings highlight persistent issues in safety budgeting practices, including inconsistent safety protocols, lack of designated safety personnel, and limited training programs. In response, we developed a draft guideline to standardize safety measures across project phases, with criteria for personnel allocation, safety equipment selection, and training schedules. Simulation analyses show that the rate-based model, when applied at 3.5% of the total project costs, simplifies budgeting for routine projects. In contrast, the actual-cost model offers more precise budgeting for high-risk projects, typically accounting for 6–7% of costs depending on complexity. This scalable and adaptable framework is particularly relevant for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and technical service contracts. More broadly, it offers a transferable foundation for integrating safety cost estimation into public infrastructure projects and digital construction workflows, providing a critical policy tool for contexts worldwide that lack formalized safety cost systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 1685 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Energy Saving Potential from Heating Room Relocation in Rural Houses Under Varying Meteorological and Design Conditions

by Weixiao Han, Guochen Sang, Shaofu Bai, Junyang Liu, Lei Zhang and Hong Xi

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2867; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162867 - 13 Aug 2025

Space layout design has been recognized as a key technical challenge in achieving low-energy and low-carbon rural houses. Adjustment of room location can influence building energy performance and is subject to both meteorological and design parameters. To elucidate the impact of these parameters [...] Read more.

Space layout design has been recognized as a key technical challenge in achieving low-energy and low-carbon rural houses. Adjustment of room location can influence building energy performance and is subject to both meteorological and design parameters. To elucidate the impact of these parameters on the energy saving potential of room relocation (ESR), this study investigated rural houses in Northwest China using dynamic simulations to compare the relative energy saving rates (RES) associated with three types of single heated room location changes: from the west side to the middle (WM), from the east side to the middle (EM), and from the west side to the east side (WE). Simulations were conducted across different climate regions (Lhasa, Xi’an, Tuotuohe, and Altay) and design parameters, including exterior wall U-value, building orientation (BO), building height (BH), and window-to-wall ratio (WWR). Additionally, the maximum differences in energy consumption (MD) among six layouts with multiple heated rooms were assessed. The results demonstrated that ESR varied significantly with room relocation. The ranges of RES_WM, RES_EM, and RES_WE were −7.89% to 13.20%, −7.82% to 10.25%, and −2.29% to 3.36%, respectively. The MD values ranged from 2.42% to 15.01%. For single heated rooms, including direct normal irradiance (I_dn), the difference between east and west solar-air temperature (△T_sa), outdoor dry bulb temperature (T_e), exterior wall heat transfer coefficient (U), and WWR significantly influenced RES_WM and RES_EM. The ranking of the factor contributions was U > △T_sa > I_dn > T_e > WWR for RES_WM and U > I_dn > △T_sa > T_e > WWR for RES_EM. In the case of RES_WE, I_dn, △T_sa, T_e, exterior wall U value, and BO had significant effects, ranking I_dn > △T_sa > T_e > BO > U. For MD, the key influencing factors were I_dn, △T_sa, T_e, exterior wall U value, and WWR, which were ranked as I_dn > △T_sa > U > T_e > WWR. The effects of design parameters on ESR varied under different climatic conditions. In high-temperature regions, the exterior wall U-value had a stronger influence on the ESR of WE. In regions with larger |△T_sa|, BO exerted a more pronounced effect on the ESR of WE. In regions characterized by high temperatures and radiation, WWR and BH significantly influenced the ESR of WM and EM. Similarly, in these regions, WWR and BH exhibited a greater impact on MD. Finally, among the meteorological parameters, I_dn and △T_sa were significantly correlated with ESR (p < 0.01). These findings provide a valuable reference for the energy-efficient layout design of rural houses in Northwest China and cold regions and support the future development of intelligent and automated rural residential spatial layout design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Building Design and Construction for a Sustainable Future—2nd Edition)

19 pages, 537 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Fuzzy Risk Allocation Decision Model for Improving the Nigerian Public–Private Partnership Mass Housing Project Procurement

by Bamidele Temitope Arijeloye, Molusiwa Stephan Ramabodu and Samuel Herald Peter Chikafalimani

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2866; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162866 - 13 Aug 2025

Public–Private Partnership (PPP) procurement is a relatively new approach in Nigeria’s housing sector. This study introduces a Fuzzy Risk Allocation Decision Model (FRADM) designed to address the complex and subjective nature of risk allocation in PPP-procured Mass Housing Projects (MHPs). A structured quantitative [...] Read more.

Public–Private Partnership (PPP) procurement is a relatively new approach in Nigeria’s housing sector. This study introduces a Fuzzy Risk Allocation Decision Model (FRADM) designed to address the complex and subjective nature of risk allocation in PPP-procured Mass Housing Projects (MHPs). A structured quantitative approach involving 40 purposively selected PPP housing experts was employed. Using a fuzzy synthetic evaluation (FSE) technique, critical risk factors were assessed based on partners’ risk management capabilities and allocation criteria. Constants (Ci) normalized the risk-carrying capacity indices (RCCIs) of both public and private sectors. Results show that risk attitude ranks highest among nine allocation criteria (MIS = 6.21), with the private sector demonstrating higher overall risk management capability. For instance, the availability of finance risk is optimally shared 53.48% to the private and 46.52% to the public sector. The FRADM was validated as reliable, practical, and replicable. Implications point to enhanced transparency, equitable risk-sharing, and support for SDG 11. The model is a strategic tool for decision-makers in PPP housing delivery in Nigeria and can inform similar efforts in other emerging economies. Further research should examine applications across other infrastructure sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 4627 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Vehicle–Bridge-Coupled Vibration of Multi-Tower High-Pier Partially Cable-Stayed Bridge Based on a Single Vehicle

by Ke Wu, Lingbo Wang, Wei Ge, Hao Shu, Yixiang Liu and Kefan Chen

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2865; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162865 - 13 Aug 2025

High-pier partially cable-stayed bridges, with their significant pier heights and relatively low structural stiffness and stability, experience pronounced vehicle–bridge coupling effects during vehicle transit, influencing their dynamic response and safety. This study developed a co-simulation analysis program using easy language and ANSYS to [...] Read more.

High-pier partially cable-stayed bridges, with their significant pier heights and relatively low structural stiffness and stability, experience pronounced vehicle–bridge coupling effects during vehicle transit, influencing their dynamic response and safety. This study developed a co-simulation analysis program using easy language and ANSYS to investigate the dynamic behavior of a prestressed concrete five-tower partially cable-stayed bridge under vehicle–bridge interaction, considering factors such as vehicle speed, bridge deck grade, and cable force. The research findings indicate that a reduction in bridge deck grade leads to increases in peak dynamic responses and impact factors, with the dynamic amplification factor showing a deteriorating trend across all cross-sections. Structural responses fluctuate with vehicle speed and exhibit sensitivity to speed variations, with the maximum response observed at a speed of 80 km/h. Adjusting cable forces can reduce the impact factor: a 5% change in cable tension causes the mid-span impact factor to drop sharply from 0.38 to 0.04, a substantial decrease of 89.5%. The structural system can exert an impact on the impact factor by as much as several times: while the dynamic displacement and bending moment of the fixed system are smaller than those of the continuous beam system, its impact factor is as high as 4.22 times that of the continuous beam system. Additionally, dynamic responses are closely related to the position of the fixed bearing, with responses near the fixed bearing being reduced. Notably, the maximum impact factors of critical sections all exceed the 0.05 limit specified in the code for this type of bridge, with values of 0.54 at the mid-span, 0.91 at the pier top, and 0.43 at the tower top anchor zone. This indicates that the provisions regarding dynamic amplification factors in the current code are inappropriate for such bridges. The difference in impact factors between bridge components can reach 2.12 times, this indicates that specific impact factors should be assigned to individual components to achieve an optimal balance between safety and economic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis, Calculations, Evaluations, and Controls of High-Rise/Large-Span Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 10765 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Cognitive Reconstruction Mechanism of Generative AI in Outcome-Based Design Education: A Study on Load Optimization and Performance Impact Based on Dual-Path Teaching

by Qidi Dong, Jiaxi He, Nanxin Li, Binzhu Wang, Heng Lu and Yingyin Yang

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2864; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162864 - 13 Aug 2025

Undergraduate design education faces a structural contradiction characterized by high cognitive load (CL) and relatively low innovation output. Meanwhile, existing generative AI tools predominantly emphasize the generation of visual outcomes, often overlooking the logical guidance mechanisms inherent in design thinking. This study proposes [...] Read more.

Undergraduate design education faces a structural contradiction characterized by high cognitive load (CL) and relatively low innovation output. Meanwhile, existing generative AI tools predominantly emphasize the generation of visual outcomes, often overlooking the logical guidance mechanisms inherent in design thinking. This study proposes a Dual-Path teaching model integrating critical reconstruction behaviors to examine how AI enhances design thinking. It adopts structured interactions with the DeepSeek large language model, CL theory, and Structural Equation Modeling for analysis. Quantitative results indicate that AI-assisted paths significantly enhance design quality (72.43 vs. 65.60 in traditional paths). This improvement is attributed to a “direct effect + multiple mediators” model: specifically, AI reduced the mediating role of Extraneous Cognitive Load from 0.907 to 0.017, while simultaneously enhancing its investment in Germane Cognitive Load to support deep, innovative thinking. Theoretically, this study is among the first to integrate AI-driven critical reconstruction behaviors (e.g., iteration count, cross-domain terms) into CL theory, validating the “logical chain externalization → load optimization” mechanism in design education contexts. Practically, it provides actionable strategies for the digital transformation of design education, fostering interdisciplinary thinking and advancing a teaching paradigm where low-order cognition is outsourced to reinforce high-order creative thinking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Architectural Education)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 5862 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A SketchUp-Based Optimal Design Tool for PV Systems in Zero-Energy Buildings During the Early Design Stage

by Jun Hwan Park and Seung Hyo Baek

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2863; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162863 - 13 Aug 2025

Achieving zero-energy buildings (ZEBs) requires the appropriate planning of renewable energy systems, particularly photovoltaic (PV) systems, from the early design stage (EDS). Conventional PV system design tools have limitations, including insufficient integration with the architectural design process, complex operability, and inability to adequately [...] Read more.

Achieving zero-energy buildings (ZEBs) requires the appropriate planning of renewable energy systems, particularly photovoltaic (PV) systems, from the early design stage (EDS). Conventional PV system design tools have limitations, including insufficient integration with the architectural design process, complex operability, and inability to adequately reflect the characteristics of the EDS. In this study, we developed a PV system optimization tool based on SketchUp, which is widely used in the EDS. The developed tool inputs the building’s 3D modeling information and derives an optimal layout plan that minimizes the number of PV modules while achieving the target energy self-sufficiency rate (ESR) via particle swarm optimization. To verify the performance of the developed tool, a comparative analysis with the System Advisor Model (SAM) was performed, resulting in high accuracy with a maximum relative error of 2.25% in 15 verification cases. Through case studies of 20 different building masses, optimal PV layout plans that stably achieved a target ESR of 20% were successfully derived for diverse mass cases. This tool enables architects to perform preliminary sizing and performance evaluations of PV systems in the EDS without the support of engineers and provides an environment for the integrated consideration of energy performance and esthetics through the presentation of visualized results to support more effective decision-making in the EDS of ZEB projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 17147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flexural Performance of Basalt-Fiber-Grid-Reinforced Concrete Two-Way Slabs: Experimental Study and Numerical Simulation

by Chaobin Hu, Shun Jin, Liping Li, Xinrong Liu, Mingjian He, Changrong Fu, Ninghui Liang and Weiping Zhou

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2862; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162862 - 13 Aug 2025

To evaluate the feasibility of substituting mechanical testing with finite element simulation for basalt-fiber-grid-reinforced concrete, this study fabricated two-way slab specimens with varying basalt fiber grid layers. Flexural tests revealed load–deflection response characteristics of both fiber-reinforced and plain concrete. An ANSYS-based refined finite [...] Read more.

To evaluate the feasibility of substituting mechanical testing with finite element simulation for basalt-fiber-grid-reinforced concrete, this study fabricated two-way slab specimens with varying basalt fiber grid layers. Flexural tests revealed load–deflection response characteristics of both fiber-reinforced and plain concrete. An ANSYS-based refined finite element model successfully replicated bending deformation patterns and grid failure modes under identical conditions, with experimental-simulation comparisons validating model accuracy (error < 8%). Through parametric secondary development, the model was extended to analyze 9 single-layer and 72 double-layer grid configurations. A high-precision response surface model (R² ≥ 0.99) was established via nonlinear regression, enabling rapid performance prediction for arbitrary grid arrangements. This computational framework provides a reliable simulation tool for digital design of fiber-reinforced concrete components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 8202 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Empirical Probability Distribution Model of Soil Factors Influencing Seismic Liquefaction

by Zhengquan Yang, Meng Fan, Jingjun Li, Xiaosheng Liu, Jianming Zhao and Hui Yang

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2861; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162861 - 13 Aug 2025

One of the important tasks in sand liquefaction assessment is to evaluate the likelihood of soil liquefaction. However, most liquefaction assessment methods are deterministic for influencing factors and fail to calculate the liquefaction probability by systematically considering the probability distributions of soil factors. [...] Read more.

One of the important tasks in sand liquefaction assessment is to evaluate the likelihood of soil liquefaction. However, most liquefaction assessment methods are deterministic for influencing factors and fail to calculate the liquefaction probability by systematically considering the probability distributions of soil factors. Based on field liquefaction investigation cases, probability distribution fitting and a hypothesis test were carried out. For the variables that failed to pass the fitting and test, the kernel density estimation was conducted. Methods for calculating the liquefaction probability using a Monte Carlo simulation with the probability distribution were then proposed. The results indicated that for (N₁)₆₀, SM, S, and GM followed a Gaussian distribution, while CL and ML followed a lognormal distribution; for FC, SM and GM followed a lognormal distribution; and for d₅₀, ML and S followed a Gaussian and lognormal distribution, respectively. The other factors’ distribution curves can be calculated by kernel density estimation. It is feasible to calculate the liquefaction probability based on a Monte Carlo simulation of the variable distribution. The result of the liquefaction probability calculation in this case was similar to that of the existing probability model and was consistent with actual observations. Regional sample differences were considered by introducing the normal distribution error term, and the liquefaction probability accuracy could be improved to a certain extent. The liquefaction probability at a specific seismic level or the total probability within a certain period in the future can be calculated with the method proposed in this paper. It provides a data-driven basis for realistically estimating the likelihood of soil liquefaction under seismic loading and contributes to site classification, liquefaction potential zoning, and ground improvements in seismic design decisions. The practical value of seismic hazard mapping and performance-based design in earthquake-prone regions was also demonstrated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties of Basalt Fiber-Reinforced Coal Gangue Coarse Aggregate-Fly Ash Geopolymer Concrete

by Zheng Yang and Xianzhang Ling

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2860; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162860 - 13 Aug 2025

Excellent mechanical properties are a prerequisite for the widespread application of different types of concrete in practical engineering. However, when coal gangue (CG) is used as coarse aggregate (CA) and geopolymer cement is used as auxiliary cementitious material, while reducing the demand for [...] Read more.

Excellent mechanical properties are a prerequisite for the widespread application of different types of concrete in practical engineering. However, when coal gangue (CG) is used as coarse aggregate (CA) and geopolymer cement is used as auxiliary cementitious material, while reducing the demand for ordinary cement and industrial waste emissions, it has a negative impact on mechanical performance. Therefore, in response to the data gap in the study of mechanical properties of coal gangue coarse aggregate-fly ash geopolymer concrete (CG-FA-GPC), inspired by a large number of research results on fiber-reinforced concrete, this study uses basalt fiber (BF) as a reinforcing material to investigate the enhancing effect of BF on the mechanical properties of CG-FA-GPC. We selected compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, and stress–strain curve as evaluation indicators to compare and analyze the mechanical properties of ordinary concrete, CG-FA-GPC, and basalt fiber-reinforced coal gangue coarse aggregate-fly ash geopolymer concrete (BF-CG-FA-GPC), and to explore the reinforcement effect of BF. The results showed that with the increase in CG substitution rate, the compressive strength, flexural strength, and splitting tensile strength of CG-FA-GPC significantly decreased. A 100% CG substitution reduced the compressive strength, flexural strength, and splitting tensile strength of CG-FA-GPC by 34.5%, 43.4%, and 31.8%, respectively. The stress–strain curve reveals the dual effects of BF on the strength enhancement and deformation modification of CG-FA-GPC. With the increase in BF content, the three mechanical strengths of CG-FA-GPC show a pattern of first increasing and then decreasing, and the optimal BF content is 0.4% (volume fraction). This experiment lays the foundation for promoting research on the mechanical properties and durability of different fiber-reinforced CG-FA-GPC, advancing the feasibility of its large-scale engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 5563 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Ventilation Performance in Large-Section Highway Tunnels: The Role of Deflector Shields in Jet Fan Systems

by Kai Wang and Kai Cao

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2859; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162859 - 13 Aug 2025

The jet fan system is a widely adopted form of longitudinal ventilation due to its cost-effectiveness, operational flexibility, and high reliability. However, in large-section highway tunnels with a low height-to-span ratio, the limited clearance between the tunnel ceiling and surrounding structural boundaries imposes [...] Read more.

The jet fan system is a widely adopted form of longitudinal ventilation due to its cost-effectiveness, operational flexibility, and high reliability. However, in large-section highway tunnels with a low height-to-span ratio, the limited clearance between the tunnel ceiling and surrounding structural boundaries imposes significant constraints on improving ventilation performance by adjusting the installation height or pitch angle of the jet fan. To address this limitation, this study proposes a deflector shield system to enhance the aerodynamic efficiency of jet fans. A total of thirteen test cases, including a control group, three deflector plate quantities, and four deflector pitch angles, were tested in a full-scale field test conducted in a large-section tunnel. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of the number and pitch angle of deflector plates on tunnel ventilation efficiency and to identify the optimal parameter combination for application in large-section tunnels. The results show that static pressure along the tunnel initially rises with distance from the fan, peaks, and then declines sharply. The pressure rise coefficient is significantly enhanced under several configurations, particularly with four deflector plates at 8° and 10° pitches, and with five plates at 4° to 10° pitches. When the number of deflector plates is five, a sharp drop in average wind speed is observed 15 m downstream of the fan, and extensive low-velocity regions appear further downstream. In contrast, the configurations with four deflector plates at 8° and 10° exhibit better wind speed uniformity in the downstream flow field. Considering both the pressure rise coefficient and wind speed uniformity, the optimal ventilation performance of the jet fan system is achieved with four deflector plates at a pitch angle of 8°. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Analysis of Underground Space Construction: 2nd Edition)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 53539 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gender Differences in Visual Perception of Park Landscapes Based on Eye-Tracking Technology: A Case Study of Beihai Park in Beijing

by Guaini Jiang, Shangwu Cao, Si Chen, Xin Tian and Min Cao

Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2858; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162858 - 13 Aug 2025

Previous landscape design mostly relies on general standards, failing to fully consider gender differences in landscape visual perception, with relevant research still needing further exploration. This study takes Beijing’s Beihai Park as the research object, using five types of on-site-collected photos (water landscape, [...] Read more.

Previous landscape design mostly relies on general standards, failing to fully consider gender differences in landscape visual perception, with relevant research still needing further exploration. This study takes Beijing’s Beihai Park as the research object, using five types of on-site-collected photos (water landscape, plant landscape, architectural landscape, path landscape, and square landscape) as stimuli. Twenty males and twenty females participated in an eye-tracking experiment and a questionnaire survey to analyze gender differences in the visual perception of these five landscapes. The results show the following: (1) females show a “core–radiation” pattern, focusing on mid-short vision and environmental details; males focus on distant views and functional areas. (2) Females have slightly higher APD and fixation counts, with stronger cognitive/emotional fluctuations; males have longer total fixation time and more sustained attention. (3) Males prefer architectural/square landscapes, emphasizing functionality; females favor water/plant landscapes, prioritizing emotional connection with nature. (4) The total fixation time significantly impacts subjective evaluations; the average fixation duration is gender-neutral but uniquely affects evaluations of certain landscape types. This study has guiding significance for enhancing park landscapes’ inclusiveness and attractiveness, promoting different genders’ participation and satisfaction, and boosting space vitality and utilization efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Health, Wellbeing and Urban Design)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

More Articles...

Submit to Buildings Review for Buildings

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

► Journal Browser

Highly Accessed Articles

View More...

Latest Books

More Books and Reprints...

E-Mail Alert

News

7 August 2025
Meet Us at the 12^th Indoor Environment and Health Conference (IEHB 2025), 8–10 August 2025, Dalian, China

1 August 2025
Meet Us at the Architectural Institute of Japan Annual Meeting 2025, 9–12 September 2025, Fukuoka, Japan

31 July 2025
MDPI INSIGHTS: The CEO's Letter #25 - 8,000 Staff Worldwide, Korea Visit, 100,000 Preprints, Malaysia Roundtable, Canada Consortium Deal

More News & Announcements...

Topics

Propose a Topic

Topic in Energies, Sustainability, Buildings, Architecture

Decarbonising the Building Industry Topic Editors: Behzad Rismanchi, Tuan Ngo, Alireza Kashani, Aliakbar Gholampour, M. Reza Hosseini
Deadline: 1 September 2025

Topic in Applied Sciences, Buildings, Heritage, Materials, Sustainability

Sustainability in Buildings: New Trends in the Management of Construction and Demolition Waste, 2nd Volume Topic Editors: Carlos Morón Fernández, Daniel Ferrández Vega
Deadline: 30 September 2025

Topic in Buildings, CivilEng, Construction Materials, Materials, Solids

Novel Cementitious Materials Topic Editors: Peiyu Yan, Yao Luan, Chunsheng Zhou
Deadline: 31 October 2025

Topic in Atmosphere, Buildings, Climate, Environments, Sustainability, Earth

Climate, Health and Cities: Building Aspects for a Resilient Future Topic Editors: Ferdinando Salata, Virgilio Ciancio, Simona Mannucci
Deadline: 20 November 2025

More Topics

Conferences

Propose a Conference Collaboration

2–3 October 2025 The 11th World Sustainability Forum

1–3 October 2025 The 6th Luso-Brazilian Meeting on Degradation in Reinforced Concrete Structures (DEGRADA 2025)

1–2 November 2025 The International Symposium on Climate Adaptation and Low-Carbon Cities 2025

More Conferences...

Special Issues

Propose a Special Issue

Special Issue in Buildings

Advances in Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) Guest Editors: Giovanni Semprini, Aminhossein Jahanbin, Simone Secchi
Deadline: 15 August 2025

Special Issue in Buildings

UHPC Materials: Structural and Mechanical Analysis in Buildings Guest Editors: Shu Fang, Yang Zou, Xiaoqing Xu, Zhuangcheng Fang
Deadline: 16 August 2025

Special Issue in Buildings

The Application of Intelligence Techniques in Construction Materials Guest Editors: Xiaorui Zhang, Weijie Zhang, Jingmin Xu, Songqiang Chen
Deadline: 20 August 2025

Special Issue in Buildings

Eco-Friendly and Sustainable Concrete Technology Guest Editor: Harifidy Ranaivomanana
Deadline: 20 August 2025

More Special Issues

Topical Collections

Topical Collection in Buildings

Green and Sustainable Building Materials Collection Editors: João Gomes Ferreira, Ana Isabel Marques

Topical Collection in Buildings

Structural Analysis for Earthquake-Resistant Design of Buildings Collection Editors: Daniele Perrone, Emanuele Brunesi

Topical Collection in Buildings

The Methods, Tools and Techniques for the Preservation of Existing Structures Collection Editors: Mislav Stepinac, Tomislav Kišiček, Ivan Lukačević, Ivan Duvnjak

Topical Collection in Buildings

Buildings and Fire Safety Collection Editors: Marina Gravit, Olga Zybina

More Topical Collections

Back to TopTop