Agronomy

20 pages, 1800 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Driver Pathways of Soil Erosion in Qilian Mountain National Park (1990–2022) Under Ecological Restoration

by Xuexia Liu, Yuanyuan Hao, Zhe Meng and Limin Hua

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020249 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

Soil erosion in alpine ecosystems threatens biodiversity, ecosystem services, and SDGs, yet its spatiotemporal dynamics and drivers remain unclear. Using multi-source remote sensing (1990–2022), deep learning, and Random Forest, we assessed soil erosion in Qilian Mountain National Park, an ecotone between the Qinghai–Tibet [...] Read more.

Soil erosion in alpine ecosystems threatens biodiversity, ecosystem services, and SDGs, yet its spatiotemporal dynamics and drivers remain unclear. Using multi-source remote sensing (1990–2022), deep learning, and Random Forest, we assessed soil erosion in Qilian Mountain National Park, an ecotone between the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and northwestern arid regions, offering a natural laboratory for advancing understanding of water erosion in fragile alpine–arid ecosystems. Results show a mean annual erosion of 2.77 × 10² t·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹ across the whole national park. Over the past three decades, the conversion of bare land to vegetated ecosystems (5355 km²) has reduced soil erosion by approximately 5.36 × 10⁸ t. Bare land had the highest annual mean erosion (100.17 t·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹), followed by cropland (10.03 t·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹) and shrubland (7.58 t·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹), while forest and grassland were <2.55 t·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹. Slope and precipitation (contributing over 49.85% and 6.80% across ecosystems, respectively) were the dominant drivers of soil erosion, whereas vegetation covers consistently migrated erosion (−0.04 ≤ r ≤ −0.01). Human activity reduced vegetation cover (−0.15 ≤ r ≤ −0.08), thereby intensifying erosion. Overall, erosion intensity declined by 17.04% over the past three decades, yet management should prioritize bare land, cropland, and sensitive zones to strengthen restoration and prevent soil erosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Soil Management and Ecological Restoration)

16 pages, 722 KB

Open AccessReview

The Regulation Effects and Associated Physiological Mechanisms of Exogenous Melatonin on Sorghum Under Drought Stress

by Guanglong Zhu, Hao Wu, Weicheng Bu, Zhiqiang Ren, Haibo Hu, Irshad Ahmad, Muhi Eldeen Hussien Ibrahim and Guisheng Zhou

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020248 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is a vital crop for both grain production and forage, playing a critical role in ensuring global food security and sustainable livestock production. Drought stress represents one of the most severe abiotic constraints in sorghum cultivation, adversely affecting [...] Read more.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is a vital crop for both grain production and forage, playing a critical role in ensuring global food security and sustainable livestock production. Drought stress represents one of the most severe abiotic constraints in sorghum cultivation, adversely affecting plant growth and development, and ultimately leading to significant reductions in yield and quality. Melatonin has emerged as a multifaceted plant growth regulator that enhances plant growth and confers tolerance to various abiotic stresses. It actively participates in regulating key physiological processes, including seed germination, seedling establishment, cellular development, and metabolic homeostasis. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the impacts of drought stress on sorghum growth and physiological metabolism, with a specific focus on the protective role of melatonin under water-deficit conditions. The underlying physiological and molecular mechanisms are comprehensively discussed, encompassing ion homeostasis, nutrient metabolism, reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging, photosynthetic efficiency, energy metabolism, phytohormone crosstalk, signal transduction, and associated gene expression. Finally, we outline future research directions to advance our understanding of melatonin-mediated drought tolerance in sorghum, providing insights for breeding drought-resilient varieties and developing high-yielding cultivation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants: Towards a Sustainable Agriculture)

18 pages, 1102 KB

Open AccessArticle

Boron Toxicity Alters Yield, Mineral Nutrition and Metabolism in Tomato Plants: Limited Mitigation by a Laminaria digitata-Derived Biostimulant

by Valeria Navarro-Perez, Erika Fernandez-Martinez, Francisco García-Sánchez, Silvia Simón-Grao and Vicente Gimeno-Nieves

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020247 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

The use of unconventional water sources, such as those from marine desalination plants, is challenging for agriculture due to boron concentrations exceeding 0.5 mg L⁻¹, which can impact crop yield and quality. To ensure sustainability, it is crucial to understand crop [...] Read more.

The use of unconventional water sources, such as those from marine desalination plants, is challenging for agriculture due to boron concentrations exceeding 0.5 mg L⁻¹, which can impact crop yield and quality. To ensure sustainability, it is crucial to understand crop responses to high boron levels and to develop strategies to mitigate its toxic effects. This study evaluated the impact of irrigation with a nutrient solution containing 15 mg L⁻¹ of boron on tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L.). To modulate the physiological effects of boron toxicity, two biostimulant products based on an extract from the brown alga Laminaria digitata and other active ingredients were applied foliarly. Agronomic, nutritional, and metabolic parameters were analyzed, including total yield, number of fruits per plant, and fruit quality. Additionally, mineral analysis and metabolomic profiling of leaves and fruits were performed, focusing on amino acids, organic acids, sugars, and other metabolites. A control treatment was irrigated with a nutrient solution containing 0.25 mg L⁻¹ of boron. The results showed that a boron concentration of 15 mg L⁻¹ significantly reduced total yield by 45% and significantly decreased fruit size and firmness. Mineral and metabolomic analyses showed significant reductions in Mg and Ca concentrations, significant increases in P and Zn levels, excessive boron accumulation in leaves and fruits, and significant changes in metabolites associated with nitrogen metabolism and the Krebs cycle. Biostimulant application did not significantly improve agronomic performance, likely due to high boron accumulation in the leaves, although significant changes were detected in leaf nutritional status and metabolic profiles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biostimulants for Sustainable Crop Productivity and Protection: From Concept to Application)

18 pages, 2737 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic Insight into Early Response of Apple Infected with Penicillium expansum Exposed to Blue LED Light

by Nik Mahnič, Urban Kunej, Jernej Jakše, Nataša Toplak, Simon Koren, Matej Bernard Kobav, Rajko Vidrih and Barbara Jeršek

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020246 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

The aim of the study was to investigate the early response of apple fruit infected with Penicillium expansum (P. expansum) to blue light-emitting diode (LED) light (BLL) irradiation. To focus our study on the interaction between apple fruit, the pathogen, and [...] Read more.

The aim of the study was to investigate the early response of apple fruit infected with Penicillium expansum (P. expansum) to blue light-emitting diode (LED) light (BLL) irradiation. To focus our study on the interaction between apple fruit, the pathogen, and BLL, the effect of BLL was also studied on apples without P. expansum and P. expansum grown on malt extract agar (MEA). Transcriptome analysis revealed that the most pronounced responses among biological processes were observed in inoculated apples under BLL. The upregulated processes included water transport, response to heat, and response to high light intensity. The defence response of apples was enhanced by the upregulation of thaumatin-like proteins and caffeic acid 3-O-methyltransferase, while the cellular response to phosphate deficiency and the regulation of multicellular organism development were downregulated. In P. expansum grown on apples under BLL, transcriptome analysis revealed downregulation of genes related to signalling, response to organic compounds, and regulation of metabolic and biosynthetic processes, while genes involved in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites were upregulated. In addition, the expression of patulin cluster genes was predominantly downregulated in P. expansum. The significant upregulation of genes related to cryptochrome inhibition, defence response, and caffeic acid metabolism in apples under BLL, together with the reduced virulence of P. expansum, contributes to the inhibition of fungal growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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19 pages, 3154 KB

Open AccessArticle

Subsurface Irrigation Depth Affects High-Yield Triticum aestivum Cultivation in Saline-Alkali Soils: Evidence from Soil–Microbe–Crop Interaction

by Tieqiang Wang, Hanbo Wang, Kai Guo, Xiaobin Li, Weidong Li, Zhenxing Yan and Wenbin Chen

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020245 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

Drip irrigation burial depth is a critical management factor for saline-alkali agriculture, yet its mechanisms of influencing crop productivity through soil–microbe–plant interactions remain poorly understood. To explore the regulatory effects of drip irrigation burial depth on the growth and rhizosphere microenvironment of dryland [...] Read more.

Drip irrigation burial depth is a critical management factor for saline-alkali agriculture, yet its mechanisms of influencing crop productivity through soil–microbe–plant interactions remain poorly understood. To explore the regulatory effects of drip irrigation burial depth on the growth and rhizosphere microenvironment of dryland wheat in saline-alkali soil, three treatments (no irrigation control, CK; 5 cm shallow-buried drip irrigation, T5; 25 cm deep-buried drip irrigation, T25) were set up, with soil physicochemical properties, microbial community characteristics, and crop yield analyzed. The results showed that drip irrigation significantly improved soil environment and yield, and T25 exhibited superior comprehensive benefits: soil electrical conductivity was reduced by 63%, organic matter content increased by 44%, and water-salt status was significantly optimized; meanwhile, microbial community structure was altered and root nutrient uptake capacity was enhanced, ultimately achieving a yield of 5347.1 kg ha⁻¹, 55.0% higher than CK. In conclusion, 25 cm deep-buried drip irrigation may provide advantages for wheat cultivation primarily through improved water distribution, desalination, and soil structure enhancement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Agrotechnical Factors and Farming Systems on Soil Properties and Plant Productivity—2nd Edition)

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9 pages, 527 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biological Control of Tuta absoluta Using Commercial Entomopathogenic Fungal Endophytes: Colonization Efficiency and Greenhouse Efficacy

by Christos Lymperopoulos and Spyridon Mantzoukas

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020244 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

The tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), is one of the most destructive pests of tomato crops worldwide. Its high reproductive potential and increasing resistance to conventional insecticides have made the development of sustainable management strategies essential. Biological control using entomopathogenic fungi [...] Read more.

The tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), is one of the most destructive pests of tomato crops worldwide. Its high reproductive potential and increasing resistance to conventional insecticides have made the development of sustainable management strategies essential. Biological control using entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), particularly when established as endophytes, has emerged as a promising approach. This study investigated the endophytic colonization capacity and greenhouse performance of three commercially available EPF formulations: Beauveria bassiana (Velifer^®), Lecanicillium lecanii (Lecan^®), and a Beauveria bassiana–Metarhizium anisopliae mixture (Metab^®), for the suppression of T. absoluta in tomato. Our experiment was conducted under commercial greenhouse conditions using soil drench applications at manufacturer-recommended doses. Endophytic colonization was assessed through surface-sterilized leaf assays, while pest suppression was evaluated via weekly measurements of larval mine length, infestation incidence, and survival dynamics. B. bassiana (Velifer^®) exhibited the highest endophytic colonization frequency and consistently reduced mine length and infestation levels compared with untreated plants. Survival analysis using Cox proportional hazards revealed significant reductions in infestation risk for Velifer^® (hazard ratio, HR = 0.420), Metab^® (HR = 0.480), and Lecan^® (HR = 0.599), relative to the negative control, whereas the chemical positive control provided the strongest overall suppression (HR = 0.287). Our findings demonstrate that commercial EPF formulations can significantly reduce T. absoluta infestation under greenhouse conditions and represent a valuable component of integrated pest management programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pests, Pesticides, Pollinators and Sustainable Farming—2nd Edition)

15 pages, 409 KB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Regulation of Planting Density and Mepiquat Chloride on Yield and Plant Architecture of Short-Season Cotton in the Yangtze River Basin, China

by Yeling Qin, Zhangshu Xie, Fang Cheng, Lijuan Zheng, Youhong Jiang, Xiaoju Tu, Aiyu Liu and Zhonghua Zhou

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020243 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

Optimizing planting density and mepiquat chloride (MC) is essential for simplified, machine-harvestable cotton production in the Yangtze River Basin. A two-year field experiment was conducted to explore the synergistic regulatory mechanisms of MC and planting density on plant architecture, physiology, and yield in [...] Read more.

Optimizing planting density and mepiquat chloride (MC) is essential for simplified, machine-harvestable cotton production in the Yangtze River Basin. A two-year field experiment was conducted to explore the synergistic regulatory mechanisms of MC and planting density on plant architecture, physiology, and yield in short-season direct-seeding cotton. A split-plot design was employed with varying gradients of MC dosage and planting density. The results indicate that density and MC function complementarily in shaping plant architecture: MC primarily controls vertical growth (“dwarfing”), while density elevates the initial fruiting node (“elevation”), with no antagonistic interaction between the two. Regarding canopy structure, increasing density is the primary driver for improving the leaf area index (LAI), while MC optimizes light distribution during the critical boll stage. In terms of yield formation, high density significantly enhances seed cotton yield by increasing the number of bolls per unit area, which effectively overcompensates for the reduction in bolls per plant. Notably, a dose-dependent synergistic effect was observed where high MC dosage maximized the yield potential of high-density populations. Furthermore, fiber quality remained stable across treatments, driven primarily by interannual climate factors rather than agronomic regulation. Consequently, an independent synergistic optimization strategy is recommended, combining high density to secure population yield with medium-to-high MC dosage to shape an ideal machine-harvestable architecture. This approach provides a theoretical basis and technical pathway for high-yield and efficient cotton cultivation in the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

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17 pages, 8538 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mining for Resistance Loci to Fusarium Wilt in Mungbean

by Yingchao Shen, Zhixiao Zhang, Changyou Liu, Yan Wang, Shen Wang, Huiying Shi, Zhimin Cao, Zhendong Zhu, Baojie Fan and Jing Tian

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020242 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

Fusarium wilt (FW), caused by Fusarium oxysporum, poses a significant threat to mungbean (Vigna radiata L.), impacting its yield and quality. In this study, a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population was developed by crossing the highly resistant cultivar Weilv 9002-341 with [...] Read more.

Fusarium wilt (FW), caused by Fusarium oxysporum, poses a significant threat to mungbean (Vigna radiata L.), impacting its yield and quality. In this study, a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population was developed by crossing the highly resistant cultivar Weilv 9002-341 with the highly susceptible line V1128. Assessment of resistance revealed a continuous variation in the average disease index within the resulting population, consistent with the inheritance pattern of quantitative traits. Leveraging an F_2:3 segregating population, we conducted linkage mapping analysis and bulked segregant analysis by sequencing, leading to the construction of a genetic linkage map and the identification of a region correlated with resistance. Within this region, 14 novel simple sequence repeat markers were designed to enable refined mapping. A putative resistance locus, spanning 0.17 Mb and encompassing 19 annotated genes, was precisely located. Ultimately, two genes were identified as high-priority candidates conferring resistance. The results of this study lay the foundation for the functional investigation of genes associated with resistance to Fusarium wilt disease in mungbean. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cultivar Development of Pulses Crop—2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 3176 KB

Open AccessArticle

Stacking Ensemble Learning for Genomic Prediction Under Complex Genetic Architectures

by Maurício de Oliveira Celeri, Moyses Nascimento, Ana Carolina Campana Nascimento, Filipe Ribeiro Formiga Teixeira, Camila Ferreira Azevedo, Cosme Damião Cruz and Laís Mayara Azevedo Barroso

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020241 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

Genomic selection (GS) estimates the GEBV from genome-wide markers to reduce generation intervals and optimize germplasm selection, which is particularly advantageous for high-cost or late-expressed traits. While models like GBLUP are popular, they assume a polygenic architecture. In contrast, the Bayesian alphabet and [...] Read more.

Genomic selection (GS) estimates the GEBV from genome-wide markers to reduce generation intervals and optimize germplasm selection, which is particularly advantageous for high-cost or late-expressed traits. While models like GBLUP are popular, they assume a polygenic architecture. In contrast, the Bayesian alphabet and machine learning (ML) can accommodate other types of genetic architectures. Given that no single model is universally optimal, stacking ensembles, which train a meta-model using predictions from diverse base learners, emerge as a compelling solution. However, the application of stacking in GS often overlooks non-additive effects. This study evaluated different stacking configurations for genomic prediction across 10 simulated traits, covering additive, dominance, and epistatic genetic architectures. A 5-fold cross-validation scheme was used to assess predictive ability and other evaluation metrics. The stacking approach demonstrated superior predictive ability in all scenarios. Gains were especially pronounced in complex architectures (100 QTLs, h² = 0.3), reaching an 83% increment over the best individual model (BayesA with dominance), and also in oligogenic scenarios with epistasis (10 QTLs, h² = 0.6), with a 27.59% gain. The success of stacking was attributed to two key strategies: base learner selection and the use of robust meta-learners (such as principal component or penalized regression) that effectively handled multicollinearity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations and Prospects for Future Agriculture: Applications of Machine Learning and AI in Crop Breeding)

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21 pages, 16894 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coupling Satellite-Derived Vegetation Indexes and Ground-Truth Data in Hazelnut Cultivation to Assess Biostimulants’ Efficacy

by Francesco Giovanelli, Alberto Pacchiarelli, Cristian Silvestri and Valerio Cristofori

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020240 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) cultivation in Italy is facing constraints related to climate change, causing decreases in production as a consequence of summer droughts and late spring heatwaves. This two-year study (2024–2025, i.e., Y1 and Y2) evaluated the effectiveness of two biostimulant [...] Read more.

Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) cultivation in Italy is facing constraints related to climate change, causing decreases in production as a consequence of summer droughts and late spring heatwaves. This two-year study (2024–2025, i.e., Y1 and Y2) evaluated the effectiveness of two biostimulant protocols on the eco-physiological and productive performance of a hazelnut orchard (cv ‘Tonda Gentile Romana’) in Central Italy. Treatment A included a mixture of formulations (silicon, Ecklonia maxima and microalgae), while Treatment B featured an Ecklonia maxima-containing biostimulant. Data-gathering combined ground-level measurements and remote-sensing technologies, which allowed for the extraction and assessment of vegetation indexes such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), the Normalized Difference Red Edge Index (NDRE) and the Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI). Treatments A and B successfully maintained higher chlorophyll content; this beneficial effect was validated by the NDVI, but the NDRE might have suffered from soil interference due to its high sensitivity. The NDMI was positively influenced by both treatments. Treatment A brought to a remarkable production increase in both seasons, especially in Y1 with 7.75 kg plant⁻¹ (+40% vs. Control) and without negatively affecting the shell/nut ratio. These findings suggest that biostimulants could represent an effective strategy for improving productivity and enhancing abiotic stress resilience in hazelnut cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Horticultural and Floricultural Crops)

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17 pages, 3091 KB

Open AccessArticle

Chlorella vulgaris Enhances Soil Aggregate Stability in Rice Paddy Fields and Arable Land Through Alterations in Soil Extracellular Polymeric Substances

by Shaoqiang Huang, Xinyu Jiang, Hao Liu, Hongtao Jiang, Jiong Cheng, Heng Jiang, Shiqin Yu and Sanxiong Chen

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020239 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

Microalgal amendments can improve soil structure by regulating extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs). However, the mechanisms underlying this process in red soils (characterized by high clay content and susceptibility to acidification) under different farming practices remain unclear. This study examined how Chlorella vulgaris ( [...] Read more.

Microalgal amendments can improve soil structure by regulating extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs). However, the mechanisms underlying this process in red soils (characterized by high clay content and susceptibility to acidification) under different farming practices remain unclear. This study examined how Chlorella vulgaris (C. vulgaris) amendment influences EPS composition to enhance soil aggregate stability under arable land and rice paddy farming. A five-month pot experiment using a completely randomized design was conducted to investigate the effects of Chlorella vulgaris amendment on soils cultivated with Pennisetum × sinese and rice, two economically important crops commonly grown in South China. At the end of the experiment, Chlorella vulgaris amendment substantially increased both the mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric mean diameter (GMD) of soil aggregates under both farming systems. Excitation–emission matrix (EEM) fluorescence spectroscopy revealed distinct changes in soil EPS components between the two farming types. Under arable land farming, humic-like and protein-like EPSs were dominant in Chlorella vulgaris-amended treatments, with fluorescence intensities more than doubling compared to the control. Conversely, under rice paddy farming, soil fulvic acid was the main component and showed a moderate increase. Partial least squares path modeling (PLS-PM) demonstrated that protein-like and humic-like EPSs had the strongest direct effects on aggregate stability in arable land red soil, while fulvic acid was the key factor in rice paddy red soil. The present study demonstrates that Chlorella vulgaris amendment improves aggregate stability in red soils through farming-specific, EPS-mediated pathways, providing a quantitative framework for researchers and land managers seeking to apply microalgal amendments for red soil enhancement and sustainable land management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of the Soil Microbiome on Nutrient Cycling and Soil Health in Agroecosystems)

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23 pages, 2406 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Nitrogen Rates on Winter Wheat Growth, Yield and Water-Nitrogen Use Efficiency Under Sprinkler Irrigation and Dry-Hot Wind Stress

by Dongyang He, Tianyi Xu, Jingjing Wang, Yuncheng Xu and Haijun Yan

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020238 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of nitrogen application and sprinkler irrigation on winter wheat growth, water use efficiency (WUE), and yield formation under dry-hot wind stress. The primary aim was to understand how nitrogen levels influence canopy structure, soil water–nitrogen coupling, and yield [...] Read more.

This study investigates the effects of nitrogen application and sprinkler irrigation on winter wheat growth, water use efficiency (WUE), and yield formation under dry-hot wind stress. The primary aim was to understand how nitrogen levels influence canopy structure, soil water–nitrogen coupling, and yield components under varying irrigation conditions. Field experiments were conducted with different nitrogen rates (N1, N2, N3, N4, N5) and sprinkler irrigation under heat stress. Plant height, leaf area index (LAI), canopy interception, and stemflow were measured, along with soil moisture and nitrogen content in the root zone. Results indicate that moderate nitrogen application (212 kg N ha⁻²) optimized yield and WUE, with a significant enhancement in canopy structure and water interception. High nitrogen levels resulted in increased water consumption but decreased nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), while lower nitrogen treatments showed reduced yield stability under heat stress. The findings suggest that balanced nitrogen management, in combination with timely irrigation, is essential for improving winter wheat productivity under climate stress. This study highlights the importance of optimizing water and nitrogen inputs to achieve sustainable wheat production in regions facing increasing climate variability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Monitoring and Yield Prediction for Arid and Semi-Arid Farming Systems)

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20 pages, 1448 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exogenous Melatonin Modulates Drought Response and Recovery in Wheat with Contrasting Grain Colour

by Martin Zelený, Kamil Kraus, Tomáš Müller and Helena Hniličková

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020237 - 20 Jan 2026

Abstract

Melatonin is recognised as a multifunctional regulatory molecule that enhances plant tolerance to abiotic stresses, but its effectiveness is often strongly genotype-dependent. This study aimed to elucidate how exogenous melatonin (200 µM) modulates the physiological and biochemical responses of wheat during drought and [...] Read more.

Melatonin is recognised as a multifunctional regulatory molecule that enhances plant tolerance to abiotic stresses, but its effectiveness is often strongly genotype-dependent. This study aimed to elucidate how exogenous melatonin (200 µM) modulates the physiological and biochemical responses of wheat during drought and subsequent recovery in two genotypes with contrasting grain pigmentation: the standard cv. Bohemia (red grain) and an experimental purple-pericarp (PP) line. Plants were exposed to drought at the early vegetative stage (BBCH 15), and gas exchange, leaf water potential, and biochemical markers (proline, malondialdehyde, phenolics, and flavonoids) were assessed during drought and after rehydration. In cv. Bohemia, water deficit led to a pronounced decrease in CO₂ assimilation, stomatal conductance, and leaf water potential, accompanied by strong increases in proline (Pro) and malondialdehyde (MDA). Melatonin application in this genotype markedly reduced the accumulation of Pro and MDA and accelerated the recovery of gas exchange, indicating a significant protective effect. The lower Pro levels in melatonin-treated Bohemia plants suggest that melatonin mitigated the perceived stress intensity, thereby reducing the physiological demand for osmotic adjustment. In contrast, the PP line exhibited higher inherent stability of the photosynthetic apparatus and more moderate biochemical shifts; its recovery was almost complete and independent of melatonin. Overall, these results indicate that the functional benefit of exogenous melatonin is greater in genotypes with a lower intrinsic stress-buffering capacity. This study highlights the importance of considering constitutive genotype traits and the recovery phase when using physiological regulators to improve wheat drought resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Approaches to Enhancing Crop Productivity: Molecular, Hormonal, and Agronomic Perspectives)

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24 pages, 29766 KB

Open AccessArticle

Agricultural Irrigation Water Requirement Prediction in Arid Regions Based on the Integration of the AquaCrop-OS Model and Deep Learning: A Case Study of the Qarqan River Basin, China

by Fan Gao, Hairui Li, Bing He, Kun Liu, Jiacheng Zhang, Qiang Liu, Ying Li and Lu Wang

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020236 - 19 Jan 2026

Abstract

Water scarcity and ecological degradation driven by the expansion of irrigated agriculture in arid regions urgently necessitate a rigorous assessment of the combined impacts of climate change and crop-structure adjustments on irrigation water requirements (IWR). Taking the Qarqan River Basin as a case [...] Read more.

Water scarcity and ecological degradation driven by the expansion of irrigated agriculture in arid regions urgently necessitate a rigorous assessment of the combined impacts of climate change and crop-structure adjustments on irrigation water requirements (IWR). Taking the Qarqan River Basin as a case study, this study establishes an integrated framework that incorporates remote sensing (Landsat/MODIS), the AquaCrop-OS crop model, and a CNN-LSTM deep learning architecture to simulate historical IWR (2000–2024) and project future trajectories under CMIP6 climate scenarios. The results indicate that: (1) from 2000 to 2024, fruit tree area expanded from 120.3 to 320.3 km², cotton stabilized at approximately 165.3 km² after peaking at 187.9 km² in 2014, wheat recovered to 113.1 km², and maize varied between 23.7 and 85.0 km², indicating that fruit trees have become the dominant crop type. (2) Over the same period, total basin-wide IWR increased by 91% (3.7 × 10⁸ to 7.1 × 10⁸ m³), with fruit trees accounting for 44–68% of this growth. Logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) decomposition further shows that meteorological factors and human activities jointly drove the increase in IWR, with cultivated-area expansion and cropping-structure change contributing most, while improvements in agricultural water-use efficiency partially offset the rise. (3) Projections for 2025–2100 suggest stronger structural dominance of fruit trees and cotton; the growing share of water-intensive cash crops may further elevate irrigation pressure. Under SSP5-8.5, a 30% reduction in fruit tree area in the late century could save 4.3% of irrigation water (0.33 × 10⁸ m³). Overall, this study provides dynamic projections and decision support for adaptive regulation of agricultural water resources in arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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19 pages, 1564 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Effects of Single and Combined PGPR Inoculation on Growth and Physiology of Atriplex canescens Under Saline Irrigation

by Lu Dong, Jing Pan, Pinglin Guo, Quangang You, Qinqin Lv and Xian Xue

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020235 - 19 Jan 2026

Abstract

Salinity stress severely constrains plant growth and ecosystem functioning in arid and semi-arid regions, and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have been increasingly applied to enhance plant salt tolerance. Hoswever, it remains unclear whether different PGPR inoculation strategies confer salt resistance through similar or [...] Read more.

Salinity stress severely constrains plant growth and ecosystem functioning in arid and semi-arid regions, and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have been increasingly applied to enhance plant salt tolerance. Hoswever, it remains unclear whether different PGPR inoculation strategies confer salt resistance through similar or distinct physiological pathways, particularly in perennial halophytes adapted to saline environments. In this study, a field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of single- and multi-strain PGPR inoculation on the growth performance, physiological responses, and stress regulation of Atriplex canescens under saline conditions. Plant biomass allocation, photosynthetic traits, osmotic adjustment substances, antioxidant enzyme activities, and comprehensive stress tolerance indices were systematically assessed. The results showed that PGPR inoculation significantly improved plant growth and stress tolerance; however, the magnitude and underlying mechanisms varied across inoculation strategies. Single-strain inoculation predominantly enhanced root development and antioxidant regulation, whereas multi-strain inoculation tended to promote aboveground growth and photosynthetic performance. In contrast, certain strain combinations did not produce additive benefits, suggesting potential incompatibility among microbial consortia under salt stress. Multivariate analyses further indicated that improvements in stress tolerance were more closely associated with coordinated physiological regulation than with biomass accumulation alone. Overall, our findings demonstrate that PGPR-mediated salt tolerance in A. canescens is strategy-dependent and involves distinct resource allocation and stress-defense pathways. These results highlight the importance of considering inoculation strategies and functional compatibility when applying PGPR to improve plant performance in saline ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

19 pages, 1305 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Conventional, Reduced Tillage, and No-Till System on Cover Crop Aboveground Biomass

by Ivana Raimanova, Pavel Svoboda, Michal Moulik, Marie Lhotska, Jan Haberle and Martin Kas

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020234 - 19 Jan 2026

Abstract

Tillage after harvesting main crops can affect the growth of subsequent stubble cover crops (CCs). In order to better understand the factors influencing CC performance, the field study took place at two locations—the cooler, wetter Lukavec site and the warm, drier Ruzyně site—from [...] Read more.

Tillage after harvesting main crops can affect the growth of subsequent stubble cover crops (CCs). In order to better understand the factors influencing CC performance, the field study took place at two locations—the cooler, wetter Lukavec site and the warm, drier Ruzyně site—from 2021 to 2023. Here, we examined the effects of moldboard plow (PLO), reduced shallow tillage (RET), and no-till (NOT) treatments on five mixtures of two species: buckwheat and mustard or phacelia; oats and vetch; cannabis and setaria; clover and camelina; and two single-species variants, mustard and phacelia. The ADM was significantly higher in all CC variants under PLO (170 and 81.8 g m⁻² at Ruzyně and Lukavec, respectively) compared to RET (84.4 and 52.4 g m⁻²) and NOT (86.3 g m⁻²). Under the same tillage treatment, the differences in ADM among CC variants were over 100%, with the highest yields being from mustard (averaging 214.1 and 100.6 g m⁻² at Ruzyně and Lukavec), oats and vetch (168.6 and 138.2 g m⁻²), and mustard and buckwheat (138.8 g m⁻² at Ruzyně). Cannabis and setaria achieved the lowest yields (28.9 and 14.9 g m⁻²). No consistent differences were observed between single-species stands and two-species mixtures. The ADM of mustard under RET and NOT reached 66% and 60% of that under PLO, while phacelia and phacelia–buckwheat achieved between 17 and 44% of the same variable at Ruzyně. Better shoot growth significantly suppressed the growth of volunteer plants from previous cereal crops across all tillage types and at both sites. The study demonstrated that, despite differences in soil and climatic conditions, the aboveground yield of stubble cover crops was lower under reduced-tillage or no-till systems than under conventional tillage. Mustard, alone or mixed with buckwheat, and a mixture of oats and vetch responded to reduced tillage with less yield loss than the other species and mixtures. This results will aid in choosing suitable cover crop species for specific site conditions and tillage systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cover Crops Grown Alone and in Consortia: Biomass Production, Nutrient Cycling of Residues and Relationships with Soil and Crop Productivity)

17 pages, 1589 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration of Long-, Two-Term Rotational Tillage in a Semiarid Region: Aggregate-Associated OC Concentrations and Mineralization

by Shixiang Zhao, Shuwei Shen, Shaoqi Xue, Xudong Wang and Xia Zhang

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020233 - 19 Jan 2026

Abstract

Rotational tillage is considered a potential option to improve soil organic carbon (SOC) stock and mitigate climate change. However, the mechanisms underlying SOC sequestration under rotational tillage remain poorly understood due to insufficient data on SOC concentration and mineralization within soil aggregates. A [...] Read more.

Rotational tillage is considered a potential option to improve soil organic carbon (SOC) stock and mitigate climate change. However, the mechanisms underlying SOC sequestration under rotational tillage remain poorly understood due to insufficient data on SOC concentration and mineralization within soil aggregates. A 12-year field experiment was conducted in Northwest China to evaluate the effects of tillage on SOC stocks, soil aggregate stability, aggregate-associated OC concentrations and mineralization. The results showed that rotational tillage had more crop residue and less soil disturbance, thus improving soil aggregate stability, aggregate-associated OC concentrations and SOC stocks. The highest MWD and SOC stocks were found in no-tillage rotated with subsoiling (NS), which were 36.0–69.7% and 16.3% higher than plowing, respectively. Macroaggregates had higher cumulative OC mineralization and lower OC mineralizability, due to physical protection. Rotational tillage treatments with higher soil aggregation contributed to decreasing OC mineralizability and increasing SOC sequestration. Meanwhile, rotational tillage decreased OC mineralization loss, mineralizability, and decomposition rate within microaggregates and silt–clay fractions. Among all treatments, NS treatment had the lowest total OC mineralization, which was lower by 5.94–27.3% than plowing at 0–40 cm depths. Considering soil structure stability, SOC mineralization and sequestration, NS treatment was a promising strategy in semiarid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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18 pages, 17077 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Resource Efficiency and Environmental Impact in a Plant Factory Using an Ion-Selective Electrode-Based Precision Nutrient Management System

by Sanghyun Lee, Woo-Jae Cho, Hak-Jin Kim, Min-Seok Gang, Sung Kwon Park and Ronaldo B. Saludes

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020232 - 19 Jan 2026

Abstract

Plant factories enable stable crop production, but face sustainability challenges due to intensive resource consumption. In particular, studies that quantitatively analyze nutrient use in plant cultivation and assess the environmental burdens remain scarce. To address this, this study developed and evaluated a precision [...] Read more.

Plant factories enable stable crop production, but face sustainability challenges due to intensive resource consumption. In particular, studies that quantitatively analyze nutrient use in plant cultivation and assess the environmental burdens remain scarce. To address this, this study developed and evaluated a precision nutrient management system using ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) for closed hydroponic lettuce cultivation. The system’s performance was compared with a conventional EC-based approach in terms of resource use efficiency and environmental impact using life cycle assessment (LCA). The ISE-based system effectively maintained NO₃, K, and Ca concentrations within target ranges (root mean square error (RMSE) < 52 mg·L⁻¹), producing healthy crops without the physiological disorders (tip-burn) observed in the EC-based control, while the EC-based system showed higher total fresh weight, which implies that the increase in fresh weight may not necessarily correspond to marketable yield due to the nutrient imbalances. In terms of efficiency, the ISE-based system improved water-use efficiency (WUE) by 48.4% and fertilizer-use efficiency (FUE) by 24.5%. Furthermore, LCA revealed that the ISE-based system reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 8% and freshwater ecotoxicity by 64% per kg of lettuce, primarily by extending the nutrient solution reuse period threefold. The results suggest that ion-specific precision management has the potential to enhance the sustainability and resource efficiency of plant factories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Irrigation and Fertilization Management for Sustainable Agricultural Production)

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27 pages, 2933 KB

Open AccessArticle

The iPSM-SD Framework: Enhancing Predictive Soil Mapping for Precision Agriculture Through Spatial Proximity Integration

by Peng-Tao Guo, Wen-Tao Li, Mao-Fen Li, Pei-Sheng Yan, Yan Liu and Ju Zhao

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020231 - 18 Jan 2026

Abstract

A key challenge in precision agriculture is acquiring reliable spatial soil information under varying sampling densities, from sparse surveys to intensive monitoring. The individual predictive soil mapping (iPSM) method performs well in data-scarce conditions but neglects spatial proximity, limiting its predictive accuracy where [...] Read more.

A key challenge in precision agriculture is acquiring reliable spatial soil information under varying sampling densities, from sparse surveys to intensive monitoring. The individual predictive soil mapping (iPSM) method performs well in data-scarce conditions but neglects spatial proximity, limiting its predictive accuracy where spatial autocorrelation exists. To overcome this, we developed an enhanced framework, iPSM-Spatial Distance (iPSM-SD), which systematically integrates spatial proximity through multiplicative (MUL) and additive (ADD) strategies. The framework was validated using two contrasting cases: sparse soil organic carbon density data from Yunnan Province (n = 118) and dense soil organic matter data from Bayi Farm (n = 2511). Results show that the additive model (iPSM-ADD) significantly outperformed the original iPSM and benchmark models, including random forest, regression kriging, geographically weighted regression, and multiple linear regression, under sufficient sampling, achieving an R² of 0.86 and reducing RMSE by 46.6% at Bayi Farm. It also maintained robust accuracy under sparse sampling conditions. The iPSM-SD framework thus provides a unified and adaptive tool for digital soil mapping across a wide range of data availability, supporting scalable soil management decisions from regional assessment to field-scale variable-rate applications in precision agriculture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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