Photonics

19 pages, 2368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reexamination of Gain Theory for Intrinsic Photoconductive Devices

by Nenad Vrucinic and Yong Zhang

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 523; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050523 (registering DOI) - 21 May 2025

The quantum efficiency (QE) or gain (G) of a photoconductive device is most commonly given in the literature as a ratio of carrier lifetime to transit time, allowing for a value much greater than unity. In this work, by assuming primary photoconductivity, we [...] Read more.

The quantum efficiency (QE) or gain (G) of a photoconductive device is most commonly given in the literature as a ratio of carrier lifetime to transit time, allowing for a value much greater than unity. In this work, by assuming primary photoconductivity, we reexamine the photoconductive theory for the device with an intrinsic (undoped) semiconductor, with nearly zero equilibrium carrier densities. Analytic gain formula is obtained for arbitrary drift and diffusion parameters under a bias voltage and by neglecting the polarization effect due to the relative displacement in the electron and hole distributions. We find that the lifetime/transit-time ratio formula is only valid in the limit of weak field and no diffusion. Numerical simulations are performed to examine the polarization effect, confirming that it does not change the qualitative conclusions. We discuss the distinction between two QE definitions used in the literature: accumulative QE QEacc, considering the contributions of the flow of all photocarriers, regardless of whether they reach the electrode; and apparent QE (QEapp), measuring the photocurrent at the electrode. In general, QEacc>QEapp, due to an inhomogeneous photocurrent in the channel; however, both approach the same unity limit for strong drift. We find that QEacc QEapp is a deficiency of the commonly adopted constant-carrier-lifetime approximation in the recombination terms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Integrated Photonics)

14 pages, 15441 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Numerical Study of Electric Field Enhancement in Inverted-Pyramid Gold Arrays with Tunable Spacing

by Yaumalika Arta, Iman Santoso, Hao Chang, Ying-Pin Tsai, Fu-Li Hsiao, Tsung-Shine Ko and Yang-Wei Lin

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 522; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050522 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive numerical and experimental investigation of electric field enhancement in inverted-pyramidal gold (Au) array substrates, focusing on variable inter-pyramidal spacing for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) applications. We conducted a series of finite element method (FEM) simulations to model the [...] Read more.

This study presents a comprehensive numerical and experimental investigation of electric field enhancement in inverted-pyramidal gold (Au) array substrates, focusing on variable inter-pyramidal spacing for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) applications. We conducted a series of finite element method (FEM) simulations to model the spatial distribution of electromagnetic fields within plasmonic metasurfaces under 780 nm laser excitation. The results show that reducing the spacing between inverted pyramidal structures from 10 μm to 3.2 μm significantly increases the electric field intensity at both the tip and edge regions of the inverted-pyramidal Au structure, with maximum fields reaching 6.75 × 10⁷ V/m. Experimental SERS measurements utilizing 4-mercaptobenzoic acid as a Raman reporter support the simulation findings, indicating enhanced signal intensity in closely spaced configurations. These results confirm that geometric field concentration and plasmonic coupling are the dominant mechanisms responsible for SERS enhancement in these systems. This work provides a strategic framework for optimizing the geometry of plasmonic substrates to improve the sensitivity and reliability of SERS-based sensing platforms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Nanomaterials for Photonics and Optoelectronics: Practical Applications and Advances)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

11 pages, 544 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Optical Unidirectional Transport and Directional Blockade in Cold Atoms via Non-Hermitian Four-Wave Mixing

by Xiao Liu, Maurizio Artoni, Giuseppe La Rocca and Jinhui Wu

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050521 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

We propose a scheme for realizing nonreciprocal optical scattering with non-Hermitian four-wave mixing (FWM) in a double-

Λ

system of cold atoms driven by coupling and dressing phase-mismatched standing-wave (SW) fields. Four scattering channels—direct transmission, cross transmission, direct reflection, and cross reflection—can be [...] Read more.

We propose a scheme for realizing nonreciprocal optical scattering with non-Hermitian four-wave mixing (FWM) in a double-

Λ

system of cold atoms driven by coupling and dressing phase-mismatched standing-wave (SW) fields. Four scattering channels—direct transmission, cross transmission, direct reflection, and cross reflection—can be established for a probe and a signal field, some of which are nonreciprocal due to non-Hermitian spatial modulations when the two SW driving fields exhibit a

π / 4

phase shift. We find in particular that it is viable to attain single-color unidirectional transport, dual-color unidirectional transport, and single-color directional blockade with respect to a probe and a signal field incident upon this atomic sample from the same side, due to perfect destructive interference between direct and cross scattering channels. This work provides a new paradigm for studying non-Hermitian nonlinear optics and offers a theoretical foundation for designing all-optical atomic devices based on multi-channel nonreciprocal scattering. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 1627 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Light Source Coherence and Offset-Launching Distance on Performance in 49.4 km Power over Multimode Fiber Systems

by Yuemei Li, Yao Guo, Zhaoyang Zhang, Haobo Guo and Zhiguo Zhang

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050520 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

Based on the offset-launching (OL) scheme, the effects of light source coherence and OL distance on the power performance of the 49.4 km power over fiber (PoF) system using multimode fiber are systematically investigated. We analyzed the effects of light source coherence and [...] Read more.

Based on the offset-launching (OL) scheme, the effects of light source coherence and OL distance on the power performance of the 49.4 km power over fiber (PoF) system using multimode fiber are systematically investigated. We analyzed the effects of light source coherence and OL distance on the maximum output power by constructing PoF experimental systems with four different light sources and 30 μm OL ranges. The experimental results show that the OL scheme can significantly enhance the output power in PoF systems with different light source and OL distance configurations. For coherence, the 20 nm light source with weaker coherence performs best in the 10.8 km–36 km PoF link, the advantage of the 12 nm light source is gradually reflected in the range 41 km–49.4 km, and the 2 nm light source is expected to realize the optimal output power in longer-distance. For OL distance, the 20 nm light source performs best in the range of 0–12.5 μm, and the 12 nm light source shows the best performance after exceeding 15 μm. This paper summarizes the optimal light source and OL distance configurations, the work provides ideas for performance enhancement and optimal design of the PoF system, as well as an experimental basis for energy supply to remote devices. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 2649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of an Integrated Circularly Polarized HgCdTe Photodetector Based on Silicon Metasurfaces

by Bo Cheng, Yuxiao Zou, Zihui Ge, Hanxiao Shao, Kunpeng Zhai and Guofeng Song

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 519; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050519 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

Compared with conventional detectors, a circularly polarized detector operating at 4.26 μm effectively suppresses background noise (e.g., solar scattering and atmospheric interference), enabling high-precision CO₂ monitoring across ecosystems like farmland, forests, and wetlands. This capability allows the precise quantification of carbon sink [...] Read more.

Compared with conventional detectors, a circularly polarized detector operating at 4.26 μm effectively suppresses background noise (e.g., solar scattering and atmospheric interference), enabling high-precision CO₂ monitoring across ecosystems like farmland, forests, and wetlands. This capability allows the precise quantification of carbon sink potential and ecosystem health. Our design employs a mid-wave HgCdTe detector—a well-established platform—combined with a CMOS-compatible Si/SiO₂ metasurface. Geometric displacements were applied to break C₂ symmetry, achieving a chiral design. Through multiparameter optimization, we realized a circularly polarized photodetector (CPPD) with a CPER of 18 dB, expected to demonstrate superior CO₂ monitoring performance. These advances may offer researchers and practitioners a robust tool for both fundamental studies and field deployments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Advances in Optical Diffraction, Imaging and Display)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 4893 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wideband Near-Infrared Hot-Electron Photodetector Based on Metal Grating Structure

by Hao Huang, Fei Liu, Zidong Chen, Bowen Zhang and Ailing Zhang

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 518; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050518 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

The generation of hot electrons through non-radiative decay processes of surface plasmons (SPs) has been extensively demonstrated, enabling the preparation of high-performance hot-electron photodetectors without limitations imposed by material band gap widths. In this paper, a near-infrared wideband hot-electron metal semiconductor photodetector (WHEMSPD) [...] Read more.

The generation of hot electrons through non-radiative decay processes of surface plasmons (SPs) has been extensively demonstrated, enabling the preparation of high-performance hot-electron photodetectors without limitations imposed by material band gap widths. In this paper, a near-infrared wideband hot-electron metal semiconductor photodetector (WHEMSPD) is proposed based on a metal grating plasmonic structure, and its optical and electrical properties are numerically verified. This structure exhibits excellent broadband characteristics within the long-wave near-infrared range (LW-NIR) of 1200–1800 nm, achieving an absorption of approximately 0.7 between 1200 and 1700 nm, with a peak of 0.98 at 1400 nm. The metal grating structure can effectively enhance the excitation of plasmons on the surface and thus increase the absorption within a larger bandwidth. In terms of electrical performance, the responsivity of the WHEMSPD reaches over 20 mA/W within the wavelength range of 1200–1500 nm, with the peak responsivity reaching 28.3 mA/W around 1320 nm. WHEMSPDs in the LW-NIR can be widely used in military, remote sensing, communication, and other related fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Radiation and Micro-/Nanophotonics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2304 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Design and Polarization Analysis for Full-Polarization Underwater Imaging Lens

by Zhongju Ren, Keyan Dong, Xiuhua Fu, Ying Lai and Jingjing Zhang

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 517; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050517 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

Underwater polarization imaging has emerged as a fundamental technique for detecting and imaging underwater targets. However, the effectiveness of this technique is hampered by the low light intensity and optical system deformation induced by water pressure in deep-water environments, particularly for the detection [...] Read more.

Underwater polarization imaging has emerged as a fundamental technique for detecting and imaging underwater targets. However, the effectiveness of this technique is hampered by the low light intensity and optical system deformation induced by water pressure in deep-water environments, particularly for the detection of polarized signals. To address this issue, a wide-field-of-view oil-immersion lens tailored for deep-sea operations is designed, offering robust imaging performance and an extensive observation range. A Mueller matrix is deployed to scrutinize the polarization properties of the entire optical system across diverse fields of view, and the measurement errors in the polarization degree under incident polarization states are discussed. Simulation results demonstrate that the measurement error for linearly polarized light is greater than that for circularly polarized light. Therefore, the system adopts circularly polarized light as the active illumination source, characterized by minimal polarization effects and high detection accuracy. Finally, a deep-sea camera lens is produced and manufactured. The resulting lens is shown to pass a test in a hydrodynamic simulator machine, demonstrating that it can operate properly and capture images. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 4138 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Noise Suppression in Quadrature Phase-Shift-Keying-Oriented All-Optical Matching Systems Using Highly Nonlinear Fiber

by Xin Li, Feiyang Ruan, Ying Tang, Tenglin Gao and Shanguo Huang

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050516 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

All-optical matching systems that detect and localize designated target sequences in input all-optical data sequences have attracted significant attention in all-optical processing. They have various applications, including all-optical intrusion detection, optical frame alignment, and optical package identification. In real-world applications, noise is inevitable [...] Read more.

All-optical matching systems that detect and localize designated target sequences in input all-optical data sequences have attracted significant attention in all-optical processing. They have various applications, including all-optical intrusion detection, optical frame alignment, and optical package identification. In real-world applications, noise is inevitable and can lead to incorrect matching results. In particular, noise accumulates in serial all-optical matching systems, rendering the systems useless after several cycles. In this study, we developed a scheme for suppressing noise in quadrature phase-shift-keying (QPSK)-oriented all-optical matching systems. First, we evaluated the impact of input and amplifier noise on a QPSK-oriented all-optical matching system at a transmission rate of 100 Gbaud. We then developed a second-order noise-suppression structure using a highly nonlinear fiber (HNLF). With an input optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) of 6 dB and an amplifier noise figure (NF) of 4 dB, the QPSK-oriented all-optical matching system without the noise-suppression structure output incorrect results. However, when the system was optimized using the proposed noise-suppression structure, correct matching results were obtained. Furthermore, when the NF of the amplifiers was fixed at 4 dB, the optimized system could reduce the minimum input OSNR to 0 dB. With an input OSNR of 0 dB, the logarithm of the bit error rate (BER) of the output matching results of the optimized system tended to negative infinity. The extinction ratio (ER), contrast ratio (CR), and quality (Q) factor of the output of the optimized system were 154.9532, 166.94289, and 161.12 dB, respectively, indicating high noise resistance. These results demonstrate that the system optimized using the proposed noise-suppression scheme exhibits high stability and reliability in noisy environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Optical Information Processing and Communication Technologies)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 7359 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tabletop 3D Display with Large Radial Viewing Angle Based on Panoramic Annular Lens Array

by Min-Yang He, Cheng-Bo Zhao, Xue-Rui Wen, Yi-Jian Liu, Qiong-Hua Wang and Yan Xing

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050515 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

Tabletop 3D display is an emerging display form that enables multiple users to share viewing around a central tabletop, making it promising for the application of collaborative work. However, achieving an ideal ring-shaped viewing zone with a large radial viewing angle remains a [...] Read more.

Tabletop 3D display is an emerging display form that enables multiple users to share viewing around a central tabletop, making it promising for the application of collaborative work. However, achieving an ideal ring-shaped viewing zone with a large radial viewing angle remains a challenge for most current tabletop 3D displays. This paper presents a tabletop 3D display based on a panoramic annular lens array to realize a large radial viewing angle. Each panoramic annular lens in the array is designed with a block-structured panoramic front unit and a relay lens system, enabling the formation of a ring-shaped viewing zone and increasing the radial angle of the outgoing light. Additionally, the diffusion characteristics of the optical diffusing screen component are analyzed under large angles of incidence after light passes through the panoramic annular lens array. Then, a method for generating the corresponding elemental image array is presented. The results of the simulation experiments demonstrate that the viewing range is improved to −78.4–−42.2° and 42.6–78.9°, resulting in a total radial viewing angle of up to 72.5°, and the proposed 3D display can present a 360° viewable 3D image with correct perspective and parallax. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Optical Materials and Components for 3D Displays)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 3972 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Dengue Virus Detection Using Biosensor-Based Two-Dimensional Photonic Crystal Ring Resonator

by Nadhir Djeffal, Sarra Bendib and Abdallah Hedir

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 514; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050514 - 21 May 2025

Abstract

This study proposes a novel two-dimensional photonic crystal ring resonator for detecting dengue-induced changes in blood components such as platelets, haemoglobin, and plasma. By monitoring shifts in the central wavelength linked to refractive index variations, the structure offers highly sensitive and accurate detection. [...] Read more.

This study proposes a novel two-dimensional photonic crystal ring resonator for detecting dengue-induced changes in blood components such as platelets, haemoglobin, and plasma. By monitoring shifts in the central wavelength linked to refractive index variations, the structure offers highly sensitive and accurate detection. The Lorentzian peak cavity exhibits a high-quality factor, achieving sensitivity up to 1800 nm/RIU, underscoring its potential as a precise diagnostic tool against dengue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biophotonics and Biomedical Optics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

44 pages, 2486 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review of Rubidium Two-Photon Vapor Cell Optical Clock: Long-Term Performance Limitations and Potential Improvements

by Asagwegbe C. Obaze-Adeleke, Bryan Semon and Thejesh N. Bandi

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050513 - 20 May 2025

Abstract

Two-photon vapor cell-based optical clocks are strong candidates for next-generation portable atomic standards, offering simplicity, compactness, and high performance. Their narrow clock transitions with counter-propagating beams enable first-order Doppler-free operation. However, systematic perturbations such as the AC Stark shift, temperature-induced shift, and drifts [...] Read more.

Two-photon vapor cell-based optical clocks are strong candidates for next-generation portable atomic standards, offering simplicity, compactness, and high performance. Their narrow clock transitions with counter-propagating beams enable first-order Doppler-free operation. However, systematic perturbations such as the AC Stark shift, temperature-induced shift, and drifts resulting from the laser system pose challenges cause instabilities to medium- to long-term performance. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of Rb two-photon vapor cell optical standards, focusing on the long-term performance-limiting effects and potential mitigation strategies, aiming for clock stabilities better than 1 × 10

^{- 15}

over the averaging time of a day and beyond. Full article

33 pages, 2544 KiB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress on Modulation Format Recognition Technology for Visible Light Communication

by Shengbang Zhou, Weichang Du, Chuanqi Li, Shutian Liu and Ruiqi Li

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 512; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050512 - 19 May 2025

Abstract

As sixth-generation mobile communication (6G) advances towards ultra-high speed and global coverage, visible light communication (VLC) has emerged as a crucial complementary technology due to its ultra-high bandwidth, low power consumption, and immunity to electromagnetic interference. Modulation format recognition (MFR) plays a vital [...] Read more.

As sixth-generation mobile communication (6G) advances towards ultra-high speed and global coverage, visible light communication (VLC) has emerged as a crucial complementary technology due to its ultra-high bandwidth, low power consumption, and immunity to electromagnetic interference. Modulation format recognition (MFR) plays a vital role in the dynamic optimization and adaptive transmission of VLC systems, significantly influencing communication performance in complex channel environments. This paper systematically reviews the research progress in MFR for VLC, comparing the theoretical frameworks and limitations of traditional likelihood-based (LB) and feature-based (FB) methods. It also explores the advancements brought by deep learning (DL) technology, particularly in enhancing noise robustness, classification accuracy, and cross-scenario adaptability through automatic feature extraction and nonlinear mapping. The findings indicate that DL-based MFR substantially enhances recognition performance in intricate channels via multi-dimensional feature fusion, lightweight architectures, and meta-learning paradigms. Nonetheless, challenges remain, including high model complexity and a strong reliance on labeled data. Future research should prioritize multi-domain feature fusion, interdisciplinary collaboration, and hardware–algorithm co-optimization to develop lightweight, high-precision, and real-time MFR technologies that align with the 6G vision of space–air–ground–sea integrated networks. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 1738 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Preliminary Study on the Principle of Linear Effect Scaling Laws for Laser Atmospheric Transmission

by Xin Ye, Chengyu Fan, Wenyue Zhu, Pengfei Zhang, Xianmei Qian, Jinghui Zhang and Tao Jiang

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050511 - 19 May 2025

Abstract

Numerical simulations were performed to rapidly predict and evaluate laser beam expansion caused by linear atmospheric transmission effects, such as turbulence and jitter, thereby enhancing the accuracy of the scaling law. Simulation results indicate that the turbulence term coefficient in the beam expansion [...] Read more.

Numerical simulations were performed to rapidly predict and evaluate laser beam expansion caused by linear atmospheric transmission effects, such as turbulence and jitter, thereby enhancing the accuracy of the scaling law. Simulation results indicate that the turbulence term coefficient in the beam expansion calibration expression correlates linearly with the initial beam mass and inversely with the transmission distance. By fitting a nonlinear surface, the relationship between the turbulence term coefficient, initial beam mass, and transmission distance was established. Additionally, under turbulence-free conditions, a calibration expression relating initial beam mass to transmission distance was derived. The tracking jitter-term coefficient was determined to be 3.69, effectively characterizing beam expansion due to system jitter error. Based on simulation outcomes, a scaling law model for beam expansion induced by linear atmospheric transmission effects was clearly established. The model closely matched the simulation data, with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 3.88. Compared with existing scaling law simulations, the proposed calibration expression significantly enhances the accuracy in predicting and evaluating beam expansion caused by linear atmospheric transmission effects. It also provides a more precise characterization of variations in beam expansion during laser transmission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

8 pages, 1334 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Electrically Stimulated and Frequency-Tunable Photonic Tonic Spiking Neuron Based on a DFB-LD Under Optical Feedback

by Zhiqiang Lei, Chaotao He, Qiupin Wang, Pu Ou, Zhengmao Wu and Guangqiong Xia

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050510 - 19 May 2025

Viewed by 10

Abstract

Based on a distributed feedback laser diode (DFB-LD) under optical feedback, a novel scheme for generating neuron-like tonic spiking is proposed, and the characteristics of the generated neuron-like tonic spiking are numerically investigated. Firstly, through adopting the Lang–Kobayashi model to analyze the nonlinear [...] Read more.

Based on a distributed feedback laser diode (DFB-LD) under optical feedback, a novel scheme for generating neuron-like tonic spiking is proposed, and the characteristics of the generated neuron-like tonic spiking are numerically investigated. Firstly, through adopting the Lang–Kobayashi model to analyze the nonlinear dynamics of the DFB-LD under optical feedback, the switching between different dynamic states is observed by continuously increasing the biased current of the DFB-LD, and the current regions required for driving the DFB-LD into the stable states and period one (P1) states are determined. Next, a rectangular electrical pulse is introduced as a stimulus signal to modulate the DFB-LD, and the lower and upper current values of the rectangular electrical pulse are set at the regions in which the DFB-LD operates at the stable state and P1 state, respectively. Under suitable operation parameters, sub-nanosecond tonic spiking can be generated. Finally, through adjusting the delayed time of optical feedback and selecting the matched rectangular electrical pulse, the frequency of tonic spiking can be detuned within a range exceeding 5 GHz. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuromorphic Photonics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 4268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A μrad Accuracy and nW Detection Sensitivity Four-Quadrant Heterodyne Coherent Angular Measurement System

by Ziqi Zhang, Shoufeng Tong, Peng Lin, Dixiang Zeng and Xiaonan Yu

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 509; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050509 - 19 May 2025

Viewed by 93

Abstract

In gravitational wave measurement and inter-satellite laser communication systems, the relative rotation and motion between the transmitter and receiver terminals introduces small angular deviations over a link distance of thousands of kilometers, which need to be measured with high accuracy and sensitivity. The [...] Read more.

In gravitational wave measurement and inter-satellite laser communication systems, the relative rotation and motion between the transmitter and receiver terminals introduces small angular deviations over a link distance of thousands of kilometers, which need to be measured with high accuracy and sensitivity. The heterodyne coherent angle measurement has a higher measurement accuracy and detection sensitivity compared with the traditional direct detection technique, which performs angle measurement through the phase of a beat frequency signal. In this paper, we propose a four-quadrant heterodyne coherent angle measurement technique with μrad accuracy and nW-level detection sensitivity. A mathematical model of a differential wavefront sensing (DWS) angle solution was formulated, and a Monte Carlo simulation system was built for performance testing. An experimental system was devised to assess the accuracy and sensitivity of the heterodyne coherent measurement method and to compare the performance with that of the direct detection method. The experimental results showed that for azimuth and pitch axes, the accuracy of the heterodyne coherent angle measurement was 2.54 μrad and 2.85 μrad under the same signal power of −16 dBm, which had a 5-fold improvement compared with direct detection. The sensitivity of the heterodyne coherent detection was −50 dBm at the 20 μrad accuracy threshold, which was a 1000-fold improvement compared with direct detection. This research is of great significance for the phase measurement and tracking system in the field of gravitational wave detection and has a guiding role in system design work in the field of inter-satellite laser communication. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical Communication and Network)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 12842 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strong Coupling Based on Quasibound States in the Continuum of Nanograting Metasurfaces in Near-Infrared Region

by Yulun Zhao, Junqiang Li, Yuchang Liu, Yadong Yue, Yongchuan Dang, Yilin Wang, Kun Liang and Li Yu

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050508 - 19 May 2025

Viewed by 62

Abstract

Quasibound states in the continuum (qBICs) have aroused much attention as a feasible stage to investigate optical strong coupling due to their extremely high-quality factors (Q-factors) and extraordinary electromagnetic field enhancement. However, current demonstrations of strong coupling based on qBICs have primarily focused [...] Read more.

Quasibound states in the continuum (qBICs) have aroused much attention as a feasible stage to investigate optical strong coupling due to their extremely high-quality factors (Q-factors) and extraordinary electromagnetic field enhancement. However, current demonstrations of strong coupling based on qBICs have primarily focused on the visible spectral range, while research in the near-infrared (NIR) regime remains scarce. In this work, we design a nanograting metasurface supporting Friedrich–Wintgen bound states in the continuum (FW BICs). We demonstrate that FW BIC formation stems from destructive interference between Fabry–Pérot cavity modes and metal–dielectric hybrid guided-mode resonances. To investigate the qBIC–exciton coupling system, we simulated the interaction between MoTe₂ excitons and nanograting metasurfaces. A Rabi splitting of 55.4 meV was observed, which satisfies the strong coupling criterion. Furthermore, a chiral medium layer is modeled inside the nanograting metasurface by rewriting the weak expression and boundary conditions. A mode splitting of the qBIC–chiral medium system in the circular dichroism (CD) spectrum demonstrates that the chiral response successfully transferred from the chiral medium layer to the exciton–polaritons systems through strong coupling. In comparison to the existing studies, our work demonstrates a significantly larger CD signal under the same Pascal parameters and with a thinner chiral dielectric layer. Our work provides a new ideal platform for investigating the strong coupling based on quasibound states in the continuum, which exhibits promising applications in near-infrared chiral biomedical detection. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

8 pages, 1732 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Nonlinear-Optical-Loop-Mirror-Based Mode-Locked Fiber Laser Sensor for Low-Temperature Measurement

by Xian-An Dou, Linchan Li, Chang Liang, Haiping Xu, Qing Ye, Hui Kong, Jintian Bian and Lei Guo

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 507; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050507 - 19 May 2025

Viewed by 90

Abstract

A temperature-sensing scheme is realized by a passively mode-locked Yb-doped fiber laser based on the nonlinear optical loop mirror (NOLM). The ambient temperature can be measured by detecting the pulse repetition frequency of the mode-locked fiber laser by an oscilloscope. When the ambient [...] Read more.

A temperature-sensing scheme is realized by a passively mode-locked Yb-doped fiber laser based on the nonlinear optical loop mirror (NOLM). The ambient temperature can be measured by detecting the pulse repetition frequency of the mode-locked fiber laser by an oscilloscope. When the ambient temperature increases from −40 °C to 6 °C, the pulse repetition frequency decreases linearly with a temperature sensitivity of 72.548 Hz/°C. The experimental results prove the feasibility of the mode-locked laser sensor operating in a low-temperature environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Solid-State Laser Technology and Applications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

8 pages, 2358 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Passive Time-Division Multiplexing Fiber Optic Sensor for Magnetic Field Detection Applications in Current Introduction

by Yong Liu, Junjun Xiong, Junchang Huang, Fubin Pang, Yi Zhao and Li Xia

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050506 - 19 May 2025

Viewed by 96

Abstract

Under the dual impetus of the “Dual Carbon” goals and the construction of smart grids, the development of new energy power infrastructure has been fully realized. The All-Fiber Optical Current Transformer (FOCT), leveraging its unique advantages, is in the process of supplanting traditional [...] Read more.

Under the dual impetus of the “Dual Carbon” goals and the construction of smart grids, the development of new energy power infrastructure has been fully realized. The All-Fiber Optical Current Transformer (FOCT), leveraging its unique advantages, is in the process of supplanting traditional current transformers to become the core component of power system monitoring equipment. Currently, to achieve higher precision and stability in magnetic field or current detection, FOCT structures frequently incorporate active components such as Y-waveguides and phase modulators, and closed-loop feedback systems are often used in demodulation. This has led to issues of high cost, complex demodulation, and difficult maintenance, significantly hindering the further advancement of FOCTs. Addressing the problems of high cost and complex demodulation, this paper proposes a passive multiplexing structure that achieves time-domain multiplexing of pulsed sensing signals, designs a corresponding intensity demodulation algorithm, and applies this structure to FOCTs. This enables low-cost, simple-demodulation current sensing, which can also be utilized for magnetic field detection, showcasing vast application potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Sensors: Design and Application)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

9 pages, 4016 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Longitudinal Polarization Vortices Generated via Terahertz Ring Resonator

by Mingyu Ji, Tengjiao Wang and Jingya Xie

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 505; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050505 - 18 May 2025

Viewed by 125

Abstract

Vortex beams characterized by helical phase wavefronts enable innovative explorations of optical and physical interactions. This work experimentally realizes longitudinally polarized vortices with arbitrary topological charges in terahertz (THz) frequencies using a silicon ring resonator integrated with a second-order diffraction grating. The implemented [...] Read more.

Vortex beams characterized by helical phase wavefronts enable innovative explorations of optical and physical interactions. This work experimentally realizes longitudinally polarized vortices with arbitrary topological charges in terahertz (THz) frequencies using a silicon ring resonator integrated with a second-order diffraction grating. The implemented configuration enables flexible topological charge manipulation in longitudinally polarized electric fields through the excitation of quasi-transverse-magnetic (TM) waveguide modes with different frequencies. By employing a terahertz near-field measurement system, the spatial intensity patterns and phase characteristics of emitted waves are quantitatively analyzed via a precision probe. This strategy shows promising potential for applications in particle manipulation techniques and advanced imaging technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Progress in Integrated Photonics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2099 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Image-Based Laser-Beam Diagnostics Using Statistical Analysis and Machine Learning Regression

by Tayyab Imran and Muddasir Naeem

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 504; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050504 - 18 May 2025

Viewed by 124

Abstract

This study is a comprehensive experimental and computational investigation into high-resolution laser beam diagnostics, combining classical statistical techniques, numerical image processing, and machine learning-based predictive modeling. A dataset of 50 sequential beam profile images was collected from a femtosecond fiber laser operating at [...] Read more.

This study is a comprehensive experimental and computational investigation into high-resolution laser beam diagnostics, combining classical statistical techniques, numerical image processing, and machine learning-based predictive modeling. A dataset of 50 sequential beam profile images was collected from a femtosecond fiber laser operating at a central wavelength of 780 nm with a pulse duration of approximately 125 fs. These images were analyzed to extract spatial and temporal beam characteristics, including centroid displacement, Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM), ellipticity ratio, and an asymmetry index. All parameters were derived using intensity-weighted algorithms and directional cross-sectional analysis to ensure accurate and consistent quantification of the beam’s dynamic behavior. Linear regression models were applied to horizontal and vertical intensity distributions to assess long-term beam stability. The resulting predictive trends revealed a systematic drift in beam centroid position, most notably along the vertical axis, and a gradual broadening of the horizontal FWHM. The modeling further showed that vertical intensity increased over time while horizontal intensity displayed a slight decline, reinforcing the presence of axis-specific fluctuations. These effects are attributed to minor optical misalignments or thermally induced variations in the beam path. By integrating deterministic analysis with data-driven forecasting, this methodology offers a robust framework for real-time beam quality evaluation. It enhances sensitivity to subtle distortions and supports the future development of automated, self-correcting laser systems. The results underscore the critical role of continuous, high-resolution monitoring in maintaining beam stability and alignment precision in femtosecond laser applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Technologies for Measurement and Metrology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 6268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Three-Dimensional Localization of Underwater Nodes Using Airborne Visible Light Beams

by Jaeed Bin Saif, Mohamed Younis and Fow-Sen Choa

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050503 - 18 May 2025

Viewed by 64

Abstract

Localizing underwater nodes when they cannot be tethered or float on the surface presents significant challenges, primarily due to node mobility and the absence of fixed anchors with known coordinates. This paper advocates a strategy for tackling such a challenge by using visible [...] Read more.

Localizing underwater nodes when they cannot be tethered or float on the surface presents significant challenges, primarily due to node mobility and the absence of fixed anchors with known coordinates. This paper advocates a strategy for tackling such a challenge by using visible light communication (VLC) from an airborne unit. A novel localization method is proposed where VLC transmissions are made towards the water surface; each transmission is encoded with the Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates with the incident point of the corresponding light beam. Existing techniques deal with the problem in 2D by assuming that the underwater node has a pressure sensor to measure its depth. The proposed method avoids this limitation and utilizes the intensity of VLC signals to estimate the 3D position of the underwater node. The idea is to map the light intensity at the underwater receiver for airborne light beams and devise an error optimization formulation to estimate the 3D coordinates of the underwater node. Extensive simulations validate the effectiveness of the proposed method and capture its performance across various parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Challenges and Opportunities in Underwater Wireless Optical Communications)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 2638 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Highly Birefringent FBG Based on Femtosecond Laser-Induced Cladding Stress Region for Temperature and Strain Decoupling

by Kuikui Guo, Hao Wu, Yonghao Liang, Mingshen Su, Hongcheng Wang, Rang Chu, Fei Zhou and Ye Liu

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 502; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050502 - 18 May 2025

Viewed by 133

Abstract

We present and demonstrate a highly birefringent fiber Bragg grating (Hi-Bi FBG) that was fabricated using a femtosecond laser to induce a sawtooth stress region near the FBG. The FBG is fabricated with a femtosecond laser point-by-point method, while the sawtooth stress region [...] Read more.

We present and demonstrate a highly birefringent fiber Bragg grating (Hi-Bi FBG) that was fabricated using a femtosecond laser to induce a sawtooth stress region near the FBG. The FBG is fabricated with a femtosecond laser point-by-point method, while the sawtooth stress region is generated in fiber cladding using the femtosecond laser along a sawtooth path. This sawtooth stressor can introduce an anisotropic and asymmetric refractive index profile in the cross-section of the fiber, resulting in additional birefringence up to 2.97 × 10⁻⁴ along the axial direction of the FBG. The central wavelengths of the Hi-Bi FBG at the fast and slow axes exhibit different sensitivities to temperature and strain, allowing simultaneous measurement of the strain and temperature by tracking the resonant wavelength shifts in the two axes. The experimental results show that the temperature sensitivities of the fast and slow axes are 10.32 pm/°C and 10.42 pm/°C, while the strain sensitivities are 0.91 pm/µε and 0.99 pm/µε. The accuracy of this proposed sensor in measuring strain and temperature is estimated to be 2.2 µε and 0.2 °C. This approach addresses the issue of cross-sensitivity between temperature and strain and offers some advantages of low cost, compact size, and significant potential for advancements in practical multi-parameter sensing applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Advances in Optical Fiber Gratings)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

18 pages, 3315 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fiber Eavesdropping Detection and Location in Optical Communication System

by Yuang Li, Yuyuan Liang, Mingrui Zhang, Shuang Wei, Huatao Zhu, Yajie Li, Yongli Zhao and Jie Zhang

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050501 - 16 May 2025

Viewed by 62

Abstract

Fiber eavesdropping severely endangers the confidentiality of data transmitted in optical networks. Therefore, it is necessary to explore how to detect and locate fiber eavesdropping in an effective approach. To leverage the advantages of the state of polarization (SOP) in detecting various abnormal [...] Read more.

Fiber eavesdropping severely endangers the confidentiality of data transmitted in optical networks. Therefore, it is necessary to explore how to detect and locate fiber eavesdropping in an effective approach. To leverage the advantages of the state of polarization (SOP) in detecting various abnormal events while addressing its challenges in acquiring the SOP of different fiber links, we propose a multi-channel joint SOP estimation scheme to estimate the SOP of different fiber spans. Based on the proposed scheme, we provide a comprehensive solution for fiber eavesdropping location and detection in optical communication systems. In this solution, the estimated SOP and optical performance monitoring (OPM) data are utilized for rapid fiber eavesdropping detection and coarse location at the span level. The effectiveness of the solution is validated by experiments. In the aspect of detection, we achieve the detection of the start or end of fiber eavesdropping, the overlapping of fiber eavesdropping and abnormal events, and other abnormal events. The overall accuracy is 99.77%. In the aspect of location, we can locate the fiber span that has been eavesdropped. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photonics for Emerging Applications in Communication and Sensing II)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

21 pages, 16775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Non-Iterative Phase-Only Hologram Generation via Stochastic Gradient Descent Optimization

by Alejandro Velez-Zea and John Fredy Barrera-Ramírez

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 500; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050500 - 16 May 2025

Viewed by 38

Abstract

In this work, we explored, for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, the potential of stochastic gradient descent (SGD) to optimize random phase functions for application in non-iterative phase-only hologram generation. We defined and evaluated four loss functions based on [...] Read more.

In this work, we explored, for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, the potential of stochastic gradient descent (SGD) to optimize random phase functions for application in non-iterative phase-only hologram generation. We defined and evaluated four loss functions based on common image quality metrics and compared the performance of SGD-optimized random phases with those generated using Gerchberg–Saxton (GS) optimization. The quality of the reconstructed holograms was assessed through numerical simulations, considering both accuracy and computational efficiency. Our results demonstrate that SGD-based optimization can produce higher-quality phase holograms for low-contrast target scenes and presents nearly identical performance to GS-optimized random phases for high-contrast targets. Experimental validation confirmed the practical feasibility of the proposed method and its potential as a flexible alternative to conventional GS-based optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Optical Imaging)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 5185 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seamless Integration of UOWC/MMF/FSO Systems Using Orbital Angular Momentum Beams for Enhanced Data Transmission

by Mehtab Singh, Somia A. Abd El-Mottaleb, Hassan Yousif Ahmed, Medien Zeghid and Abu Sufian A. Osman

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 499; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050499 - 16 May 2025

Viewed by 53

Abstract

This work presents a high-speed hybrid communication system integrating Underwater Optical Wireless Communication (UOWC), Multimode Fiber (MMF), and Free-Space Optics (FSO) channels, leveraging Orbital Angular Momentum (OAM) beams for enhanced data transmission. A Photodetector, Remodulate, and Forward Relay (PRFR) is employed to enable [...] Read more.

This work presents a high-speed hybrid communication system integrating Underwater Optical Wireless Communication (UOWC), Multimode Fiber (MMF), and Free-Space Optics (FSO) channels, leveraging Orbital Angular Momentum (OAM) beams for enhanced data transmission. A Photodetector, Remodulate, and Forward Relay (PRFR) is employed to enable wavelength conversion from 532 nm for UOWC to 1550 nm for MMF and FSO links. Four distinct OAM beams, each supporting a 5 Gbps data rate, are utilized to evaluate the system’s performance under two scenarios. The first scenario investigates the effects of absorption and scattering in five water types on underwater transmission range, while maintaining fixed MMF length and FSO link. The second scenario examines varying FSO propagation distances under different fog conditions, with a consistent underwater link length. Results demonstrate that water and atmospheric attenuation significantly impact transmission range and received optical power. The proposed hybrid system ensures reliable data transmission with a maximum overall transmission distance of 1125 m (comprising a 25 m UOWC link in Pure Sea (PS) water, a 100 m MMF span, and a 1000 m FSO range in clear weather) in the first scenario. In the second scenario, under Light Fog (LF) conditions, the system achieves a longer reach of up to 2020 m (20 m UOWC link + 100 m MMF span + 1900 m FSO range), maintaining a BER ≤ 10⁻⁴ and a Q-factor around 4. This hybrid design is well suited for applications such as oceanographic research, offshore monitoring, and the Internet of Underwater Things (IoUT), enabling efficient data transfer between underwater nodes and surface stations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Wireless Communication in 5G and Beyond)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Secret Key Agreement for SISO Visible Light Communication Systems

by Dongqin Guo, Jian Zhang, Gang Xin, Keming Tian and Xingyu Xiao

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 498; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050498 - 16 May 2025

Viewed by 29

Abstract

This paper studies the use of secret key agreement for single-input single-output (SISO) visible light communication (VLC) systems. Specifically, we put forward a scheme for secret key generation and analyze the secret key rate in SISO VLC systems. First, we derive the secret [...] Read more.

This paper studies the use of secret key agreement for single-input single-output (SISO) visible light communication (VLC) systems. Specifically, we put forward a scheme for secret key generation and analyze the secret key rate in SISO VLC systems. First, we derive the secret key capacity bounds. Then, we analyze the achievable secret key rate distribution versus the illegal receiver’s location when the legal receiver’s location is fixed. Meanwhile, we deduce the average secret key capacity using random geometry knowledge when all the receivers’ positions are unknown. We also analyze the impact of employing a protected zone on the average secret key capacity and observe that a protected zone can obviously improve the secret performance. Finally, simulations are presented to verify the theoretical analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Optical Wireless Communication Systems and Networks)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 4156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Supercontinuum Generation in Suspended Core Fibers Based on Intelligent Algorithms

by Meiqian Jing and Tigang Ning

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050497 - 16 May 2025

Viewed by 42

Abstract

This study presents a reverse-optimization framework for supercontinuum (SC) generation in Ge₂₀Sb₁₅Se₆₅ suspended-core fibers (SCFs), integrating neural network modeling with the Nutcracker Optimization Algorithm to co-design optimal fiber structures and pump pulse parameters. A high-nonlinearity SCF structure (γ [...] Read more.

This study presents a reverse-optimization framework for supercontinuum (SC) generation in Ge₂₀Sb₁₅Se₆₅ suspended-core fibers (SCFs), integrating neural network modeling with the Nutcracker Optimization Algorithm to co-design optimal fiber structures and pump pulse parameters. A high-nonlinearity SCF structure (γ ≈ 6–7 W⁻¹·m⁻¹) was first designed, and a neural network model was developed to accurately predict effective modal refractive indices and mode-field areas (RMSE < 1%). The generalized nonlinear Schrödinger equation was then used to study spectral broadening influenced by structural and pulse parameters. Global optimization was performed in four-dimensional structural and seven-dimensional combined parameter spaces, significantly enhancing computational efficiency. Simulation results demonstrated that the optimized design achieved a broad and flat SC spectrum extending from 0.7 µm to 25 µm (at –20 dB intensity), with lower peak power requirements compared to previous studies achieving similar coverage. The robustness and manufacturing tolerances of the optimized fiber structure were also analyzed, verifying the reliability of the design. This intelligent reverse-design strategy provides practical guidance and theoretical foundations for mid-infrared SC fiber design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical Fiber Lasers and Laser Technology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 6192 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advanced DFE, MLD, and RDE Equalization Techniques for Enhanced 5G mm-Wave A-RoF Performance at 60 GHz

by Umar Farooq and Amalia Miliou

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 496; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050496 - 16 May 2025

Viewed by 38

Abstract

This article presents the decision feedback equalizer (DFE), the maximum likelihood detection (MLD), and the radius-directed equalization (RDE) algorithms designed in MATLAB-R2018a to equalize the received signal in a dispersive optical link up to 120 km. DFE is essential for improving signal quality [...] Read more.

This article presents the decision feedback equalizer (DFE), the maximum likelihood detection (MLD), and the radius-directed equalization (RDE) algorithms designed in MATLAB-R2018a to equalize the received signal in a dispersive optical link up to 120 km. DFE is essential for improving signal quality in several communication systems, including WiFi networks, cable modems, and long-term evolution (LTE) systems. Its capacity to mitigate inter-symbol interference (ISI) and rapidly adjust to channel variations renders it a flexible option for high-speed data transfer and wireless communications. Conversely, MLD is utilized in applications that require great precision and dependability, including multi-input–multi-output (MIMO) systems, satellite communications, and radar technology. The ability of MLD to optimize the probability of accurate symbol detection in complex, high-dimensional environments renders it crucial for systems where signal integrity and precision are critical. Lastly, RDE is implemented as an alternative algorithm to the CMA-based equalizer, utilizing the idea of adjusting the amplitude of the received distorted symbol so that its modulus is closer to the ideal value for that symbol. The algorithms are tested using a converged 5G mm-wave analog radio-over-fiber (A-RoF) system at 60 GHz. Their performance is measured regarding error vector magnitude (EVM) values before and after equalization for different optical fiber lengths and modulation formats (QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM, and 128-QAM) and shows a clear performance improvement of the output signal. Moreover, the performance of the proposed algorithms is compared to three commonly used algorithms: the simple least mean square (LMS) algorithm, the constant modulus algorithm (CMA), and the adaptive median filtering (AMF), demonstrating superior results in both QPSK and 16-QAM and extending the transmission distance up to 120 km. DFE has a significant advantage over LMS and AMF in reducing the inter-symbol interference (ISI) in a dispersive channel by using previous decision feedback, resulting in quicker convergence and more precise equalization. MLD, on the other hand, is highly effective in improving detection accuracy by taking into account the probability of various symbol sequences achieving lower error rates and enhancing performance in advanced modulation schemes. RDE performs best for QPSK and 16-QAM constellations among all the other algorithms. Furthermore, DFE and MLD are particularly suitable for higher-order modulation formats like 64-QAM and 128-QAM, where accurate equalization and error detection are of utmost importance. The enhanced functionalities of DFE, RDE, and MLD in managing greater modulation orders and expanding transmission range highlight their efficacy in improving the performance and dependability of our system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Optical Communication and Network)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 16145 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fuzzy Logic-Based Performance Enhancement of FSO Systems Under Adverse Weather Conditions

by Hassan Yousif Ahmed, Medien Zeghid, Akhtar Nawaz Khan and Somia A. Abd El-Mottaleb

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050495 - 16 May 2025

Viewed by 34

Abstract

In this paper, we propose an application of fuzzy logic control (FLC) to improve the system performance of free-space optics (FSO) networks using the optical code-division multiple-access (OCDMA) technique. The primary objective is to dynamically adjust the bit error rate (BER) threshold at [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose an application of fuzzy logic control (FLC) to improve the system performance of free-space optics (FSO) networks using the optical code-division multiple-access (OCDMA) technique. The primary objective is to dynamically adjust the bit error rate (BER) threshold at the receiver based on weather conditions (i.e., rain and fog) and the propagation distance (which significantly affects the received power). The FLC module at the receiver integrates and processes these variables to optimize the BER threshold. The FLC module operates through an algorithm comprising eight well-defined steps, ensuring robust and adaptive control of the BER. Simulation results show that the FSO-FLC-based system has significant advantages over traditional approaches. For instance, under heavy rain conditions, the FSO-FLC system supports 12 users compared to a traditional system, which supports 7 users without FLC over a distance of 2.8 km with BER

10^{- 9}

. Similarly, under heavy fog conditions, the FSO-FLC system can support 22 users compared to a traditional system, which supports 18 users without FLC over a distance of 0.5 km with equal BER. These values show that the performance of FSO under weather conditions significantly improves when using the proposed approach. The computational efficiency and real-time feasibility of the FSO-FLC are also analyzed. The complexity of the FLC is O(1), indicating that the execution time remains constant regardless of input size. An Intel Core i7-1165G7 (2.80 GHz) using MATLAB’s fuzzy logic toolbox is used for all experiments. Results show that the proposed FLC executes up to 4 ms per decision cycle, which ensures real-time adaptability for practical FSO communication systems. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 5329 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stepped Confocal Microlens Array Fabricated by Femtosecond Laser

by Jinchi Wu, Hao Wu, Zheli Lin and Honghao Zhang

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 494; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050494 - 16 May 2025

Viewed by 33

Abstract

Multi-focal microlens arrays provide notable advantages over mono-focal counterparts, such as multi-scale imaging capabilities and optical aberration correction. However, existing multi-focal microlens arrays fabricated on continuous surfaces are incapable of achieving confocal imaging. As a result, multiple focus adjustments are required to acquire [...] Read more.

Multi-focal microlens arrays provide notable advantages over mono-focal counterparts, such as multi-scale imaging capabilities and optical aberration correction. However, existing multi-focal microlens arrays fabricated on continuous surfaces are incapable of achieving confocal imaging. As a result, multiple focus adjustments are required to acquire comprehensive image data, thereby complicating system design and increasing operational duration. To overcome this limitation, a stepped confocal surface microlens array is proposed, capable of simultaneously capturing images with multiple depths of field, various field-of-view scales, and different resolutions—without the need for additional focus adjustments. A combination of femtosecond laser processing and chemical etching was employed to fabricate microlenses with varying curvatures on a stepped fused silica substrate, which was subsequently used as a mold. The final stepped confocal microlens array was replicated via polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) molding. Preliminary experimental analyses were carried out to determine the relationship between processing parameters and the resulting focal lengths. By precisely controlling these parameters, the fabricated stepped confocal microlens array successfully enabled confocal imaging, allowing for the simultaneous acquisition of diverse image data. This microlens array shows great potential in advancing lightweight, integrated, and highly stable optical systems for applications in optical sensing, spatial positioning, and machine vision. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Photonics, Volume 12, Issue 5 (May 2025) – 122 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI