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Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications

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A special issue of Photonics (ISSN 2304-6732). This special issue belongs to the section "New Applications Enabled by Photonics Technologies and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2025) | Viewed by 13957

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jianfeng Chen

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Guest Editor

Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
Interests: lidar; laser; atmosphere detection; optical design
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Ming Zhao

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

1. School of Electronic Engineering, Huainan Normal University, Huainan, China
2. Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, China
Interests: remote sensing detection; lidar; laser spectroscopy; atmospheric environment

Dr. He Tian

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

College of Science, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China
Interests: fiber-optic sensing; optical waveguide devices; optoelectronics spectral applications

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Since the first ruby laser was introduced in 1960, laser detection technology with precision as the main goal was born. Laser detection was first used in the military, before playing a large role in many other fields, such as aerospace, construction mapping, wind power industry, intelligent transportation and industrial manufacturing, with its advantages of strong anti-interference ability and high accuracy.

With the rapid development of industrial automation and machine vision, laser detection has proved to be a very important means of non-contact detection in many applications such as inspection, measurement and control. As a prerequisite for high-end technologies, such as laser velocimetry, laser imaging and LiDAR, researchers are increasingly interested in this research.

Laser spectral imaging techniques (single-pixel imaging, hyperspectral, resonance fluorescence spectroscopy, etc.) are important tools for studying the interaction between light and matter. They add one-dimensional spectral information to the ordinary two-dimensional spatial imaging by using the absorption or radiation properties of substances in different electromagnetic spectra. Since the composition of substances varies, there are differences between their corresponding spectra (fingerprint effect), so that the spectra of terrestrial targets can be used for identification and classification. Laser spectral imaging can acquire many narrow and continuous images in the ultraviolet, visible, near-infrared and mid-infrared bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, providing a complete and continuous spectral profile for each image element.

LiDAR (Light detection and ranging) is a remote sensing technology that makes accurate measurements by emitting a laser that shines at an object and reflects or scatters it over a period of time. It operates in the ultraviolet to infrared spectrum and is very similar in principle and construction to a laser rangefinder. Scientists refer to detection using laser pulses as pulsed LiDAR and detection using continuous-wave laser beams as continuous-wave LiDAR. The role of LiDAR is to detect, identify, distinguish and track targets by accurately measuring their position (distance and angle), state of motion (speed, vibration and attitude) and shape.

This Special Issue invites manuscripts that introduce the recent advances in “Laser as a detection: from spectral imaging to LiDAR for remote sensing applications”. All theoretical, numerical and experimental papers are accepted. Topics include, but are not limited to, the following:

Laser detection technology;
LiDAR detection technology;
Laser Spectroscopy;
Atmospheric Detection and Remote Sensing;
Single-pixel imaging;
Hyperspectral technology;
Resonance fluorescence spectroscopy;
Fiber optic sensing technology;
Optical waveguide resonant cavity design;
Optical machine system design;
High average-power laser technology;
Progress in high-quality optics.
Image processing.

Dr. Jianfeng Chen
Dr. Ming Zhao
Prof. Dr. He Tian
Guest Editors

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Keywords

laser detection
LiDAR
laser spectroscopy
remote sensing
optical design

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

10 pages, 1738 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Preliminary Study on the Principle of Linear Effect Scaling Laws for Laser Atmospheric Transmission

by Xin Ye, Chengyu Fan, Wenyue Zhu, Pengfei Zhang, Xianmei Qian, Jinghui Zhang and Tao Jiang

Photonics 2025, 12(5), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12050511 - 19 May 2025

Abstract

Numerical simulations were performed to rapidly predict and evaluate laser beam expansion caused by linear atmospheric transmission effects, such as turbulence and jitter, thereby enhancing the accuracy of the scaling law. Simulation results indicate that the turbulence term coefficient in the beam expansion calibration expression correlates linearly with the initial beam mass and inversely with the transmission distance. By fitting a nonlinear surface, the relationship between the turbulence term coefficient, initial beam mass, and transmission distance was established. Additionally, under turbulence-free conditions, a calibration expression relating initial beam mass to transmission distance was derived. The tracking jitter-term coefficient was determined to be 3.69, effectively characterizing beam expansion due to system jitter error. Based on simulation outcomes, a scaling law model for beam expansion induced by linear atmospheric transmission effects was clearly established. The model closely matched the simulation data, with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 3.88. Compared with existing scaling law simulations, the proposed calibration expression significantly enhances the accuracy in predicting and evaluating beam expansion caused by linear atmospheric transmission effects. It also provides a more precise characterization of variations in beam expansion during laser transmission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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15 pages, 7045 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reconstruction Algorithm of Absorption Spectral Field Distribution Based on a Priori Constrained Bivariate Polynomial Model

by Chuge Chen, Dingfeng Shi, An Huang, Suman Ai, Rantong Niu, Ting Jiao and Zhenyu Xu

Photonics 2025, 12(4), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12040394 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 214

Abstract

Computed Tomography–Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (CT-TDLAS) is an effective diagnostic method for analyzing combustion flow fields within engines. This study proposes an adaptive reconstruction algorithm utilizing constrained polynomial fitting within the CT-TDLAS framework. Based on existing polynomial fitting models, the proposed algorithm integrates physical boundary constraints on temperature and concentration fields, optimizing integrated absorbance errors. This method significantly enhances reconstruction accuracy and computational efficiency, while also lowering computational complexity. The adaptive strategy dynamically adjusts the polynomial order, effectively mitigating issues of overfitting or underdetermination typically associated with fixed polynomial orders. Numerical simulations demonstrate reduced temperature reconstruction errors of 2%, 1.6%, and 2% for single-peak, dual-peak, and mixed distribution flow fields, respectively. Corresponding concentration errors were 2%, 1.8%, and 2.6%, which are all improvements over those achieved by the Algebraic Reconstruction Technique (ART). Experimental results using a McKenna flat-flame burner revealed an average reconstruction error of only 0.3% compared to thermocouple measurements for high-temperature regions (>1000 K), with a minimal central temperature difference of 6 K. For lower-temperature peripheral regions, the average error was 188 K, illustrating the practical applicability of the proposed algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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9 pages, 1947 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

A Single-Channel Correction Method for Spectral Responsivity Differences in Detector Arrays

by Yilun Cheng, Fengfu Tan, Gangyu Wang, Yang Li, Laian Qin, Feng He and Zaihong Hou

Photonics 2025, 12(2), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12020151 - 13 Feb 2025

Viewed by 506

Abstract

The spectral responsivity of photodetectors exhibits significant variations across different wavelengths. Such variations can induce substantial errors when large-scale detector array modules are employed for the measurement of laser spot parameters. In this regard, a single-channel data correction methodology is proposed herein to mitigate the spectral responsivity discrepancies within large-scale detector arrays. Specifically, the single-channel incident laser within the detector array is bifurcated and irradiated onto the detector with a coated window mirror and the detector at the original corresponding position, respectively. Subsequently, the correction coefficient is computed based on the single-channel data, thereby effectuating the correction of spectral response differences within the large-scale detection array. Through this approach, the measurement error resulting from the spectral responsivity differences in the detection array measurement system is diminished to less than 2%. Notably, this method is applicable to large-scale detection arrays and is not circumscribed to the domain of laser parameter measurement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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20 pages, 9527 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Adaptive Denoising Method for Photon-Counting LiDAR Point Clouds: Application in Intertidal Zones

by Cheng Wu, Lei Ding, Lin Cong and Shaoning Li

Photonics 2025, 12(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12010013 - 27 Dec 2024

Viewed by 673

Abstract

The intertidal zone, as a dynamic ecosystem at the interface of land and sea, plays a critical role in environmental protection and disaster mitigation. The Ice, Cloud, and Land Elevation Satellite-2 (ICESat-2) is equipped with the Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System (ATLAS) with the ability to penetrate the water bodies, enabling its use for bathymetric measurements. However, the complex land cover types and frequent environmental changes in intertidal zones pose significant challenges for precise measurement and dynamic monitoring. In an effort to address the denoising challenges of ICESat-2 photon point cloud data in such complex environments, this study proposes an adaptive photon denoising method that is capable of dynamically adjusting the denoising strategy for different types of photon data. ATL03 data from four typical intertidal zones were selected for denoising experiments. The results indicated that the proposed adaptive denoising method achieved average recall, precision, and F-score values of 0.9885, 0.9927, and 0.9906, respectively, demonstrating excellent denoising performance and stability. This method provides an effective data processing approach for high-precision monitoring of intertidal zone topography. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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10 pages, 2102 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on an Echo-Signal-Detection Algorithm for Weak and Small Targets Based on GM-APD Remote Active Single-Photon Technology

by Shengwen Yin, Sining Li, Xin Zhou, Jianfeng Sun, Dongfang Guo, Jie Lu and Hong Zhao

Photonics 2024, 11(12), 1158; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11121158 - 9 Dec 2024

Viewed by 962

Abstract

Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode (GM-APD) is a single-photon-detection device characterized by high sensitivity and fast response, which enables it to detect echo signals of distant targets effectively. Given that weak and small targets possess relatively small volumes and occupy only a small number of pixels, relying solely on neighborhood information for target reconstruction proves to be difficult. Furthermore, during long-distance detection, the optical reflection cross-section is small, making signal photons highly susceptible to being submerged by noise. In this paper, a noise fitting and removal algorithm (NFRA) is proposed. This algorithm can detect the position of the echo signal from the photon statistical histogram submerged by noise and facilitate the reconstruction of weak and small targets. To evaluate the NFRA method, this paper establishes an optical detection system for remotely detecting active single-photon weak and small targets based on GM-APD. Taking unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) as weak and small targets for detection, this paper compares the target reconstruction effects of the peak-value method and the neighborhood method. It is thereby verified that under the conditions of a 7 km distance and a signal-to-background ratio (SBR) of 0.0044, the NFRA method can effectively detect the weak echo signal of the UAV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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11 pages, 2683 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

A Low-Cost Modulated Laser-Based Imaging System Using Square Ring Laser Illumination for Depressing Underwater Backscatter

by Yansheng Hao, Yaoyao Yuan, Hongman Zhang, Shao Zhang and Ze Zhang

Photonics 2024, 11(11), 1070; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11111070 - 14 Nov 2024

Viewed by 946

Abstract

Underwater vision data facilitate a variety of underwater operations, including underwater ecosystem monitoring, topographical mapping, mariculture, and marine resource exploration. Conventional laser-based underwater imaging systems with complex system architecture rely on high-cost laser systems with high power, and software-based methods can not enrich the physical information captured by cameras. In this manuscript, a low-cost modulated laser-based imaging system is proposed with a spot in the shape of a square ring to eliminate the overlap between the illumination light path and the imaging path, which could reduce the negative effect of backscatter on the imaging process and enhance imaging quality. The imaging system is able to achieve underwater imaging at long distance (e.g., 10 m) with turbidity in the range of 2.49 to 7.82 NTUs, and the adjustable divergence angle of the laser tubes enables the flexibility of the proposed system to image on the basis of application requirements, such as the overall view or partial detail information of targets. Compared with a conventional underwater imaging camera (DS-2XC6244F, Hikvision, Hangzhou, China), the developed system could provide better imaging performance regarding visual effects and quantitative evaluation (e.g., UCIQUE and IE). Through integration with the CycleGAN-based method, the imaging results can be further improved, with the UCIQUE increased by 0.4. The proposed low-cost imaging system with a compact system structure and low consumption of energy could be equipped with platforms, such as underwater robots and AUVs, to facilitate real-world underwater applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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16 pages, 2934 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Simulation of Clear Sky Background Radiation in Gas Infrared Remote Sensing Monitoring

by Shengquan Shu, Jianguo Liu, Liang Xu, Yuhao Wang, Yasong Deng and Yongfeng Sun

Photonics 2024, 11(10), 904; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11100904 - 26 Sep 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 900

Abstract

During the process of infrared remote sensing monitoring, obtaining real-time measurements of sky background radiation is extremely inconvenient. The current methods incur a certain amount of lag. In this study, within the existing theoretical framework, a fast transmittance calculation method using interpolation was adopted, and a simplified transmission model was established. This led to the development of a new and simplified method for rapid temperature and humidity retrieval. Compared to the line-by-line integration method, the interpolation method significantly improves the speed of transmittance calculation by several tens of times, while maintaining a high level of accuracy. The relative deviation between the results obtained using the interpolation method and those obtained through line-by-line integration is less than 1 ‱. With the proposed method, temperature and humidity profile information can be retrieved from measured spectra within 5 min and corresponding background spectra can be obtained. The differences between the calculated background radiation and the measured spectra using the new method are smaller, making it more suitable for calculating sky background radiation. Additionally, the rapid retrieval results of the temperature profiles in the lower atmosphere have a certain level of accuracy (the mean deviation is less than 2 K). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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16 pages, 9016 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Correction Algorithm for Ozone Inversion in Differential Absorption Lidar

by Leyong Li, Chenbo Xie, Jie Ji and Kunming Xing

Photonics 2024, 11(6), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11060510 - 27 May 2024

Viewed by 1027

Abstract

Due to the complex and variable nature of the atmospheric conditions, traditional multi-wavelength differential absorption lidar (DIAL) methods often suffer from significant errors when inverting ozone concentrations. As the detection range increases, there is a higher demand for Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) in lidar signals. Based on this, the paper discusses the impact of different atmospheric factors on the accuracy of ozone concentration inversion. It also compares the advantages and disadvantages of the two-wavelength differential method and the three-wavelength dual-differential method under both noisy and noise-free conditions. Firstly, the errors caused by air molecular extinction, aerosol extinction, and backscatter terms in the inversion using the two-wavelength differential method were simulated. Secondly, the corrected inversion errors were obtained through direct correction and the introduction of a three-wavelength dual differential correction. Finally, addressing the issue of insufficient SNR in practical inversions, the inversion errors of the two correction methods were simulated by constructing lidar parameters and incorporating appropriate noise. The results indicate that the traditional two-wavelength differential algorithm is significantly affected by aerosols, making it more sensitive to aerosol concentration and structural changes. On the other hand, the three-wavelength dual differential algorithm requires a higher SNR in lidar signals. Therefore, we propose a novel strategy for inverting atmospheric ozone concentration, which prioritizes the use of the three-wavelength dual-differential method in regions with high SNR and high aerosol concentration. Conversely, the direct correction method utilizing the two-wavelength differential approach is used. This approach holds the potential for high-precision ozone concentration profile inversion under different atmospheric conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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19 pages, 5262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Evaluation and Error Tracing of Rotary Rayleigh Doppler Wind LiDAR

by Jianfeng Chen, Chenbo Xie, Jie Ji, Leyong Li, Bangxin Wang, Kunming Xing and Ming Zhao

Photonics 2024, 11(5), 398; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11050398 - 25 Apr 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1281

Abstract

In the study of atmospheric wind fields from the upper troposphere to the stratosphere (10 km to 50 km), direct detection wind LiDAR is considered a promising method that offers high-precision atmospheric wind field data. In 2020, Xie et al. of the Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, developed an innovative rotating Rayleigh Doppler wind LiDAR (RRDWL). The system aims to achieve single-LiDAR detection of atmospheric wind fields by rotating the entire device cabin. In 2022, the feasibility of the system was successfully validated in laboratory conditions, and field deployment was completed. Due to the structural differences between this system and traditional direct-detection wind LiDAR, performance tests were conducted to evaluate its continuous detection capability in outdoor environments. Subsequently, based on the test results and error analysis, further analysis was carried out to identify the main factors affecting the system’s detection performance. Finally, the error analysis and traceability of the detection results were conducted, and corresponding measures were discussed to provide a theoretical foundation for optimizing the performance of RRDWL. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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12 pages, 7656 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Multiple Fano Resonances in a Metal–Insulator–Metal Waveguide for Nano-Sensing of Multiple Biological Parameters and Tunable Slow Light

by Ruiqi Zhang, He Tian, Yang Liu and Shihang Cui

Photonics 2023, 10(7), 703; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10070703 - 21 Jun 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1650

Abstract

A surface plasmonic waveguide made of metal–insulator–metal (MIM) capable of generating triple Fano resonances is proposed and numerically investigated for multi-biological parameter sensing as well as tunable slow light. The waveguide is made up of a bus waveguide with a silver baffle, a square split-ring cavity with a square center (SSRCSC), and a circular ring cavity with a square center (CRCSC). Based on the triple Fano resonances, human blood temperature and plasma concentration are measured simultaneously at different locations in the waveguide, and the maximum sensitivities were 0.25 nm/°C and 0.2 nm·L/g, respectively. Furthermore, the two biological parameters can be used to achieve tunable slow light, and it was found that the group delay responses to human blood temperature and plasma concentration all conformed to cubic functions. The MIM waveguide may have great applications in future nano-sensing of multiple biological parameters and information processing of optical chips or bio-optical chips. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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15 pages, 10612 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Range-Gated LIDAR Utilizing a LiNbO3 (LN) Crystal as an Optical Switch

by Chenglong Luan, Yingchun Li, Huichao Guo and Houpeng Sun

Photonics 2023, 10(6), 677; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics10060677 - 11 Jun 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1923

Abstract

In this paper, a range-gated LIDAR system utilizing an LN crystal as the electro-optical switch and a SCMOS (scientific complementary metal oxide semiconductor) imaging device is designed. To achieve range-gated operations, we utilize two polarizers and an LN (LiNbO3) crystal to form an electro-optical switch. The optical switch is realized by applying a pulse voltage at both ends of the crystal due to the crystal’s conoscopic interference effect and electro-optical effect. The advantage of this system is that low-bandwidth detectors, such as a CMOS and a CCD (charge-coupled device), can be used to replace conventional high-bandwidth detectors, such as an ICCD (intensified charge-coupled device), and it displays better imaging performance under specific conditions at the same time. However, after using an electro-optical crystal as an optical switch, a new inhomogeneity error will be introduced due to the conoscopic interference effect of the electro-optical crystal, resulting in a range error for the LIDAR system. To reduce the influence of inhomogeneity error on the system, this paper analyzes the sources of inhomogeneity error caused by the electro-optical crystal and calculates the crystal’s inhomogeneity mathematical expression. A compensation method is proposed based on the above inhomogeneity mathematical expression. An experimental LIDAR system is constructed in this paper to verify the validity of the compensation method. The experimental results of the range-gated LIDAR system show that in a specific field of view (2.6 mrad), the LIDAR system has good imaging performance; its ranging standard deviation is 3.86 cm and further decreases to 2.86 cm after compensation, which verifies the accuracy of the compensation method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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Review

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13 pages, 13392 KiB

Open AccessReview

Evolution of Single Photon Lidar: From Satellite Laser Ranging to Airborne Experiments to ICESat-2

by John J. Degnan

Photonics 2024, 11(10), 924; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11100924 - 30 Sep 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2209

Abstract

In September 2018, NASA launched the ICESat-2 satellite into a 500 km high Earth orbit. It carried a truly unique lidar system, i.e., the Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System or ATLAS. The ATLAS lidar is capable of detecting single photons reflected from a wide variety of terrain (land, ice, tree leaves, and underlying terrain) and even performing bathymetric measurements due to its green wavelength. The system uses a single 5-watt, Q-switched laser producing a 10 kHz train of sub-nanosecond pulses, each containing 500 microjoules of energy. The beam is then split into three “strong” and three “weak” beamlets, with the “strong” beamlets containing four times the power of the “weak” beamlets in order to satisfy a wide range of Earth science goals. Thus, ATLAS is capable of making up to 60,000 surface measurements per second compared to the 40 measurements per second made by its predecessor multiphoton instrument, the Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) on ICESat-1, which was terminated after several years of operation in 2009. Low deadtime timing electronics are combined with highly effective noise filtering algorithms to extract the spatially correlated surface photons from the solar and/or electronic background noise. The present paper describes how the ATLAS system evolved from a series of unique and seemingly unconnected personal experiences of the author in the fields of satellite laser ranging, optical antennas and space communications, Q-switched laser theory, and airborne single photon lidars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser as a Detection: From Spectral Imaging to LiDAR for Remote Sensing Applications)

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