Separations

19 pages, 7561 KB

Open AccessArticle

Separation Effect and Hydrodynamic Parameters of an Ilmenite–Chlorite Slurry in Spirals via Cross-Sectional Geometry Regulation of Middle Trough

by Shuling Gao, Xintong Zhang, Qian Wang, Xiaohong Zhou, Chunyu Liu, Guixia Fan and Daoguang Teng

Separations 2026, 13(7), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070208 - 21 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The middle trough of spirals serves simultaneously as a buffer zone for variations in hydrodynamic parameters and as a region where mineral particles of different densities are prone to mixing, exerting a profound influence on particle-separation effect. This study employed a multi-fluid volume [...] Read more.

The middle trough of spirals serves simultaneously as a buffer zone for variations in hydrodynamic parameters and as a region where mineral particles of different densities are prone to mixing, exerting a profound influence on particle-separation effect. This study employed a multi-fluid volume of fluid (VOF) model incorporating the Bagnold effect to simulate the ilmenite–chlorite slurry flow in a custom-designed Φ400 mm short-travel spiral concentrator with three turns. This study systematically investigated the influence of the transverse inclination angle of the middle trough (ranging from 3.5° to 9.5°) on separation indicators, flow film morphology, secondary circulation characteristics, and particle force dynamics. The results indicate that employing a lower transverse inclination angle is more conducive to improving the technical separation indicators for ilmenite and chlorite. When using enrichment ratio and separation efficiency as criteria, the optimal inclination angles range from 3.5° to 5° and 3.5° to 6.5°, respectively. Meanwhile the separation efficiency and its sensitivity to the middle trough transverse inclination angle vary remarkably with different feeding sizes. Feeding of 112 μm ilmenite and 19 μm chlorite yields the premium separation performance and is minimally affected by the middle trough transverse inclination angle. Conversely, as the ilmenite particle size decreases or the chlorite particle size increases, the separation indicators decline but become significantly regulated by the middle trough transverse inclination angle, exhibiting a desirable angle range of 3.5–6.5°. Hydrodynamic parameter analyses indicate that a moderate flow film depth, continuous secondary circulation morphology and stabilizing inner circulation in the middle trough can be obtained at a middle trough transverse inclination angle scope of 3.5–6.5°. Once the inclination angle exceeds 6.5°, a distinct ridge forms in the flow film of the middle trough, and extensive disruptions occur in the outward circulation, which subsequently impedes the outward transport of low-density particles along with the fluid. At a middle trough transverse inclination angle scope of 3.5–6.5°, the Bagnold force exerted on the ilmenite particles in the middle trough remains low during the initial stage of flow field evolution, which favors their retention in the lower fluid layer to become the concentrate product. Concurrently, the chlorite particles near the inner region experience a higher Bagnold force, which facilitates their suspension into the upper outer circulation, thereby amplifying the kinematic differences between the chlorite and ilmenite particles. This study demonstrates that fluid dynamic parameters and the force characteristics of mineral particles can effectively characterize the separation process of mineral particles in spirals. Full article

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16 pages, 764 KB

Open AccessArticle

Y-Site Compatibility of Doxapram Hydrochloride with Commonly Used Drugs in the NICU

by Mao Maekawa, Masamitsu Maekawa, Yu Sato, Shimpei Watanabe, Masatoshi Saito and Nariyasu Mano

Separations 2026, 13(7), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070207 - 18 Jul 2026

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Abstract

In neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), limited vascular access often necessitates the co-administration of multiple intravenous medications through a single line, increasing the risk of physicochemical incompatibility. Doxapram hydrochloride (DOP), a respiratory stimulant used when caffeine therapy is insufficient, is continuously infused and [...] Read more.

In neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), limited vascular access often necessitates the co-administration of multiple intravenous medications through a single line, increasing the risk of physicochemical incompatibility. Doxapram hydrochloride (DOP), a respiratory stimulant used when caffeine therapy is insufficient, is continuously infused and frequently requires Y-site administration with other drugs. This study systematically evaluated the compatibility of seven commonly used NICU medications—midazolam (MDZ), dalteparin sodium (DLT), cefazolin, cefepime (CFPM), vancomycin, fosfluconazole, and famotidine—under conditions simulating co-administration through the side port of a continuous DOP infusion. Visual inspection, UV absorbance, pH measurement, and HPLC/UV analysis were performed at 0 and 3 h, with extended evaluation to 24 h for only MDZ and DLT. All mixtures showed acceptable physicochemical compatibility within 3 h, and MDZ and DLT remained stable for 24 h, indicating feasibility for co-infusion in the same syringe. In HPLC/UV analysis, the CFPM–DOP mixture exhibited a marked artifactual increase in DOP peak area, likely due to pH-dependent chromatographic behavior changing rather than true incompatibility. These findings provide practical compatibility data for NICU drug administration and offer a methodological framework for evaluating untested drug combinations, contributing to safer and more efficient intravenous therapy in preterm infants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Chromatographic Techniques for the Determination of Active Pharmaceutical Compounds)

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47 pages, 6257 KB

Open AccessReview

Carbon–Fluorine Bond Cleavage in PFAS Remediation: Integrating Biological and Emerging Advanced Treatment Technologies

by Chinemerem Ruth Ohoro and Veronica M. Ngole-Jeme

Separations 2026, 13(7), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070206 - 17 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are persistent environmental contaminants widely recognized as “forever chemicals” due to the exceptional stability of their carbon–fluorine (C-F) bonds. Their widespread occurrence in water, soil, sediments, and biota, coupled with increasing evidence of toxicity, bioaccumulation, and long-range transport, [...] Read more.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are persistent environmental contaminants widely recognized as “forever chemicals” due to the exceptional stability of their carbon–fluorine (C-F) bonds. Their widespread occurrence in water, soil, sediments, and biota, coupled with increasing evidence of toxicity, bioaccumulation, and long-range transport, has intensified the search for sustainable remediation strategies. Conventional remediation technologies for PFASs have been widely applied but remain constrained by several technical and environmental limitations, such as incomplete mineralization, high energy requirements, secondary waste generation, and the formation of toxic transformation products. Moreover, many conventional treatment processes were not originally designed to handle the chemical stability and structural diversity of PFASs, resulting in variable removal efficiencies across different compounds. Bio-based strategies for PFAS remediation, particularly those targeting C-F bond cleavage and biological defluorination, are gaining attention due to the unique challenges posed by the chemical stability and environmental persistence of these “forever chemicals”. This review addresses the fragmented nature of PFAS remediation research by integrating biological and physicochemical strategies and critically examining mechanisms of C-F bond cleavage and defluorination. Emerging technologies, including bioelectrochemical systems, photocatalytic and electrochemical defluorination, adsorption-assisted degradation, plasma treatment, hydrothermal processes, and synthetic biology approaches, are evaluated in relation to their degradation efficiencies, defluorination capacities, and applicability in diverse environmental matrices. Particular attention is given to integrated “capture-and-destroy” systems that combine adsorption with catalytic or biological degradation to enhance remediation efficiency and reduce energy demand. PFAS treatment performance varies markedly across scalability, destruction, and cost. Key knowledge gaps and future perspectives are outlined, emphasizing the need for scalable, energy-efficient, and environmentally sustainable remediation technologies capable of achieving complete PFAS mineralization in complex environmental systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Adsorption and Degradation Technologies of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS))

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2 pages, 129 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Updating the Section Bioanalysis/Clinical Analysis to Advanced Separation Science in Biomedical Research and Clinical Applications

by Andreas Tsakalof

Separations 2026, 13(7), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070205 - 16 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Biomedical research has undergone profound changes in recent years, driven by advances in analytical technologies that enable the investigation of increasingly complex biological systems [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Separation Science in Biomedical Research and Clinical Applications)

17 pages, 7702 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biodegradable Nanofiber Membrane with Designed Beaded Structure for High-Efficiency Oil–Water Separation

by Linlin Yan, Jinglin Hong, Jialing Zhang, Yanying Zhao, Yuqian He, Kai Wang, Yuhua Gao, Zongli Xie and Xiquan Cheng

Separations 2026, 13(7), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070204 - 15 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Membrane separation technology has been extensively applied to treat oily effluent given its high performance and ease of operation. However, conventional polymer membranes are resistant to natural degradation after use, leading to severe environmental concerns. Consequently, the development of biodegradable membranes that combine [...] Read more.

Membrane separation technology has been extensively applied to treat oily effluent given its high performance and ease of operation. However, conventional polymer membranes are resistant to natural degradation after use, leading to severe environmental concerns. Consequently, the development of biodegradable membranes that combine satisfactory oil–water separation performance with ecological safety has emerged as a critical research priority. In this work, we fabricated a biodegradable membrane consisting of chitosan (CS), sodium methacrylate (SMa) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) via electrospinning, with anionic super-hydrophilic polyacrylamide (PAM) incorporated to enhance wettability. No toxic chemicals were used throughout the fabrication process. The resulting membrane with an interpenetrating network and beaded structure not only rendered the crosslinked nanofiber more hydrophilic but also improved the porosity of membranes, which significantly enhanced the separation performance and fouling resistance of the membrane. Specifically, the CS/PVA/SMa-PAM membrane achieved a separation flux of 2.7 × 10⁴ L·m⁻²·h⁻¹·bar⁻¹ for oil–water emulsions. After 20 emulsion separation cycles, the flux of the modified membrane was stable at 2.5 × 10⁴ L·m⁻²·h⁻¹·bar⁻¹. Benefiting from its excellent anti-fouling properties, high separation efficiency, eco-friendly biodegradability, and toxic-reagent-free fabrication, the as-prepared CS/PVA/SMa-PAM membrane offers a promising and sustainable option for oily wastewater treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Separations)

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17 pages, 1753 KB

Open AccessArticle

Green Separation of Scandium and Titanium Using Citric Acid via Organic Complexation Scrubbing

by Guangyu Zhang, Weiguang Zhang, Yingxuan Wang, Lexuan Zhang, Xuejiao Cao, Yibing Li, Yang Chen and Yan Wang

Separations 2026, 13(7), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070203 - 15 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Aiming at the bottleneck of the difficult scrubbing and separation of scandium and titanium in the solvent extraction process for scandium recovery, a novel strategy for scandium–titanium separation via citrate complex scrubbing is proposed based on the difference in complexation properties between scandium/titanium [...] Read more.

Aiming at the bottleneck of the difficult scrubbing and separation of scandium and titanium in the solvent extraction process for scandium recovery, a novel strategy for scandium–titanium separation via citrate complex scrubbing is proposed based on the difference in complexation properties between scandium/titanium and hydroxycarboxylic acids. The mixed Na₃Cit + H₂O₂ system was screened as the optimal scrubbing agent. The effects of key parameters including dosages of Na₃Cit and H₂O₂ and phase ratio (O/A) on scrubbing performance were systematically investigated. The optimal process conditions were determined as follows: temperature of 25 °C, molar ratio n(Na₃Cit)/n(Ti) = 30:1, molar ratio n(H₂O₂)/n(Ti) = 3:1, phase ratio (O/A) of 1:1, shaking speed of 200 r/min, and scrubbing time of 30 min. Under the optimal conditions, the titanium scrubbing efficiency reaches 97.37% with zero co-scrubbing efficiency of scandium. The separation efficiency is 14.47 times higher than that of the conventional H₂SO₄ + H₂O₂ scrubbing system, which significantly enhances the scandium–titanium separation performance. This work provides a feasible technical route for the deep separation and purification of scandium and titanium from titanium white waste acid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Solvent Extraction)

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16 pages, 4889 KB

Open AccessArticle

Water–Induced Spherical Crystallization of Pantoprazole Sodium

by Yikai Chen, Zhiying Pan, Hongcheng Li, Shichao Du, Yan Wang and Fumin Xue

Separations 2026, 13(7), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070202 - 11 Jul 2026

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Abstract

This study develops a spherical crystallization approach using a small amount of water, which avoids adding extra bridging agents. Notably, a new ternary solvate of pantoprazole sodium (PS–BuOH–H₂O) was obtained, and its crystal structure was determined by single–crystal X-ray diffraction. The [...] Read more.

This study develops a spherical crystallization approach using a small amount of water, which avoids adding extra bridging agents. Notably, a new ternary solvate of pantoprazole sodium (PS–BuOH–H₂O) was obtained, and its crystal structure was determined by single–crystal X-ray diffraction. The crystal packing and Hirshfeld surface analyses were performed to identify intermolecular interactions within the crystal. In the crystal lattice, water molecules not only coordinate to the sodium ion of pantoprazole sodium but also form a hydrogen bond with n-butanol via O₆–H_6A···O₅. In order to regulate the particle morphology, the effects of crystallization conditions were investigated, including water content, feeding rate of water, solute concentration, temperature, cooling rate, and stirring rate. It was discovered that water plays a key role in promoting the spherical crystallization of PS–BuOH–H₂O. In addition, the morphology of the solvate was closely related to the competition process of crystal agglomeration and spherulitic growth. By optimizing the process parameters, well–developed spherical particles could be prepared and stepwise evolution of spherulites via noncrystallographic branching was observed. This study established a water–induced spherical crystallization technique, offering a promising strategy for preparing new crystal forms and improved particle morphology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging New Technologies in Fundamental and Industrial Crystallization)

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30 pages, 3095 KB

Open AccessArticle

Innovating Slow Sand Filtration: Exploring the Regeneration of a Traditional Technology for the 21st Century

by Hayley Corbett, Brian Solan, Svetlana Tretsiakova-McNally, Pilar Fernandez-Ibañez, Bárbara Luíza Souza Freitas and Rodney McDermott

Separations 2026, 13(7), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070201 - 10 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The intensifying rate of global water stress is motivating the exploration of alternative water sources. This research aims to unlock conventionally unusable wastewater effluent for reuse with the aid of slow sand filtration (SSF). In this study, a traditional SSF reactor was constructed [...] Read more.

The intensifying rate of global water stress is motivating the exploration of alternative water sources. This research aims to unlock conventionally unusable wastewater effluent for reuse with the aid of slow sand filtration (SSF). In this study, a traditional SSF reactor was constructed and later modified by replacing a section with sawdust, a sustainable material. The two filter configurations were asynchronously investigated to evaluate their potential capacity for the removal of antibiotics and common surface-water nutrients, i.e., nitrates and phosphates. Each filtration system was operated in a recirculating mode over four weeks to develop the biological component referred to as the “schmutzdecke”. Standard water-quality testing indicated that the SSF with an incorporated sawdust layer buffered shock events (e.g., turbidity spikes) while still cultivating a healthy schmutzdecke. Furthermore, the sawdust facilitated greater microbial activity, which is associated with the biodegradation of various contaminants and pathogens. Following filtration of a simulated wastewater effluent containing sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and trimethoprim (TMP) antibiotics (ca. 1 mg∙L⁻¹), it was found that the TMP removal exceeded 93% in both configurations. The SMX removal rate was much lower and varied significantly, ranging from 1.2 to 38.6% and from 1.4 to 3.4% for the traditional and modified filters, respectively. These findings suggest that the proposed configuration has the potential to address some emerging contaminants but that refinements are needed to address other contaminants such as SMX. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable and Intelligent Process Control of Pollutant Separation and Purification)

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25 pages, 13467 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Photo-Responsive Molecularly Imprinted Silica as a Sustainable Solid-Phase Extraction Filler for Highly Selective Adsorption of Chlorogenic Acid

by Ying Yang, Xiaofei Xie, Jingchang Zhang, Jirui Sui, Chuancheng Lin, Mingxing Li, Weixue Liu, Chunying Li and Chunjian Zhao

Separations 2026, 13(7), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070200 - 9 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Chlorogenic acid (CA) is an important natural antioxidant component and holds strong potential for health food and cosmetic applications. In this study, a silica-based photo-responsive molecular imprinting material (PMI-PDA@NH₂-SiO₂) was designed as a solid-phase extraction (SPE) adsorption filler and [...] Read more.

Chlorogenic acid (CA) is an important natural antioxidant component and holds strong potential for health food and cosmetic applications. In this study, a silica-based photo-responsive molecular imprinting material (PMI-PDA@NH₂-SiO₂) was designed as a solid-phase extraction (SPE) adsorption filler and applied for the efficient separation of CA in Ficus carica L. Using polydopamine-modified NH₂-SiO₂ silica as the base, combined with the photo-responsive monomer 4-methacryloyloxyazobenzene (AZO-MAA), a molecular imprinting layer with photo-responsive regulation function was constructed. Under 365 nm ultraviolet light irradiation, the azobenzene group was isomerized to the cis structure, causing the imprint cavity to shrink, thereby enabling controlled release of CA, with complete desorption within 40 min, and a desorption rate of 94.33%. Importantly, the material retained 85.56% of its initial adsorption capacity and 91.38% of its original desorption efficiency after 6 consecutive adsorption/desorption cycles, confirming robust operational stability and reproducibility. PMI-PDA@NH₂-SiO₂ was applied to the extract of Ficus carica L., achieving an adsorption rate of 92.3% for CA and a desorption rate of 87.27%. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations and NOESY spectroscopic analyses revealed that CA interacted with functional monomers via hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces. This study advances a green separation strategy for bioactive phytochemicals in complex natural matrices. Full article

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20 pages, 7063 KB

Open AccessReview

The Combination of Micro-Nano Bubbles and Other Technologies for Emerging Contaminants’ Elimination in Water Treatment

by Zilong Liu, Jiawei Wang, Shuyuan Zhu and Shangyi Li

Separations 2026, 13(7), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070199 - 8 Jul 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 462

Abstract

With the widespread application of new chemicals, the concentration of emerging contaminants (ECs), such as antibiotics, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), microplastics, and new pesticides, in aquatic environments is on the rise. ECs such as those examined in the studies exhibit high toxicity, [...] Read more.

With the widespread application of new chemicals, the concentration of emerging contaminants (ECs), such as antibiotics, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), microplastics, and new pesticides, in aquatic environments is on the rise. ECs such as those examined in the studies exhibit high toxicity, persistence, and a propensity for bioaccumulation, which can lead to significant risks for ecosystems and human health. Traditional water treatment technologies exhibit limited removal capabilities for ECs, whereas micro-nano bubbles (MNBs) exhibit great potential in the field of ECs treatment, due to their unique physicochemical properties. This article systematically reviews the research progress on the treatment of ECs using MNBs combined with other technologies, including physical methods (adsorption enhancement), chemical methods (ozonation, persulfate oxidation, photocatalysis, and material catalysis) and biological methods (microbial synergy). This review summarizes the research progress and mechanisms of MNBs combination technologies, outlining the critical knowledge gaps and future research perspectives to advance the rational design and engineering application of MNBs for ECs’ elimination in water treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Adsorption and Separation Technologies in Water Treatment)

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21 pages, 3200 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Valorization of Coal Gasification Slag via Low-Temperature Alkaline Activation for Efficient Cd²⁺ Removal: Performance, Mechanism, and Life Cycle Assessment

by Haicheng Zhao, Lihui Gao, Xinmeng Jiang and Yijing Zhang

Separations 2026, 13(7), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070198 - 8 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Coal gasification slag (CGS), a massive industrial solid waste, possesses inherent adsorptive potential that remains underutilized due to pore blockage by amorphous siliceous phases. Conventional modification strategies typically rely on energy-intensive high-temperature processes. Herein, we report a facile, low-temperature alkaline activation approach to [...] Read more.

Coal gasification slag (CGS), a massive industrial solid waste, possesses inherent adsorptive potential that remains underutilized due to pore blockage by amorphous siliceous phases. Conventional modification strategies typically rely on energy-intensive high-temperature processes. Herein, we report a facile, low-temperature alkaline activation approach to transform CGS into a high-efficiency adsorbent (denoted NCGS) for Cd²⁺ removal. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution was employed under mild conditions (90 °C) to selectively etch siliceous species, thereby generating a porous architecture and enriching surface oxygen-containing functionalities. Orthogonal experimental design identified optimal synthesis parameters (1 mol/L NaOH, solid–liquid ratio of 1:30 g/mL, 12 h), yielding NCGS with significantly enhanced textural properties. The adsorption isotherm was well described by the Langmuir model, with a maximum capacity of 87.06 mg/g at pH 6.0, while kinetic studies indicated the adsorption process could be described by pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Comprehensive characterization via SEM-EDS, FTIR, and XPS elucidated a multi-mechanistic adsorption pathway mainly involving ion exchange (Na⁺/Cd²⁺) and coordination complexation. Life cycle assessment analysis revealed that NCGS production generates 11.23 kg CO₂ eq emissions, with transportation accounting for 88%. This study presents an energy-saving and environmentally friendly strategy to unlock the adsorptive potential of CGS, providing a highly promising waste-based adsorption material for the remediation of Cd²⁺-contaminated water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid Waste Recycling and Strategic Metal Extraction)

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12 pages, 498 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Determination of 45 Pigments and Preservatives in Edible Ink by Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Triple Quadrupole Tandem Mass Spectrometry

by Zhuowen Feng, Jieshan Wu, Tingwei Huang, Liang Pan, Yue Zhao, Yun Cui, Shiwei Ren and Abderrahim Yassar

Separations 2026, 13(7), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070197 - 7 Jul 2026

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Abstract

An analytical method was established for the rapid determination of 45 pigments and preservatives in edible ink by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), which provides technical support for the composition analysis and industrial development of edible [...] Read more.

An analytical method was established for the rapid determination of 45 pigments and preservatives in edible ink by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), which provides technical support for the composition analysis and industrial development of edible ink. The samples were easily extracted with 75% aqueous methanol solution and purified with a Captiva EMR-Lipid HF solid-phase extraction cartridge. After filtration through a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane, the analytes were determined by UHPLC-MS/MS under multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode in both positive and negative ion modes. Poroshell 120 AQ-C18 was selected as the analytical column, and valve switching timing control was adopted during the gradient elution process. The external standard method was used for quantitative analysis. In the established method, the 45 pigments and preservatives exhibited good linear relationships within the mass concentration range of 0.0002–200.0 μg/mL. The limits of detection (LOD) and limits of quantification (LOQ) were 0.0004–8.00 mg/kg and 0.001–20.00 mg/kg, respectively. Using 25% aqueous glycerol solution as the blank matrix, the recoveries of analytes at different spiked levels met the detection requirements. The established method is simple and rapid, and can be applied to the qualitative and quantitative detection of typical pigments and preservatives in edible ink. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Chromatographic Separation)

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25 pages, 1694 KB

Open AccessReview

Advancing Iron Recovery from Red Mud: Green Pathways, Synergistic Valorization, and High-Value Total Component Utilization

by Guoqiang Liang, Chenpeng Wang, Qianwei Ji, Xusheng Zhang, Liang Zhao, Xinchun Liu, Zhisheng Yu, Hongxun Zhang, Guoqiang Zhuang, Jianzhong Zheng and Ruyin Liu

Separations 2026, 13(7), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070196 - 6 Jul 2026

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Abstract

Facing the severe environmental challenge of massive red mud (RM) stockpiles, iron extraction research is accelerating from traditional pyrometallurgy and other conventional processes toward green low-carbon, multi-source synergistic, and total-component high-value utilization approaches—a transition that continues to evolve. This review systematically examines three [...] Read more.

Facing the severe environmental challenge of massive red mud (RM) stockpiles, iron extraction research is accelerating from traditional pyrometallurgy and other conventional processes toward green low-carbon, multi-source synergistic, and total-component high-value utilization approaches—a transition that continues to evolve. This review systematically examines three frontiers: green reduction technologies, synergistic valorization via waste-treating-waste, and integrated cascading strategies for total-component high-value utilization. Evaluation focuses on the principles, advantages, and challenges of biomass reduction, hydrogen metallurgy, selective flocculation, advanced heating techniques, co-processing with other solid wastes, and multi-metal cascading extraction. Evidence suggests that future RM iron extraction technology lies in establishing cross-industry circular economy networks, transforming RM from a singular waste into a resource hub linking aluminum, steel, and construction industries to maximize environmental and economic benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Separation and Extraction Technology in Mineral Processing: Second Edition)

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17 pages, 1479 KB

Open AccessArticle

Counter-Current Chromatography Enables Use of Green Solvents for Productive Peptide Purification Processes

by Rosella Prestia, Damian Hauri, Mattia Sponchioni, Sebastian Vogg and Thomas Müller-Späth

Separations 2026, 13(7), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070195 - 4 Jul 2026

Viewed by 931

Abstract

Peptide purification by preparative reversed-phase liquid chromatography remains one of the most resource-intensive stages in synthetic peptide manufacturing. Production processes commonly rely on acetonitrile/trifluoroacetic acid (ACN/TFA) mobile phases mainly because of their high chromatographic resolution. However, both components raise significant environmental and safety [...] Read more.

Peptide purification by preparative reversed-phase liquid chromatography remains one of the most resource-intensive stages in synthetic peptide manufacturing. Production processes commonly rely on acetonitrile/trifluoroacetic acid (ACN/TFA) mobile phases mainly because of their high chromatographic resolution. However, both components raise significant environmental and safety concerns related to toxicity, flammability, waste generation, and, in the case of TFA, environmental persistence as a per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS, known as a “forever chemical”). Green alternatives based on ethanol, dimethyl carbonate, and sustainable acidic additives such as acetic acid have been proposed, but their industrial adoption remains limited due to reduced chromatographic performance, often resulting in lower yield and productivity under conventional batch operation. In this work, multi-column counter-current solvent gradient purification (MCSGP) was investigated as a strategy to integrate the use of green eluent systems without compromising process performance. Two therapeutic peptides, Tirzepatide and Tetracosactide, were selected as representative case studies with different structural complexity. Using ethanol/acetic acid for Tirzepatide and dimethyl carbonate/acetic acid for Tetracosactide, the MCSGP process achieved purity levels equivalent to those obtained with conventional ACN/TFA batch chromatography, with 88.1% yield at 89.0% purity for Tirzepatide and 93.8% yield at 94.0% purity for Tetracosactide. Productivity for Tirzepatide was improved, reaching 6.3 g/L_resin/h. These results demonstrate that MCSGP can compensate for the reduced separation efficiency typically associated with green eluent systems, enabling sustainable peptide purification without compromising process performance. By combining green solvents with the MCSGP process, this work paves the way for more sustainable peptide purification processes while maintaining high yield and productivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Separation Media and Technologies for Biomolecules)

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30 pages, 5049 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Characteristic Chromatogram and Quantitative Determination of 25 Marker Compounds in the Traditional Chinese Medicine Preparation Qili Qiangxin Capsules by HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS

by Xin-Wen Huang, Xiang Li, Yi-Jing Lang, Ran-Xu Song, Jing-Jing Ren, Yan-Hua Xie, Hui-Min Xiao and Si-Wang Wang

Separations 2026, 13(7), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070194 - 3 Jul 2026

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Abstract

To establish a comprehensive quality control method for Qili Qiangxin Capsules, an HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS approach was developed for characteristic chromatogram analysis, marker compound identification, and multi-compound quantification. Similarity analysis of the characteristic chromatogram was conducted, and 25 characteristic peaks were identified using MS/MS fragment [...] Read more.

To establish a comprehensive quality control method for Qili Qiangxin Capsules, an HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS approach was developed for characteristic chromatogram analysis, marker compound identification, and multi-compound quantification. Similarity analysis of the characteristic chromatogram was conducted, and 25 characteristic peaks were identified using MS/MS fragment information. Methodological validation (specificity, linearity, precision, stability, repeatability, spiked recovery) was performed, followed by content determination of the 25 marker compounds. Results showed that the similarity of 10 batches of samples was >0.9 (Peak 6 as reference peak). The methodological validation for the quantitative analysis of 25 compounds met the requirements. All 25 compounds exhibited good linearity (R² > 0.999), with spiked recoveries of 98–103% (RSD < 2.0%). All validation indicators met Chinese Pharmacopoeia requirements. The established method is specific, precise, and stable, enabling simultaneous characteristic chromatogram identification and multi-compound quantification of Qili Qiangxin Capsules. It provides technical support for production quality supervision and clinical medication safety, and offers a reference for quality control of similar traditional Chinese medicine preparations. Full article

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18 pages, 18774 KB

Open AccessArticle

Magnetic Co-Al Layered Double Hydroxides as Peroxymonosulfate Activator for the Removal of Pesticide Multiresidues

by Zi-Ying Zeng, Cheng-Xiang He, Qin Tian, Jun Long, Bing-Yan Du, Er-Cheng Zhao and Zhong-Hua Yang

Separations 2026, 13(7), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070193 - 2 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The increasing prevalence of multiclass pesticide residues in aquatic environments poses a significant threat to ecosystems and human health. To address this challenge, magnetic Fe₃O₄@Co₅Al-LDH nanoparticles were synthesized as high-performance, easily recoverable catalysts for the peroxymonosulfate (PMS)-mediated [...] Read more.

The increasing prevalence of multiclass pesticide residues in aquatic environments poses a significant threat to ecosystems and human health. To address this challenge, magnetic Fe₃O₄@Co₅Al-LDH nanoparticles were synthesized as high-performance, easily recoverable catalysts for the peroxymonosulfate (PMS)-mediated degradation of epoxiconazole, atrazine, and metalaxyl. Under optimized conditions (pH 7.0, 35 mg catalyst, and 4.0 mM PMS), the system achieved 100% degradation of the three coexisting pesticides within 15 min. Quenching experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy confirmed that SO₄⁻ and ^•OH radicals were the primary reactive species driving the process. Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis identified four intermediates for epoxiconazole, three for atrazine, and four for metalaxyl, facilitating the proposal of distinct degradation pathways. The degradation mechanism revealed that electron transfer between Fe/Co and PMS promoted the generation of reactive oxygen species, leading to dechlorination, hydroxylation, and dealkylation of the pesticides transiently adsorbed on the surface of Fe₃O₄@Co₅Al-LDH. In summary, this study demonstrates that Fe₃O₄@Co₅Al-LDH is an easily recoverable, reusable, and cost-effective catalyst for the simultaneous remediation of complex pesticide mixtures in water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Techniques for Extraction and Removal of Pesticide Residues)

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16 pages, 8533 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Dynamic Characteristics of Simulated Droplet Particles in Hydro-Jet Cyclone Based on CFD-DPM

by Yao Zhang, Yong Yu, Zhi-Bin Zhou, Zheng-Hao Yang, Yu-Long Chang, Li-Wang Wang and Ben-Shuai Guo

Separations 2026, 13(7), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070192 - 1 Jul 2026

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Abstract

The complex behavior of multi-scale droplets in Hydro-jet Cyclone (HJC) systems constrains the parametric study of gas–liquid separation and interfacial transfer. To investigate droplet dynamics at a specific scale in swirling flows, this study employed 500-μm simulated droplet particles (SDPs) and examined the [...] Read more.

The complex behavior of multi-scale droplets in Hydro-jet Cyclone (HJC) systems constrains the parametric study of gas–liquid separation and interfacial transfer. To investigate droplet dynamics at a specific scale in swirling flows, this study employed 500-μm simulated droplet particles (SDPs) and examined the effects of inlet gas rate, column height, and cone angle on trajectories, revolution speed, and self-rotation speed using the Computational Fluid Dynamics-Discrete Phase Model (CFD-DPM). The results demonstrate that SDPs exhibit suspended circulation within the cyclone. The suspension zone expands toward the overflow pipe with increasing gas rate and cone angle, but migrates downward with increasing column height. The revolution speed increases from about 50 rad/s to 80 rad/s as inlet gas rate rises, but decays with increasing column height, while cone angle has little influence. The self-rotation speed is driven by near-wall shear, reaching an instantaneous peak of 4500 rad/s at the inlet; after stable suspension, it increases markedly with gas rate, from <3500 rad/s at 12 m/s to 12,000 rad/s at 22 m/s. Inlet gas rate is the dominant factor governing self-rotation, followed by cone angle, whereas column height mainly affects suspension position. This study provides a numerical reference for droplet dynamics in HJC gas–liquid systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Separations)

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13 pages, 5333 KB

Open AccessArticle

Superiority Desulfurization of Indigenous Microorganisms with Sulfur Metabolism in Coal

by Qiyuan Wei, Yanru Cui, Hongqiong Zhang and Jianbo Li

Separations 2026, 13(7), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070191 - 30 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Coal plays a vital role in energy production, but its combustion releases SO₂, causing serious environmental problems. In this study, indigenous microorganisms with sulfur-metabolism potential were isolated from raw coal and evaluated for coal biodesulfurization. The isolated strain, Arthrobacter sp. DBW, [...] Read more.

Coal plays a vital role in energy production, but its combustion releases SO₂, causing serious environmental problems. In this study, indigenous microorganisms with sulfur-metabolism potential were isolated from raw coal and evaluated for coal biodesulfurization. The isolated strain, Arthrobacter sp. DBW, degraded 50% of DBT within 100 h and reduced the total sulfur content of coal by 42%. Since pyrite remained after treatment, the sulfur removal was mainly attributed to organic sulfur removal. Mechanistic analysis indicated that Arthrobacter sp. DBW may remove organic sulfur through enzyme binding to DBT and subsequent C-S bond cleavage via the 4S pathway. In addition, partial kaolinite dissolution occurred during biodesulfurization, reducing the ash content by 1.06%. These results suggest that Arthrobacter sp. DBW has potential for organic sulfur removal from coal and may help reduce SO₂ emissions during subsequent combustion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Purification Technology)

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21 pages, 5916 KB

Open AccessArticle

Intensified Roasting at Low-Temperature and Alkaline Leaching to Efficiently Remove Harmful Elements for Green Utilization of Secondary Aluminum Dross

by Nianzi Liu, Yilin Wang, Qing Long, Anyan Long, Guihua Liu, Tiangui Qi, Qiusheng Zhou, Leiting Shen and Jian Guo

Separations 2026, 13(7), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070190 - 28 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Secondary aluminum dross (SAD) from the aluminum industry is a hazardous residue that restricts sustainable aluminum production. Residual aluminum nitride (AlN) and insoluble fluorides after conventional pretreatment are major barriers to the safe utilization of SAD. In this study, a low-temperature intensified roasting–alkaline [...] Read more.

Secondary aluminum dross (SAD) from the aluminum industry is a hazardous residue that restricts sustainable aluminum production. Residual aluminum nitride (AlN) and insoluble fluorides after conventional pretreatment are major barriers to the safe utilization of SAD. In this study, a low-temperature intensified roasting–alkaline leaching process was developed to remove harmful elements by using reaction heat and waste heat to expose enveloped AlN and fluoride phases, form soluble sodium-bearing compounds, and intensify AlN oxidation. Without additives, roasting at 750 °C for 3 h converted 91.65% of AlN, leaving 1.37% AlN in the roasted SAD. With Na₂O₂ as an oxygen donor in situ, NaF as a mineralizer to reduce roasting temperature, and sodium-bearing species as reactants for soluble NaAlO₂/Na₂SiO₃ formation, the AlN conversion increased up to 97.01% under 5% NaF and 2.5% Na₂O₂ at 750 °C for 3 h. Afterwards, higher temperature, longer duration, lower roasted SAD dosage, and higher caustic soda concentration all improved fluorine removal in the subsequent alkaline leaching. Under 100 g/L Na₂O, 20 g/L roasted SAD, and 100 °C, fluorine and chlorine removal efficiencies reached 92.52% and 99.47%, respectively. The final high-alumina residue contained 74% Al₂O₃, mainly in the forms of α-Al₂O₃, NaAl₁₁O₁₇, and MgAl₂O₄, with only 0.19% F and 0.03% Cl, making it suitable for the preparation of various alumina-bearing materials and alumina production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Separation Techniques for Sustainable Recycling of Solid Waste)

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20 pages, 1912 KB

Open AccessArticle

Purification, Ionic-Liquid-Associated Elemental Marker Reduction, Stability and Bioactivity Evaluation of Monoterpene Glycoside-Enriched Extracts from Radix Paeoniae Alba

by Jieru Zhang, Ying Yang and Xiaoming Peng

Separations 2026, 13(7), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070189 - 27 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Ionic liquid-assisted extraction can improve the recovery of monoterpene glycosides from Radix Paeoniae Alba, whereas post-extraction purification and ionic-liquid-associated marker-level quality control remain necessary before further bioactivity evaluation. In this study, a macroporous resin-based purification process was developed for monoterpene glycoside-enriched extracts [...] Read more.

Ionic liquid-assisted extraction can improve the recovery of monoterpene glycosides from Radix Paeoniae Alba, whereas post-extraction purification and ionic-liquid-associated marker-level quality control remain necessary before further bioactivity evaluation. In this study, a macroporous resin-based purification process was developed for monoterpene glycoside-enriched extracts obtained by conventional reflux extraction and ionic liquid-assisted microwave–ultrasound extraction. Among the five tested resins, AB-8 resin showed the best adsorption performance and was selected for further process optimization. The optimized purification conditions were a loading concentration of 13 mg/mL, loading pH of 7, elution with 70% ethanol, loading volume of 6 BV and elution volume of 9 BV. After purification, the total quantified monoterpene glycoside content increased from 6.59% to 51.68% in the conventional extract and from 15.30% to 75.30% in the ionic liquid-assisted extract. The ionic-liquid-associated elemental marker content in the ionic liquid-assisted extract decreased from 5.593% to 0.072% after purification, corresponding to an approximately 98.7% reduction at the elemental-marker level. Stability evaluation indicated that Na₂SO₃, Fe³⁺, ascorbic acid, sucrose and light exposure affected the detected monoterpene glycoside content to different extents, whereas short-term heating within 20–80 °C caused only slight fluctuations. The purified extracts showed stronger DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities and reducing power than the crude extracts. In LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, the purified extracts reduced NO production and downregulated the mRNA expression of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, iNOS and COX-2, suggesting anti-inflammatory potential at the NO and gene-expression levels. AB-8 resin purification enriched the monitored monoterpene glycosides, reduced the selected ionic-liquid-associated elemental marker, and generated purified fractions suitable for subsequent stability and bioactivity evaluation. Full article

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28 pages, 1209 KB

Open AccessReview

Separation Sciences in the Czech Republic: From Historical Foundations to Recent Advances

by Petr Česla and Václav Kašička

Separations 2026, 13(7), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070188 - 26 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Research in the analytical and preparative fields of separation science has a long-standing tradition in the Czech Republic and former Czechoslovakia. Czech and Slovak scientists recognized the advantages of the two most widely used separation techniques, i.e., chromatography and electrophoresis, soon after their [...] Read more.

Research in the analytical and preparative fields of separation science has a long-standing tradition in the Czech Republic and former Czechoslovakia. Czech and Slovak scientists recognized the advantages of the two most widely used separation techniques, i.e., chromatography and electrophoresis, soon after their discovery and broader adoption. Their contributions to the development of the fundamentals and applications of chromatography and electrophoresis are demonstrated not only by numerous publications in renowned scientific journals and books, but also by several breakthrough innovations that led to patents and sometimes also to successful commercialization. The contributions of the earlier most prominent Czech scientists to the development of separation sciences have already been summarized in the literature. In the following lines, we instead aim to highlight less well-known, yet important, contributions within the Czech chromatographic and electrophoretic community. Moreover, recent developments since the last comprehensive reviews are covered in greater depth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection CEGSS Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow)

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15 pages, 4288 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Evaluation of Hydrocarbon Class-Based Evaporative Emissions from Ethanol-Blended Gasoline Using HS-SPME–GC–MS

by A K M Ahsan Ahmed and Douglas E. Raynie

Separations 2026, 13(7), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070187 - 26 Jun 2026

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Abstract

This study investigated the effect of ethanol on the relative headspace percent composition of evaporative emissions from gasoline at different temperatures using HS-SPME-GC-MS. The results showed that the relative abundance of monoaromatics in the headspace decreased with increasing ethanol content in all tested [...] Read more.

This study investigated the effect of ethanol on the relative headspace percent composition of evaporative emissions from gasoline at different temperatures using HS-SPME-GC-MS. The results showed that the relative abundance of monoaromatics in the headspace decreased with increasing ethanol content in all tested fuels at all temperatures examined. The paraffins and i-paraffins exhibited a similar decreasing trend in most samples, with reductions more pronounced in E20 (20% ethanol content) than in E10 (10% ethanol content) fuels. The experimental results for the temperature effect on headspace composition were variable: monoaromatics showed slight increases at higher temperatures, whereas paraffins, iso-paraffins, and mononaphthenes generally decreased. However, ethanol addition did not significantly alter these temperature-dependent trends, as similar patterns were observed in both ethanol-blended and ethanol-free fuels. The magnitude of the ethanol effect depended on fuel composition, with the largest reductions in monoaromatic hydrocarbons observed for the high-density gasoline samples. These findings demonstrate that ethanol modifies the relative distribution of hydrocarbon classes in gasoline headspace, with the most pronounced effect being a reduction in monoaromatic hydrocarbons, and highlight the value of class-resolved analysis for understanding fuel evaporation behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Separation Science in Energies)

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20 pages, 22798 KB

Open AccessArticle

Valorization of Phosphate Tailings into Ca-Mg-Al Layered Double Hydroxides for Phosphate Adsorption from Wastewater

by Zhe Wang, Hongquan Jing, Bingbing Liu, Yixuan Zhang, Jiangli Li and Cuihong Hou

Separations 2026, 13(7), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070186 - 25 Jun 2026

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Abstract

Phosphate tailings (PTs), a solid waste generated from phosphate flotation, are a low-grade phosphate resource rich in quartz and dolomite. Their long-term accumulation leads to both resource loss and environmental risks, making valorization increasingly important for the sustainable development of the phosphorus chemical [...] Read more.

Phosphate tailings (PTs), a solid waste generated from phosphate flotation, are a low-grade phosphate resource rich in quartz and dolomite. Their long-term accumulation leads to both resource loss and environmental risks, making valorization increasingly important for the sustainable development of the phosphorus chemical industry. In this study, calcareous–magnesian PTs were used as raw materials, and selective hydrothermal leaching with weakly acidic AlCl₃ solution was employed to separate the dolomite phase and directly construct a Ca-Mg-Al precursor solution for layered double hydroxides (LDHs). The LDHs were subsequently synthesized by co-precipitation and evaluated for phosphate removal from wastewater. The results showed that the precipitation pH markedly affected the phase composition and platelet morphology of the LDHs, while appropriate aging conditions further improved their adsorption performance. Under the optimal conditions of pH 12, aging at 40 °C for 2 h, the obtained LDHs exhibited the best phosphate uptake. Adsorption kinetics followed the pseudo-second-order model, and the maximum adsorption capacity calculated from the Langmuir model reached 38.61 mg-P/g. Characterization by XRD, FTIR, TG-DTA, point of zero charge, and XPS indicated that phosphate removal was dominated by surface complexation, accompanied by anion exchange, ionic precipitation, and electrostatic attraction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approaches to Phosphorus Pollutant Control and Phosphorus Recovery)

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9 pages, 2328 KB

Open AccessArticle

Separation of Trace Radium from Thorium-Rich Systems via BaSO₄ Co-Precipitation

by Sheng Li, Yaying Wang, Lidan Lv and Lingyuan Liao

Separations 2026, 13(7), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/separations13070185 - 23 Jun 2026

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Abstract

²¹²Pb is an important medical radionuclide for targeted alpha therapy, and its reliable supply depends on the efficient production of parent nuclides such as ²²⁸Ra, ²²⁸Th, and ²²⁴Ra. Natural thorium resources are abundant and represent a potential source of [...] Read more.

²¹²Pb is an important medical radionuclide for targeted alpha therapy, and its reliable supply depends on the efficient production of parent nuclides such as ²²⁸Ra, ²²⁸Th, and ²²⁴Ra. Natural thorium resources are abundant and represent a potential source of these radionuclides. However, the separation and enrichment of trace radium from thorium-rich high-salinity systems remain challenging due to extremely low radium concentrations and Th/Ra mass ratios on the order of 10⁹. In this work, a radium separation strategy based on BaSO₄ co-precipitation was developed. The precipitation behavior of BaSO₄, precipitation kinetics, radium co-precipitation efficiency, and thorium recovery in concentrated thorium nitrate solutions were systematically investigated. The results show that elevated ionic strength and competitive interactions between Th⁴⁺ and SO₄²⁻ reduce the effective sulfate activity under high-thorium conditions, making excess sulfate necessary to achieve efficient BaSO₄ precipitation. Under optimized conditions, the radium co-precipitation recovery exceeded 80% at a Ba²⁺ concentration of 3 mM. Meanwhile, thorium exhibited negligible incorporation into the BaSO₄ phase and could be almost completely recovered via subsequent hydroxide precipitation. The proposed method features operational simplicity, use of common reagents, low cost, and compatibility with high-salinity matrices. It provides a feasible technical pathway for the subsequent production of high-purity ²²⁸Th or ²²⁴Ra and the preparation of ²²⁸Th/²¹²Pb or ²²⁴Ra/²¹²Pb generator systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Separation Engineering)

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Separations, Volume 13, Issue 7 (July 2026) – 24 articles

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