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Volume 16
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Buildings, Volume 16, Issue 2 (January-2 2026) – 21 articles

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25 pages, 8473 KB  
Review
Mechanisms and Protection Strategies for Concrete Degradation Under Magnesium Salt Environment: A Review
by Xiaopeng Shang, Xuetao Yue, Lin Pan and Jingliang Dong
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020264 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
Concrete structures suffering from Mg2+ environments may suffer severe damage, which mainly has something to do with the coupled effect among Cl−, SO42−, and Mg2+. Based on a systematic review of Web of Science and [...] Read more.
Concrete structures suffering from Mg2+ environments may suffer severe damage, which mainly has something to do with the coupled effect among Cl−, SO42−, and Mg2+. Based on a systematic review of Web of Science and Scopus database (2000–2025), we first summarized the migration behavior, reaction paths, and interaction mechanism of Cl−, SO42−, and Mg2+ in cementitious matrices. Secondly, from the perspective of Cl− cyclic adsorption–desorption breaking the passivation film of steel bars, SO42− generating expansion products leads to crack expansion, then Mg2+ decalcifies C-S-H and transforms into M-S-H; we analyzed the main damage mechanisms, respectively. In addition, under the coexistence conditions of three kinds of ions, the “fixation–substitution–redissolution” process and “crack–transport” coupling positive feedback mechanism further increase the development rate of damage. Then, some anti-corrosion measures, such as mineral admixtures, functional chemical admixtures, fiber reinforcements, surface coatings, and new binder systems, are summarized, and the pros and cons of different anti-corrosion technologies are compared and evaluated. Lastly, from two aspects of simulation prediction for the coupled corrosion damage mechanism and service life prediction, respectively, we have critically evaluated the advances and problems existing in the current research on the aspects of ion migration-reaction coupled models, multi-physics coupled frameworks, phase-field methods, etc. We found that there is still much work to be conducted in three respects: deepening mechanism understanding, improving prediction precision, and strengthening the connection between laboratory test results and actual projects, so as to provide theoretical basis and technical support for the durability design and anti-corrosion strategies of concrete in complex Mg2+ environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Durability and Aging on Materials and Structures in Buildings)
26 pages, 3455 KB  
Article
Analysis of Smoke Confinement in Underground Buildings: Design of Air Curtains Against Tunnel Fire
by Yuxiang Wang and Angui Li
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020263 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
Tunnels have significantly expanded human activity spaces and alleviated urban congestion and environmental pollution on the surface. However, fires and associated smoke propagation in tunnels pose common and critical challenges in underground space utilization. Previous studies have primarily focused on smoke control under [...] Read more.
Tunnels have significantly expanded human activity spaces and alleviated urban congestion and environmental pollution on the surface. However, fires and associated smoke propagation in tunnels pose common and critical challenges in underground space utilization. Previous studies have primarily focused on smoke control under standard atmospheric conditions, emphasizing isolated parameters such as jet velocity or heat release rate (HRR), while overlooking key factors like environmental pressure and fire source proximity that influence smoke buoyancy and containment efficacy. One of the key problems remains unsolved: the comprehensive mechanisms governing transverse air curtain performance in variable-pressure and proximity scenarios. This study utilized Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS6.7.1) software to conduct numerical simulations, aiming to elucidate the underlying incentives and explore the phenomena of smoke–thermal interactions. The analysis systematically evaluates the influence of four critical parameters: HRR (1–15 MW), fire-to-curtain distance (5–95 m), air curtain jet velocity (6–16 m/s), and ambient pressure (40–140 kPa). Results show that (1) jet velocity emerges as the dominant factor, with exponential enhancement in thermal containment efficiency at velocities above 10 m/s due to intensified shear forces; (2) escalating HRR weakens isolation, leading to disproportionate downstream temperature rises and diminished efficacy; (3) fire proximity within 10 m disrupts curtain integrity via high-momentum smoke impingement, amplifying thermal gradients; and (4) elevated ambient pressure dampens smoke buoyancy while augmenting air curtain momentum, yielding improved containment efficiency and reduced temperatures. This paper is helpful for the design and operation of thermal applications in underground infrastructures, providing predictive models for optimized smoke control systems. The contour maps reveal the field-distribution trends and highlight the significant influence of the air curtain and key governing parameters on the thermal field and smoke control performance. This work delivers pivotal theoretical and practical insights into the advanced design and optimization of aerodynamic smoke control systems in tunnel safety engineering Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings)
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17 pages, 827 KB  
Article
Integrating Circular Economy Principles into Energy-Efficient Retrofitting of Post-1950 UK Housing Stock: A Pathway to Sustainable Decarbonisation
by Louis Gyoh, Obas John Ebohon, Juanlan Zhou and Deinsam Dan Ogan
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020262 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
The UK’s net-zero by 2050 commitment necessitates urgent housing sector decarbonisation, as residential buildings contribute approximately 17% of national emissions. Post-1950 construction prioritised speed over efficiency, creating energy-deficient housing stock that challenges climate objectives. Current retrofit policies focus primarily on technological solutions—insulation and [...] Read more.
The UK’s net-zero by 2050 commitment necessitates urgent housing sector decarbonisation, as residential buildings contribute approximately 17% of national emissions. Post-1950 construction prioritised speed over efficiency, creating energy-deficient housing stock that challenges climate objectives. Current retrofit policies focus primarily on technological solutions—insulation and heating upgrades—while neglecting broader sustainability considerations. This research advocates systematically integrating Circular Economy (CE) principles into residential retrofit practices. CE approaches emphasise material circularity, waste minimisation, adaptive design, and a lifecycle assessment, delivering superior environmental and economic outcomes compared to conventional methods. The investigation employs mixed-methods research combining a systematic literature analysis, policy review, stakeholder engagement, and a retrofit implementation evaluation across diverse UK contexts. Key barriers identified include regulatory constraints, workforce capability gaps, and supply chain fragmentation, alongside critical transition enablers. An evidence-based decision-making framework emerges from this analysis, aligning retrofit interventions with CE principles. This framework guides policymakers, industry professionals, and researchers in the development of strategies that simultaneously improve energy-efficiency, maximise material reuse, reduce embodied emissions, and enhance environmental and economic sustainability. The findings advance a holistic, systems-oriented approach, positioning housing as a pivotal catalyst in the UK’s transition toward a circular, low-carbon built environment, moving beyond isolated technological fixes toward a comprehensive sustainability transformation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Net-Zero-Energy Buildings)
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26 pages, 11627 KB  
Article
Micropore Structure Evolution and Macro-Micro Quantitative Analysis of Dredged Sludge Solidified with Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag, Carbide Slag, and Titanium Gypsum
by Yaohui Zang, Chenchen Zhang and Liujiang Wang
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020261 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
Revealing the evolution of micropore structure in industrial by-product solidified sludge is essential for elucidating strength development mechanisms and promoting the engineering utilization of industrial wastes. In this study, a series of tests, including unconfined compressive strength (UCS), low-field nuclear magnetic resonance, direct [...] Read more.
Revealing the evolution of micropore structure in industrial by-product solidified sludge is essential for elucidating strength development mechanisms and promoting the engineering utilization of industrial wastes. In this study, a series of tests, including unconfined compressive strength (UCS), low-field nuclear magnetic resonance, direct shear, and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy, were conducted on granulated blast furnace slag–carbide slag–titanium gypsum (GCT)-solidified sludge (GSDS) and cement-solidified sludge (CSDS). The results demonstrate that GSDS exhibits significantly superior compressive strength, deformation resistance, and pore-filling capacity compared with CSDS. With increasing curing age, both materials show logarithmic increases in UCS and mesopore volume fraction, accompanied by power-law decreases in total pore volume and the most probable pore size. On this basis, quantitative relationships between micropore characteristics and macroscopic mechanical properties are established for both solidified sludges. Microscopic analyses reveal that strength development in GSDS is primarily attributed to the formation of abundant C-(A)-S-H gels and expansive ettringite crystals, which effectively cement soil particles and refine interparticle pores. The synergistic solidification mechanism of GCT, involving ion exchange, cementitious bonding, and pore filling, promotes particle aggregation, enhances interparticle bonding, and refines pore structure, thereby markedly improving structural integrity and macroscopic strength in GSDS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
18 pages, 2553 KB  
Article
From Landscape Configuration to Health Outcomes: A Spatial–Behavioral Framework Linking Park Landscapes to Public Perceived Health Through Thermal Comfort and Loyalty Dynamics
by Jiang Li, Yudan Liu, Xiaoxi Cai, Dandi Zhu, Xingyu Liu, Shaobo Liu and Weiwei Liu
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020260 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
Urban park landscape design has significant potential to alleviate heat stress and promote public health, particularly during extreme summer heat. This study explores how the spatial configuration of landscapes within the Yanghu Wetland Park in Changsha, China, influences pedestrian thermal comfort and destination [...] Read more.
Urban park landscape design has significant potential to alleviate heat stress and promote public health, particularly during extreme summer heat. This study explores how the spatial configuration of landscapes within the Yanghu Wetland Park in Changsha, China, influences pedestrian thermal comfort and destination loyalty under hot summer conditions, and how these factors affect public perceived health. It enriches current research by examining the impact of landscape spatial configuration, thermal comfort, and destination loyalty on public perceived health from a psychological perspective. We identified connections between park users’ spatial perceptions and their psychological and health perceptions. We used structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine the relationships among visitors’ spatial perception, psychological perceptions, and health perceptions within this large urban wetland park. At the same time, we explored how landscape characteristics, thermal comfort, destination loyalty, and public perceived health interact. This research constructs a Spatial–Thermal–Perception–Behavior (SPB) theoretical framework for such complex blue-green spaces, providing a multidimensional perspective on the relationship between the environment and health. Based on a survey of 321 visitors, This study pioneers the SPB theoretical framework, clarifying how this wetland park’s landscape configurations impact public perceived health through the mediating pathways of thermal comfort and destination loyalty. It provides a scientific basis for heat-adaptive landscape design in similar wetland park settings, aiming to enhance resident well-being and improve public perceived health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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25 pages, 7905 KB  
Article
An Instrumented Drop-Test Analysis of the Impact Behavior of Commercial Laminated Flooring Brands
by Alexandru Viorel Vasiliu, Constantin Tudurache, George Cătălin Cristea, Mario Constandache, Valentin Azamfirei, Marian Claudiu Martin, George Ghiocel Ojoc and Lorena Deleanu
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020259 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
Laminate flooring is widely used due to its affordable cost, easy installation, and pleasant esthetics. It is subjected to significant mechanical stress, necessitating a rigorous assessment of its impact resistance. Current standards typically rely on simple methods, such as free fall of a [...] Read more.
Laminate flooring is widely used due to its affordable cost, easy installation, and pleasant esthetics. It is subjected to significant mechanical stress, necessitating a rigorous assessment of its impact resistance. Current standards typically rely on simple methods, such as free fall of a metal ball, not providing information on how the stratified material behaves during impact. This study proposes a modern approach, using an instrumented impact test machine. Tests were carried out with impact energies of 2 J, 3 J, and 5 J. Three tests were performed for statistical relevance. The monitored parameters were maximum force, maximum displacement, impact duration, absorbed energy, indentation diameter. Discussion was focused on influence of flooring thickness and traffic class. The tested materials were commercial brands. Regarding traffic classes, differences became more evident at higher impact energies: class C33 parquet showed larger indentations, while C31 and C32 had smaller values, suggesting that the protective layer in C33 leads to different behavior under impact points. The relevance of this study stems from the fact that, unlike most previous work, the entire testing campaign was conducted using an instrumented impact system, enabling precise and repeatable data acquisition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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14 pages, 1389 KB  
Article
Seismic Fragility Analysis of CFST Frame-Shear Wall Structures Based on the IDA Method
by Chunli Zhang, Yunfei Qi, Meng Cao and Yue Li
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020258 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
To improve the seismic performance of buildings and reduce earthquake-related disaster risks, this study employs the MIDAS finite element analysis platform to establish a numerical model of a 15-story concrete-filled steel tube frame-shear wall structure. Recorded natural ground motion data are used as [...] Read more.
To improve the seismic performance of buildings and reduce earthquake-related disaster risks, this study employs the MIDAS finite element analysis platform to establish a numerical model of a 15-story concrete-filled steel tube frame-shear wall structure. Recorded natural ground motion data are used as the primary input, and a main shock-aftershock sequence is constructed using an attenuation-based method. On this basis, a seismic fragility analysis framework is adopted to derive structural fragility curves, which are subsequently assembled into a comprehensive seismic fragility matrix. The results indicate that, under identical main shock-aftershock sequences, aftershock effects increase the collapse probability of the unretrofitted structure by approximately 17–37%. Furthermore, when buckling-restrained braces are introduced, the structural strength at the same damage state increases by about 8% under the action of the main shock alone and by nearly 24% when both the main shock and aftershocks are considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seismic Analysis and Design of Building Structures—2nd Edition)
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24 pages, 10972 KB  
Review
Toolpath-Driven Surface Articulation for Wax Formwork Technology in the Production of Thin-Shell, Robotic, CO2-Reduced Shotcrete Elements
by Sven Jonischkies, Jeldrik Mainka, Harald Kloft, Bhavatarini Kumaravel, Asbjørn Søndergaard, Falk Martin and Norman Hack
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020257 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
This study introduces a digital fabrication process for producing recyclable, closed-loop wax formwork for architectural concrete applications with visually rich surface articulation while drastically reducing formwork milling time. As such, this paper presents (a) a circular large-scale production method for wax blocks via [...] Read more.
This study introduces a digital fabrication process for producing recyclable, closed-loop wax formwork for architectural concrete applications with visually rich surface articulation while drastically reducing formwork milling time. As such, this paper presents (a) a circular large-scale production method for wax blocks via a single casting process; (b) four machine-time-optimized surface articulation strategies through CNC toolpath-driven design; (c) the investigation of different coating systems to improve architectural concrete surface quality and to ease demolding; and (d) the integration of robotic concrete shotcreting using a low-CO2 fine-grain concrete. For the first time, wax formwork technology, characterized by its waste-free approach, has been combined with robotic shotcreting in a digital and automated workflow to fabricate fiber-reinforced, geometrically complex thin-shell concrete elements with distinct surface articulations. To evaluate the process, a series of four thin-shell concrete elements was produced, employing four distinct parametric toolpath-driven designs: linear surface articulation, crossed surface articulation, topology-adapted curve flow surface articulation, and robotic drill topology-adapted surface articulation. Results revealed a possible reduction in milling time of between 77% and 94% compared to traditional milling methods. The optimized toolpaths and design-driven milling strategies achieved a high degree of visual richness, showcasing the potential of this integrated approach for the production of high-quality architectural concrete elements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robotics, Automation and Digitization in Construction)
19 pages, 3659 KB  
Article
The Effect of Sewer-Derived Airflows on Air Pressure Dynamics in Building Drainage Systems
by Khanda Sharif and Michael Gormley
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020256 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
The performance of a building drainage system, “BDS”, is determined by the complexity of internal airflow and pressure dynamics, governed by unsteady wastewater flows from randomly discharging appliances such as WCs, sinks, and baths. Designers attempt to optimise system safety by equalising pressure [...] Read more.
The performance of a building drainage system, “BDS”, is determined by the complexity of internal airflow and pressure dynamics, governed by unsteady wastewater flows from randomly discharging appliances such as WCs, sinks, and baths. Designers attempt to optimise system safety by equalising pressure and incorporating ventilation pipes and active devices such as AAVs and positive pressure reduction devices (PPRDs). However, failures within these systems can lead to foul gases and potentially hazardous microbes entering habitable spaces and posing a risk to public health. This study, for the first time, develops a novel model that simulates the effect of air from the sewer on BDS performance, which describes the correlation between system airflow and air pressure under the influence of air from the sewer. A combination of full-scale laboratory experiments representing a 3-storey building and real-world data from a 32-storey test rig configured as a building demonstrated that sewer air significantly modifies airflow and air pressure within a BDS. These findings are crucial for modern urban environments, where the prevalence of tall buildings amplifies the risks associated with air pressure transients. This work paves the way for updating codes to more effectively address real-world challenges. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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17 pages, 4459 KB  
Article
Research on the Strengthening Mechanism of Flawed Excavated-Mass Aggregate and Concrete Properties Considering the Infiltration Path and Crystallization Process
by Mengliang Li, Miao Lv, Hao Bai, Zhaolun Ran and Xinxin Li
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020255 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
The use of flawed excavated-mass aggregates produced from crushing and screening hydraulic engineering waste in concrete projects can reduce natural resource extraction, increase waste utilization rates, and minimize environmental pollution. However, the direct application of flawed excavated-mass aggregates is limited due to their [...] Read more.
The use of flawed excavated-mass aggregates produced from crushing and screening hydraulic engineering waste in concrete projects can reduce natural resource extraction, increase waste utilization rates, and minimize environmental pollution. However, the direct application of flawed excavated-mass aggregates is limited due to their high crushing index and water absorption rate. Therefore, this paper measures the multi-dimensional physical and mechanical properties of defective aggregates. A strengthening slurry is prepared by comprehensively modifying the crystallization strength and penetration path of sodium silicate solution using various chemical reagents. The strengthening mechanism of the slurry on flawed excavated-mass aggregates is analyzed using SEM and MIP tests. Concrete tests are designed to investigate the workability and mechanical properties of flawed excavated-mass aggregate concrete. The pore structure of the ITZ (Interfacial Transition Zone) in defective aggregate concrete is analyzed through BSE (Backscattered Electron) imaging to elucidate the strengthening mechanism of secondary crystallization reactions on the ITZ. The research findings can provide technical support for repairing aggregates with defects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Life Cycle Assessments in Construction Industry)
24 pages, 3087 KB  
Review
Research Topic Identification and Trend Forecasting of Blockchain in the Construction Industry: Based on LDA-ARIMA Combined Method
by Yongshun Xu, Zhongyuan Zhang, Cen-Ying Lee, Heap-Yih Chong and Mengyuan Cheng
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020254 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
Driven by the urgent need for industrial transformation and emerging technologies, the construction engineering market is rapidly evolving toward intelligent building systems. This study employs latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) methodology to analyze 474 blockchain-related research abstracts from Web of Science and Scopus databases, [...] Read more.
Driven by the urgent need for industrial transformation and emerging technologies, the construction engineering market is rapidly evolving toward intelligent building systems. This study employs latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) methodology to analyze 474 blockchain-related research abstracts from Web of Science and Scopus databases, identifying eight key research topics: (1) industry adoption and implementation challenges; (2) smart contracts and payment mechanisms; (3) emerging technologies and digital transformation; (4) construction supply chain integration and optimization; (5) building modeling and technology integration; (6) modular integrated construction (MIC) applications; (7) project data and security management; and (8) construction industry sustainability and circular economy (CE). Using the autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model, the study forecasts trends for the top three research topics over the next 36 months. The results indicate strong positive growth trajectories for industry adoption and implementation challenges (Topic 1) and project data and security management (Topic 7), while emerging technologies and digital transformation (Topic 3) demonstrate sustained growth. This study offers a thorough examination of the present landscape and emerging research trends of blockchain in construction, and establishes an overall framework to comprehensively summarize its research and application in the construction industry. The results provide actionable insights for both practitioners and researchers, facilitating a deeper understanding of blockchain’s evolution and implementation prospects, and supporting the advancement of innovation within the industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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22 pages, 2492 KB  
Article
Driving Forces Behind Whole-Process Engineering Consulting Competitiveness Based on AHP-ISM Method
by Mei Liu, Jingyi Yuan, Qihua Yang, Jiaming Wang, Yuxuan Wang and Pinchao Liao
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020253 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
Modern construction projects face persistent challenges with cost overruns and fragmented management across disconnected service phases. Whole-Process Engineering Consulting (WPEC) addresses these issues by integrating investment decision-making, design, supervision, and cost management into a unified delivery framework. Therefore, this study aims to develop [...] Read more.
Modern construction projects face persistent challenges with cost overruns and fragmented management across disconnected service phases. Whole-Process Engineering Consulting (WPEC) addresses these issues by integrating investment decision-making, design, supervision, and cost management into a unified delivery framework. Therefore, this study aims to develop a WPEC competitiveness influencing factor system to identify the key influencing factors and the impact pathways. Firstly, a WPEC competitiveness framework comprising five dimensions and 28 factors is developed. Secondly, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is applied to calculate factor weights based on 225 questionnaires. Then, the multi-level structural model is constructed based on Interpretative Structural Modeling (ISM) to identify the critical impact pathways. Finally, BZ Consulting Enterprise was selected as a case study to verify the rationality and practical value. The results show that the Corporate Full-Service Consulting Capability and Corporate Foundational Resources are identified as the core pillars, in addition to highlighting three key pathways—resource-integration drive, legacy-capability transfer, and service-awareness transformation—all of which link foundational drivers to market performance. Theoretically, this study introduces a systematic analytical framework for WEPC by mapping its competitiveness factors into the multi-level structural model. Practically, it enables enterprises to assess their transition readiness and formulate targeted strategies to secure a sustainable competitive advantage in the integrated consulting market. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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28 pages, 2986 KB  
Article
Critiquing Spatial Justice: Morphological Characteristics and Inherent Differences in Government-Subsidized Rental Housing in Shanghai’s Five New Towns
by Chenghao Xu and Zhenyu Li
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020252 - 7 Jan 2026
Abstract
In recent years, the rapid construction of government-subsidized rental housing (GRH) has partially alleviated housing pressures caused by the growing number of migrant workers and persistently high rental costs in Shanghai. However, its overriding emphasis on construction and allocation efficiency neglects the realization [...] Read more.
In recent years, the rapid construction of government-subsidized rental housing (GRH) has partially alleviated housing pressures caused by the growing number of migrant workers and persistently high rental costs in Shanghai. However, its overriding emphasis on construction and allocation efficiency neglects the realization of spatial justice, particularly in underdeveloped urban areas. This study adopts a mixed-methods approach to examine all 25 GRHs completed and operational in Shanghai’s Five New Towns, employing morphological characteristics and inherent differences to analyze their impacts on spatial justice. First, this study integrates urban functions and spatial justice elements to establish a systematic classification framework and an evaluative system for GRH, and then assesses the achievement of spatial justice across existing projects. Subsequently, morphological analysis is employed to examine how GRHs shape the socio-spatial context of new towns, thereby assessing their role in reinforcing or undermining spatial justice. Finally, this study establishes data logic between typological factors and morphological characteristics and analyzes the inherent differences among various types of GRH by using Fisher’s exact test. The results reveal that although the existing GRHs are situated in different urban geospatial contexts, they exhibit a severe homogenization phenomenon in terms of construction modality, planning layout, and community boundary, with only the residential scale showing inherent differences. The research findings highlight a systematic neglect of spatial justice in the current GRH development paradigm and reveal the underlying causes. This study contributes to the discourse on spatial justice in GRH development by broadening its dimensions, and it provides valuable insights for promoting the realization of spatial justice through multi-tiered policy framework, place-making design strategy, and a joint operation model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
23 pages, 9862 KB  
Article
Analysis of Wind-Induced Response During the Lifting Construction of Super-Large-Span Heavy Steel Box Girders
by Shuhong Zhu, Xiaotong Sun, Xiaofeng Liu, Wenjie Li and Bin Liang
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020251 - 6 Jan 2026
Abstract
Wind-induced response poses a significant challenge to the stability of extra-large-span heavy steel box girders during synchronous lifting operations. This study adopted a method combining numerical simulation with on-site monitoring to investigate the aerodynamic characteristics the beam during the overall hoisting process of [...] Read more.
Wind-induced response poses a significant challenge to the stability of extra-large-span heavy steel box girders during synchronous lifting operations. This study adopted a method combining numerical simulation with on-site monitoring to investigate the aerodynamic characteristics the beam during the overall hoisting process of the Xiaotun Bridge. A high-fidelity finite element model was established using Midas NFX 2024 R1, and fluid–structure interaction (FSI) analysis was conducted, utilizing the RANS k-ε turbulence model to simulate stochastic wind fields. The results show that during the lifting stage from 3 m to 25 m, the maximum horizontal displacement of the steel box girder rapidly increases at wind angles of 90° and 60°, and the peak displacement is reached at 25 m. Under a strong breeze at a 90° wind angle and 25 m lifting height, the maximum lateral displacement was 42.88 mm based on FSI analysis, which is approximately 50% higher than the 28.58 mm obtained from linear static analysis. Subsequently, during the 25 m to 45 m lifting stage, the displacement gradually decreases and exhibits a linear correlation with lifting height. Concurrently, the maximum stress of the lifting lug of the steel box girder increases rapidly in the 3–25 m lifting stage, reaches the maximum at 25 m, and gradually stabilizes in the 25–45 m lifting stage. The lug stress under the same critical condition reached 190.80 MPa in FSI analysis, compared with 123.83 MPa in static analysis, highlighting a significant dynamic amplification. Furthermore, the detrimental coupling effect between mechanical vibrations from the lifting platform and wind loads was quantified; the anti-overturning stability coefficient was reduced by 10.48% under longitudinal vibration compared with lateral vibration, and a further reduction of up to 39.33% was caused by their synergy with wind excitation. Field monitoring validated the numerical model, with stress discrepancies below 9.7%. Based on these findings, a critical on-site wind speed threshold of 9.38 m/s was proposed, and integrated control methods were implemented to ensure construction safety. During on-site lifting, lifting lug stresses were monitored in real time, and if the predefined threshold was exceeded, contingency measures were immediately activated to ensure a controlled termination. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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38 pages, 1904 KB  
Article
The Role of VR in Supporting Body-Centered Phenomenology in Interior Design Education
by Emre Kaylak, Sevinç Kurt and Ahmet Murat Saymanlıer
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020250 - 6 Jan 2026
Abstract
Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy of spatial perception, grounded in the body’s multisensory engagement with its surroundings, offers a robust theoretical basis for fostering deeper spatial awareness in interior design education. Drawing upon this framework, the present study investigates the extent to which virtual reality [...] Read more.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy of spatial perception, grounded in the body’s multisensory engagement with its surroundings, offers a robust theoretical basis for fostering deeper spatial awareness in interior design education. Drawing upon this framework, the present study investigates the extent to which virtual reality (VR) environments can reproduce selected dimensions of embodied spatial perception. A total of 22 interior design students at Cyprus International University experienced two distinct spaces in both physical and VR modalities. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and mental mapping techniques, analytically designed around Edward Relph’s “three components of place” model. The findings demonstrate that VR can convey key conceptual spatial attributes including organization, scale, and atmosphere, yet it only partially approximates the sensory depth and bodily salience afforded by physical experience. Although sensory constraints and reduced corporeal engagement in VR limited the students’ holistic comprehension of the spaces, the virtual environments nonetheless supported the development of phenomenological sensitivity to spatial qualities. Overall, the study suggests that VR holds potential as a complementary medium for cultivating body-centered phenomenological awareness in interior design education. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Architectural Education)
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35 pages, 18800 KB  
Article
Daylight Glare with the Sun in the Field of View: An Evaluation of the Daylight Glare Metric Through a Laboratory Study Under an Artificial Sky Dome and an Extensive Simulation Study
by David Geisler-Moroder, Christian Knoflach, Maximilian Dick, Sascha Hammes, Johannes Weninger and Rainer Pfluger
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020249 - 6 Jan 2026
Abstract
The Daylight Glare Probability (DGP) includes the luminance of a glare source quadratically, but the solid angle only linearly. While this is in line with formulae of other glare metrics, it must be questioned for small glare sources, if the glare stimulus can [...] Read more.
The Daylight Glare Probability (DGP) includes the luminance of a glare source quadratically, but the solid angle only linearly. While this is in line with formulae of other glare metrics, it must be questioned for small glare sources, if the glare stimulus can no longer be distinguished from larger stimuli causing equal vertical illuminance at the eye, especially in the peripheral visual field. To account for this, the modified version Daylight Glare Metric (DGM) was previously developed. We conducted two studies to evaluate the effect of the modified DGM. First, in a laboratory study under an artificial sky with an LED sun, 35 test subjects evaluated different glare situations. Second, we performed a comprehensive simulation study for an office space, including three locations, three view directions, and 17 window systems (electrochromic glazing, fabric shades). The results from the perception study under the artificial sky provide evidence that the adapted DGM is better suited to predict glare from small, bright sources. The results from the simulation study for a realistic office setting show that, compared to the DGP, the DGM reduces glare ratings for many hours of the year, thus underscoring the practical relevance of improving the DGP formula. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of Evaluated Luminous Environment on the Comfort Level in Buildings)
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19 pages, 12174 KB  
Article
Physiological Stress in Elderly Residents of Densely Populated Urban Villages: A Skin Conductance Study with Interpretable Machine Learning Modeling
by Zhibiao Chen, Chang Lin, Shiqin Zhou and Xiayun He
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020248 - 6 Jan 2026
Abstract
High-density urban villages pose significant environmental challenges to the aging population. Beyond traditional exposures such as noise and air pollution, older adults may experience heightened physiological stress due to visual exposure within street environments, yet the precise micro-environmental triggers of physiological stress remain [...] Read more.
High-density urban villages pose significant environmental challenges to the aging population. Beyond traditional exposures such as noise and air pollution, older adults may experience heightened physiological stress due to visual exposure within street environments, yet the precise micro-environmental triggers of physiological stress remain poorly understood. This study investigates how street-level visual elements relate to elderly walkers’ physiological stress. We conducted on-site walking experiments and monitored the Skin Conductance Level (SCL) of 81 elderly participants walking through two typical urban villages in Lingnan, China. We used a semantic segmentation algorithm to quantify visual environmental elements from first-person-view images and employed a CatBoost (Categorical Boosting) model to predict stress levels. The explainable model (SHAP, SHapley Additive exPlanations) was then used to interpret the complex relationships. The model demonstrated strong predictive power (e.g., R2 = 0.72). SHAP analysis revealed roads and sidewalks as the most dominant predictors of SCL changes, exhibiting significant non-linear effects. Their influence surpassed that of environmental aesthetics like vegetation, which showed a more complex, at times even negative, association with stress reduction. The presence of buildings also exhibited a stress-reducing effect, though less so than roads and sidewalks. Key findings revealed the following: (1) Foundational walking infrastructure is the primary determinant of physiological well-being for elderly pedestrians in high-density environments. (2) The stress-reducing effects of vegetation are context-dependent, while buildings function as a form of “social infrastructure” in mitigating stress. Our findings provide crucial, evidence-based guidance for prioritizing interventions in age-friendly urban renewal projects. Our framework offers a transferable tool for human-centered environmental assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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21 pages, 13761 KB  
Article
Experimental Study on the Axial Compression High-Cycle Fatigue Performance of Concrete-Filled Double-Skin Steel Tubular Columns
by Jia-Wei Zhang, Yin-Tao Luo, Jun-Lin Li, Dong-Liang Zhang, Yu-Hang Wang, Kun Fu, Xin-Yi Zhou and Lin Yang
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020247 - 6 Jan 2026
Abstract
Concrete is widely used in the field of wind power generation. Under design conditions, concrete in wind turbine towers is often subjected to compressive cyclic fatigue loading. In this study, 10 specimens were experimentally investigated to clarify the high-cycle fatigue behavior of plain [...] Read more.
Concrete is widely used in the field of wind power generation. Under design conditions, concrete in wind turbine towers is often subjected to compressive cyclic fatigue loading. In this study, 10 specimens were experimentally investigated to clarify the high-cycle fatigue behavior of plain concrete (PC), steel-reinforced concrete (SRC), and concrete-filled double-skin steel tubular (CFDST) members. The specimens were designed based on a scaled-down model of the corner columns from an actual lattice tower structure, considering the most unfavorable fatigue load scenario. The fatigue life and failure modes of the different member types were analyzed. The results indicate that, in terms of fatigue life, CFDST members are superior to PC and SRC members. Experimentally, the mean fatigue lives were 31,008 cycles for PC members and 85,374 cycles for SRC members, whereas all CFDST specimens survived beyond 100,000 cycles without failure. The fatigue failure of these specimens is characterized by localized failure leading to global collapse. Under axial cyclic loading, the confinement effect provided by the double-skin steel tubes significantly enhances the fatigue life of the concrete core. Furthermore, the axial compressive capacity of the CFDST specimens with a low steel ratio still generally meets the requirements of relevant design codes. Finally, design recommendations for the corner columns of lattice wind turbine towers are proposed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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33 pages, 9595 KB  
Article
Seismic Performance of a Hybrid Structural Steel–Reinforced Concrete Coupled Wall Building: Preliminary Response Estimates from an NCREE–QuakeCoRE Joint Study
by Fu-Pei Hsiao, Chia-Chen Lin, Pu-Wen Weng, Yanuar Haryanto, Santiago Pujol Llano, Hsuan-Teh Hu, Laurencius Nugroho, Alejandro Saenz Calad and Banu Ardi Hidayat
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020246 - 6 Jan 2026
Abstract
In the field of earthquake-resistant design, there is an increasing emphasis on evaluating buildings as integrated systems rather than as assemblies of independent components. Hybrid wall systems based on structural steel and reinforced concrete offer a promising alternative to existing approaches by combining [...] Read more.
In the field of earthquake-resistant design, there is an increasing emphasis on evaluating buildings as integrated systems rather than as assemblies of independent components. Hybrid wall systems based on structural steel and reinforced concrete offer a promising alternative to existing approaches by combining the stiffness and toughness of concrete with the ductility and flexibility of steel, which enhances resilience and seismic performance. The objective of this scientific study is to obtain preliminary analytical estimates of the earthquake response of a prototype hybrid steel RC coupled wall building that is being developed as part of a joint research program between the National Center for Research on Earthquake Engineering (NCREE) and New Zealand’s Centre for Earthquake Resilience (QuakeCoRE). Nonlinear response history analyses were carried out on the prototype building, using scaled ground motions and nonlinear hinge properties assigned to the primary lateral force resisting elements to replicate the expected inelastic behavior of the hybrid system. The results were used to evaluate story drift demands, deformation patterns, coupling beam behavior, and buckling restrained brace behavior, providing a system-level perspective on the expected earthquake performance of the proposed hybrid wall system. To deepen the current experimental understanding of the seismic behavior of the proposed hybrid structural system, a large-scale shaking table test is planned at NCREE as the next stage of this collaborative research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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15 pages, 8416 KB  
Article
Assessment of the Effective Flange Width for Cold-Formed Steel-Timber Composite Beams: A Finite Element Study
by Reza Masoudnia, Zhiyuan Fang, Ashkan Hashemi, Saber Masoudnia and James B. P. Lim
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020245 - 6 Jan 2026
Abstract
This paper proposes the use of cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels in conjunction with back-to-back cold-formed steel (CFS) channel or angle sections in combination with laminated veneer lumber (LVL) beam, for composite CFS-timber beams. Under a hogging and sagging moment, part of the CLT [...] Read more.
This paper proposes the use of cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels in conjunction with back-to-back cold-formed steel (CFS) channel or angle sections in combination with laminated veneer lumber (LVL) beam, for composite CFS-timber beams. Under a hogging and sagging moment, part of the CLT panel will act compositely with CFS-LVL in order to resist compression, while the lower part of CFS-LVL web will be in tension. Whilst shear lag effects have been well-researched for concrete-steel composite beams, there has been little research on this for CLT panels working with CFS-LVL sections. In this paper, the finite element method (FEM) is used to determine the effective flange width (FFW) for CFS-timber beams. In conclusion, the obtained result has shown that the EFW increases with any changes that lead to an increase in the ratio of the transverse layer’s depth to the longitudinal layer’s depth. Moreover, combinations of CFS sections with LVL have significantly resulted in the depth-of-beam decrease. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Timber and Timber–Concrete Buildings)
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22 pages, 4283 KB  
Article
Evolutionary Game Theory in Architectural Design: Optimizing Usable Area Coefficient for Qingdao Primary Schools
by Shuhan Zhu, Xingtian Wang, Dongmiao Zhao, Yeliang Song, Xu Li and Shaofei Wang
Buildings 2026, 16(2), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020244 - 6 Jan 2026
Abstract
Amidst the surge of high-density urban development and the growing demand for high-quality spaces, the Usable Area Coefficient (UAC) has emerged as a pivotal metric in the architectural planning. The rational calibration of the UAC for primary school buildings is key to balancing [...] Read more.
Amidst the surge of high-density urban development and the growing demand for high-quality spaces, the Usable Area Coefficient (UAC) has emerged as a pivotal metric in the architectural planning. The rational calibration of the UAC for primary school buildings is key to balancing intensive land use, educational demands, and the well-being of children. Taking primary schools in a district of Qingdao as the research subject, this research rationally optimizes the range of UAC by constructing an evolutionary game model, based on quantitatively analyzing the divergent perspectives and requirements of three stakeholders: the government, school administrators, and students. After further identifying the key factors that influence the ultimate decision, the study yields the following insights: (1) The incremental comprehensive benefit emerges as the linchpin influencing the UAC. (2) The government’s risk compensation to schools and the benefit-sharing coefficient between schools and students exert significant impacts on system evolution. (3) Effective control of construction and land costs, coupled with enhanced availability of open activity spaces, paves the way for consensus on low UAC. This research not only furnishes a theoretical framework and practical guidance for harmonizing land use efficiency with educational excellence but also steers the design of salubrious primary school environments and informs pertinent policy-making. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Intelligent Applications of Well-Being Spaces Design and Engineering)
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