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Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings

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A special issue of Buildings (ISSN 2075-5309). This special issue belongs to the section "Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 April 2026) | Viewed by 16478

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Peng Xu

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Guest Editor

Beijing Key Lab of Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Engineering, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
Interests: evaporative cooling; building energy efficiency; district energy supply; gas supply

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) systems are crucial to achieve building energy efficiency and sustainability, human comfort, and welfare. The boom in the application of emerging technologies, such as machine learning, artificial intelligence, digital twins, etc., and the growing emphasis on natural cooling driven by the demand for concentrated and large-scale energy use, as represented by data centers, have resulted in increased amounts of research being conducted in this field. The exploration of cooling and heating source technology, terminal conditioning technology, etc., that promote the operation and maintenance practices of HVAC systems continues to deepen. All these factors have motivated numerous researchers to devote themselves to it.

This Special Issue aims to provide a platform for reporting the latest research progress in HVAC systems and evaluating the application of relevant theories and advanced technologies from a future perspective. Topics include, but are not limited to, the following:

HVAC system analysis;
Simulation and optimization of HVAC systems;
Advanced forecasting technologies for heating and cooling load and energy consumption;
Indoor thermal comfort and thermal adaptation;
IAQ (Indoor Air Quality);
Heat pump technology;
Dehumidification technology;
Data center cooling;
Evaporative cooling;
BIPVs (Building-Integrated Photovoltaics);
Low- or zero-carbon building energy systems;
Integrated energy systems for buildings;
Practices for energy efficiency of HVAC systems.

Prof. Dr. Peng Xu
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Buildings is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

HVAC system and equipment
building energy efficiency
simulation and HVAC system optimization
thermal comfort and indoor environment quality
building energy consumption and load forecasting
renewable energy in buildings
data center cooling
artificial intelligence (AI) applications in HVAC systems

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

23 pages, 3654 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Heating Energy Benchmarks for Office Buildings Based on Bayesian Framework

by Wei Na and Yinlong Li

Buildings 2026, 16(10), 1853; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16101853 - 7 May 2026

Viewed by 232

Abstract

Establishing a reliable heating energy benchmark for urban buildings is essential for effective energy management, yet benchmark accuracy is often constrained by multiple building characteristics and uncertainty in energy prediction. This study investigated the influence of scale heterogeneity on the heating energy use intensity (EUI) of office buildings. A Bayesian surrogate model was developed, trained, and validated, yielding acceptable accuracy, with a CVRMSE of 12.37% and an NMBE of −1.02%, both within the limits recommended by ASHRAE Guideline 14-2023. The validated model was then used to simulate the heating EUI of office buildings with floor areas from 100 to 100,000

m^{2}

under climatic conditions ranging from 3250 to 9698 HDD65. The results showed a clear inverse relationship between building scale and heating EUI. Smaller buildings were more sensitive to scale variation, with pronounced declines around 1000 and 3000

m^{2}

, while the decline rate weakened beyond 5000

m^{2}

. Climatic severity remained the dominant factor controlling the absolute level of heating demand, but the climatic differences in heating EUI gradually narrowed as building scale increased. Moreover, the scale effect persisted longer under colder climatic conditions. These findings provide a reference for establishing scale-sensitive heating energy benchmarks in urban public buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings)

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23 pages, 8906 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Performance Prediction of Chillers Based on Unsupervised Domain Adaptation

by Yifei Liu, Chuanyu Tang and Nan Li

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 673; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030673 - 6 Feb 2026

Viewed by 413

Abstract

The prediction of chiller performance parameters is crucial for optimal control and fault diagnosis. Numerous efficient and accurate data-driven models have been developed and implemented. These models are normally trained on historical operational data of chiller units. However, the distribution of operational data may shift due to accumulated operating hours or changes in control strategies. Under new operating conditions, models trained on historical data often generalize poorly, leading to prediction deviations. To address this issue, this study integrates a one-dimensional convolutional neural network with a domain adaptation method that extracts features from both the source and target domains and aligns their inverse Gram matrices in terms of angle and scale. A predictive model applicable to multiple chiller performance parameters is established using limited historical data, enhancing the model’s generalization ability. Compared to the baseline model (MLP), the proposed method achieves an average reduction of 74.3% in mean absolute error (MAE) and 76.1% in root mean square error (RMSE), while the R² values exceed 0.96 (for certain scenarios). Additionally, this paper analyzes the data distribution between the source and target domains, investigates key factors affecting the model’s generalization capability, and provides insights for evaluating the quality of modeling data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings)

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24 pages, 5145 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Investigation of a Dew-Point Evaporative Air Cooler with Segmented Heat Exchange Design

by Peng Xu and Jianing Sai

Buildings 2026, 16(3), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16030477 - 23 Jan 2026

Viewed by 665

Abstract

A dew-point evaporative air cooler incorporating a novel segmented heat exchange design, demarcated according to the humidity state of moist air, is proposed. The system employs a porous fibrous material to create a wetted evaporative surface, which is continuously maintained in a moistened condition through a self-wicking water supply mechanism to enhance latent heat transfer. Circular fins are installed on the heat exchanger’s partition surface once the moist air reaches saturation, thereby improving sensible heat exchange between the dry and wet channels. The performance of a prototype was evaluated under controlled conditions in a standard enthalpy chamber. Experimental results indicate that, under typical summer conditions (inlet dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of 33.8 °C and 25.4 °C, respectively), with an air mass flow ratio of 0.7 and an air velocity of 1.5 m/s, the wet-bulb effectiveness reaches 114.4% and the dew-point effectiveness achieves 84.8%. The maximum temperature reduction occurs in the sensible heat exchange section, reaching up to 6.1 °C, demonstrating its substantial sensible heat recovery capability. The device exhibits an energy efficiency ratio (EER) ranging from 9.1 to 31.8. The proposed compact configuration not only enhances energy efficiency but also reduces material costs by approximately 15.4%, providing a valuable reference for the future development of dew-point evaporative cooling systems in residential buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings)

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26 pages, 3455 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Smoke Confinement in Underground Buildings: Design of Air Curtains Against Tunnel Fire

by Yuxiang Wang and Angui Li

Buildings 2026, 16(2), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings16020263 - 7 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 598

Abstract

Tunnels have significantly expanded human activity spaces and alleviated urban congestion and environmental pollution on the surface. However, fires and associated smoke propagation in tunnels pose common and critical challenges in underground space utilization. Previous studies have primarily focused on smoke control under standard atmospheric conditions, emphasizing isolated parameters such as jet velocity or heat release rate (HRR), while overlooking key factors like environmental pressure and fire source proximity that influence smoke buoyancy and containment efficacy. One of the key problems remains unsolved: the comprehensive mechanisms governing transverse air curtain performance in variable-pressure and proximity scenarios. This study utilized Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS6.7.1) software to conduct numerical simulations, aiming to elucidate the underlying incentives and explore the phenomena of smoke–thermal interactions. The analysis systematically evaluates the influence of four critical parameters: HRR (1–15 MW), fire-to-curtain distance (5–95 m), air curtain jet velocity (6–16 m/s), and ambient pressure (40–140 kPa). Results show that (1) jet velocity emerges as the dominant factor, with exponential enhancement in thermal containment efficiency at velocities above 10 m/s due to intensified shear forces; (2) escalating HRR weakens isolation, leading to disproportionate downstream temperature rises and diminished efficacy; (3) fire proximity within 10 m disrupts curtain integrity via high-momentum smoke impingement, amplifying thermal gradients; and (4) elevated ambient pressure dampens smoke buoyancy while augmenting air curtain momentum, yielding improved containment efficiency and reduced temperatures. This paper is helpful for the design and operation of thermal applications in underground infrastructures, providing predictive models for optimized smoke control systems. The contour maps reveal the field-distribution trends and highlight the significant influence of the air curtain and key governing parameters on the thermal field and smoke control performance. This work delivers pivotal theoretical and practical insights into the advanced design and optimization of aerodynamic smoke control systems in tunnel safety engineering Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings)

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20 pages, 8341 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation on the Diffusion and Ventilation Characteristics of Hydrogen-Blended Natural Gas Leakage in Indoor Spaces

by Bofan Deng, Xiaomei Huang, Shan Lyu and Dulikunjiang Aimaieraili

Buildings 2025, 15(21), 3833; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15213833 - 23 Oct 2025

Viewed by 1163

Abstract

The blending of hydrogen significantly impacts the diffusion and safety characteristics of natural gas within indoor environments. This study employs ANSYS Fluent 2021 R1 to numerically investigate the diffusion and ventilation characteristics of hydrogen-blended natural gas (HBNG) leakage in indoor spaces. A physical and mathematical model of gas leakage from pipelines is established to study hazardous areas, flammable regions, ventilation characteristics, alarm response times, safe ventilation rates, and the concentration distribution of leaked gas. The effects of hydrogen blending ratio (HBR), ventilation conditions, and space dimensions on leakage diffusion and safety are analyzed. Results indicate that HBNG leakage forms vertical concentration stratification in indoor spaces, with ventilation height being negatively correlated with gas concentration and flammable regions. In the indoor space conditions of this study, by improving ventilation conditions, the hazardous area can be reduced by up to 92.67%. Increasing HBR substantially expands risk zones—with pure hydrogen producing risk volumes over five times greater than natural gas. Mechanical ventilation significantly enhances indoor safety. Safe ventilation rates escalate with hydrogen content, providing quantitative safety criteria for HBNG implementation. The results underscore the critical influence of HBR and ventilation strategy on risk assessment, providing essential insights for the safe indoor deployment of HBNG. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings)

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18 pages, 8425 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Optimal Control Method for Building Cooling Water Systems with Variable Speed Condenser Pumps and Cooling Tower Fans

by Xiao Chen, Lingjun Guan, Chaoyue Yang, Peihong Ge and Jinrui Xia

Buildings 2025, 15(19), 3568; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15193568 - 2 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1234

Abstract

The optimal control of cooling water systems is of great significance for energy saving in chiller plants. Previously optimal control methods optimize the flow rate, temperature or temperature difference setpoints but cannot control pumps and cooling tower fans directly. This study proposes a direct optimal control method for pumps and fans based on derivative control strategy by decoupling water flow rate optimization and airflow rate optimization, which can make the total power of chillers, pumps and fans approach a minimum. Simulations for different conditions were performed for the validation and performance analysis of the optimal control strategy. The optimization algorithms and implementation methods of direct optimal control were developed and validated by experiment. The simulation results indicate that total power approaches a minimum when the derivative of total power with respect to water/air flow rate approaches zero. The power-saving rate of the studied chiller plant is 13.2% at a plant part-load ratio of 20% compared to the constant-speed pump/fan mode. The experimental results show that the direct control method, taking power frequency as a controlled variable, can make variable frequency drives regulate their output frequencies to be equal to the optimized power frequencies of pumps and fans in a timely manner. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings)

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25 pages, 11397 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Airflow Disturbance from Human Motion on Contaminant Control in Cleanroom Environments: A CFD-Based Analysis

by Abiyeva Guldana, Sayat Niyetbay, Arman Zhanguzhinov, Gulbanu Kassabekova, Dilyara Jartayeva, Kulyash Alimova, Gulnaz Zhakapbayeva and Khalkhabay Bostandyk

Buildings 2025, 15(13), 2264; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15132264 - 27 Jun 2025

Viewed by 2646

Abstract

The growing demands for sanitary regulations in medical facilities, particularly operating rooms, highlight the importance of ensuring high air quality and minimizing airborne hospital-acquired infections. Improperly designed ventilation systems may lead to contamination of up to 90–95% of patients, especially in light of evolving threats, such as COVID-19. This study focuses on enhancing the energy efficiency and performance of air conditioning and ventilation systems for cleanrooms, where air recirculation is not permissible. A novel energy-efficient direct-flow air treatment scheme is proposed, integrating a heat pump system with adjustable thermal output. A computational fluid dynamics CFD model of a clean operating room was developed to assess the impact of inlet air velocity on aerosol particle removal and airflow stabilization time. The model also considers the effect of personnel movement. The results supported optimized air distribution, reducing microbial contamination risks, with less than 10 CFU/m³, and improved thermal performance. The proposed system was evaluated for energy and cost efficiency compared to conventional setups. Findings can inform the design and operation of cleanroom ventilation in surgical environments and other high-tech applications. This research contributes to improving indoor air quality and reducing infection risks while enhancing sustainability in healthcare infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings)

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14 pages, 2912 KB

Open AccessArticle

Model of Staphylococcus aureus Growth and Reproduction on the Surface of Activated Carbon

by Ge Zhang, Xinshi Yan, Shuai Liu, Caijuan Chen and Yubo Wang

Buildings 2025, 15(6), 874; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15060874 - 11 Mar 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3491

Abstract

The large-scale use of air-conditioning equipment, while providing a comfortable living environment, has also brought about a series of problems. This study focuses on the growth and reproduction of Staphylococcus aureus on the surface of activated carbon in air-conditioning filtration systems. Experimental data were obtained under temperature conditions of 20 °C and 30 °C and relative humidity conditions of 10%, 50%, and 75% RH. Based on the experimental data, a mathematical model was established to predict the growth and reproduction of Staphylococcus aureus. The Logistic and Gompertz equations were used to fit the growth and reproduction curves under different temperature and humidity conditions, and the two models, commonly used for simulating microbial growth curves, were compared. The model with the best fit was selected to predict the amount of Staphylococcus aureus, providing some guidance for the actual lifespan of the adsorbent in filters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings)

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21 pages, 4506 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of a Novel Thermochemical Reactor for Medium- and Low-Temperature Heating Applications in Buildings

by Xiaojing Han, Cheng Zeng, Zishang Zhu, Yanyi Sun and Xudong Zhao

Buildings 2024, 14(10), 3192; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14103192 - 7 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2031

Abstract

This research paper investigates a novel triangular honeycomb thermochemical energy storage reactor for low- and medium-temperature applications in buildings, emphasizing its potential to enhance sustainable heating. Using a validated 3D numerical model, the reactor’s performance is analyzed in depth across various configurations, focusing on key parameters such as energy storage density, pressure drop, internal air flow distribution, and round-trip efficiency. Results show that the reactor achieved an energy storage density of 872 kJ/kg and a round-trip thermal efficiency of 41.51% under optimal conditions. Additionally, the triangular honeycomb reactor (30°, 60, and 90°) configuration achieved the highest temperature lift of 48.7 °C. In a feasibility analysis for residential heating in northern China, the reactor with 30°, 60°, and 90° angles required 24.91% less volume to meet daily heating demands compared to other configurations. This study contributes valuable insights for the development of efficient, low-carbon heating solutions for low- and medium-temperature applications in buildings, offering interesting advancements in the field of thermochemical energy storage technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings)

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19 pages, 8469 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Airflow Organization in Modular Data Centres Utilizing Floor Grid Air Supply

by Jingping Zhao, Jianlin Wu and Mengying Li

Buildings 2024, 14(9), 2750; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092750 - 2 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2453

Abstract

Under the background of “dual carbon” development goals, the rapid expansion of internet data centers driven by advancements in 5G technology has led to increased energy consumption and elevated heat densities within the server rooms in these facilities. In this study, the modular data center is taken as the research object for the purpose of figuring out a way to improve the thermal environment of the computer room, reduce power consumption, and ensure the safe and stable running of servers. To this end, this study established an airflow organization model for the modular data center and verified this model through experimental methods. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations were employed to investigate the effects of raised floor height, floor opening rate, and cold/hot air channel closure on airflow organization. Furthermore, the efficiency of airflow organization was evaluated using entransy loss metrics. The results show that optimal airflow conditions are achieved when the height of the raised floor is 600–800 mm, the opening rate is 40%, and the combined opening is 40%. Additionally, the closure of either the cold channel or both the cold and hot channels significantly improves airflow performance. Specifically, cold channel closure is recommended for new data centers with underfloor air supply systems, while combined cold and hot channel closure is suitable for data centers with high power density and extended air supply distances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments and Future Perspectives in Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems of Buildings)

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