Atmosphere

14 pages, 5569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of CO₂ Concentration and Fluxes of Lisbon Portugal Using Regional CO₂ Assimilation Method Based on WRF-Chem

by Jiuping Jin, Yongjian Huang, Chong Wei, Xinping Wang, Xiaojun Xu, Qianrong Gu and Mingquan Wang

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 847; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070847 (registering DOI) - 11 Jul 2025

Abstract

Cities house more than half of the world’s population and are responsible for more than 70% of the world anthropogenic CO

_{2}

emissions. Therefore, quantifications of emissions from major cities, which are only less than a hundred intense emitting spots across the globe, [...] Read more.

Cities house more than half of the world’s population and are responsible for more than 70% of the world anthropogenic CO

_{2}

emissions. Therefore, quantifications of emissions from major cities, which are only less than a hundred intense emitting spots across the globe, should allow us to monitor changes in global fossil fuel CO

_{2}

emissions in an independent, objective way. The study adopted a high-spatiotemporal-resolution regional assimilation method using satellite observation data and atmospheric transport model WRF-Chem/DART to assimilate CO

_{2}

concentration and fluxes in Lisbon, a major city in Portugal. It is based on Zhang’s assimilation method, combined OCO-2 XCO

_{2}

retrieval data, ODIAC 1 km anthropogenic CO

_{2}

emissions and Ensemble Adjustment Kalman Filter Assimilation. By employing three two-way nested domains in WRF-Chem, we refined the spatial resolution of the CO

_{2}

concentrations and fluxes over Lisbon to 3 km. The spatiotemporal distribution characteristics and main driving factors of CO

_{2}

concentrations and fluxes in Lisbon and its surrounding cities and countries were analyzed in March 2020, during the period affected by COVID-19 pandemic. The results showed that the monthly average CO

_{2}

and XCO

_{2}

concentrations in Lisbon were 420.66 ppm and 413.88 ppm, respectively, and the total flux was 0.50 Tg CO

_{2}

. From a wider perspective, the findings provide a scientific foundation for urban carbon emission management and policy-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sources, Spatio-Temporal Distribution and Health Effects of Atmospheric Compositions (2nd Edition))

25 pages, 2118 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Insights into Meteorological and Hydrological Drought Modeling: A Comparative Analysis of Parametric and Non-Parametric Distributions

by Ahmad Abu Arra and Eyüp Şişman

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 846; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070846 - 11 Jul 2025

Abstract

Accurate drought monitoring depends on selecting an appropriate cumulative distribution function (CDF) to model the original data, resulting in the standardized drought indices. In the numerous research studies, while rigorous validation was not made by scrutinizing the model assumptions and uncertainties in identifying [...] Read more.

Accurate drought monitoring depends on selecting an appropriate cumulative distribution function (CDF) to model the original data, resulting in the standardized drought indices. In the numerous research studies, while rigorous validation was not made by scrutinizing the model assumptions and uncertainties in identifying theoretical drought CDF models, such oversights lead to biased representations of drought evaluation and characteristics. This research compares the parametric theoretical and empirical CDFs for a comprehensive evaluation of standardized Drought Indices. Additionally, it examines the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of both empirical and theoretical distribution functions in drought assessment. Three drought indices, Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), Streamflow Drought Index (SDI), and Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI), cover meteorological and hydrological droughts. The assessment spans diverse applications, covering different climates and regions: Durham, United Kingdom (SPEI, 1868–2021); Konya, Türkiye (SPI, 1964–2022); and Lüleburgaz, Türkiye (SDI, 1957–2015). The findings reveal that theoretical and empirical CDFs demonstrated notable discrepancies, particularly in long-term hydrological drought assessments, where underestimations reached up to 50%, posing risks of misinformed conclusions that may impact critical drought-related decisions and policymaking. Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) for SPI3 between empirical and best-fitted CDF was 0.087, and between empirical and Gamma it was 0.152. For SDI, it ranged between 0.09 and 0.143. The Mean Absolute Error (MAE) for SPEI was approximately 0.05 for all timescales. Additionally, it concludes that empirical CDFs provide more reliable and conservative drought assessments and are free from the constraints of model assumptions. Both approaches gave approximately the same drought duration with different intensities regarding drought characteristics. Due to the complex process of drought events and different definitions of drought events, each drought event must be studied separately, considering its effects on different sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drought Monitoring, Prediction and Impacts (2nd Edition))

14 pages, 1706 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Characteristics of the Aeolian Environment in the Coastal Sandy Land of Boao Jade Belt Beach, Hainan Island

by Shuai Zhong, Jianjun Qu, Zhizhong Zhao and Penghua Qiu

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 845; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070845 - 11 Jul 2025

Abstract

Boao Jade Beach, on the east coast of Hainan Island, is a typical sandy beach and is one of the areas where typhoons frequently land in Hainan. This study examined wind speed, wind direction, and sediment transport data obtained from field meteorological stations [...] Read more.

Boao Jade Beach, on the east coast of Hainan Island, is a typical sandy beach and is one of the areas where typhoons frequently land in Hainan. This study examined wind speed, wind direction, and sediment transport data obtained from field meteorological stations and omnidirectional sand accumulation instruments from 2020 to 2024 to study the coastal aeolian environment and sediment transport distribution characteristics in the region. The findings provide a theoretical basis for comprehensive analyses of the evolution of coastal aeolian landforms and the evaluation and control of coastal aeolian hazards. The research results showed the following: (1) The annual average threshold wind velocity for sand movement in the study area was 6.13 m/s, and the wind speed frequency was 20.97%, mainly dominated by easterly winds (NNE, NE) and southerly winds (S). (2) The annual drift potential (DP) and resultant drift potential (RDP) of Boao Jade Belt Beach from 2020 to 2024 were 125.99 VU and 29.59 VU, respectively, indicating a low-energy wind environment. The yearly index of directional wind variability (RDP/DP) was 0.23, which is classified as a small ratio and indicates blunt bimodal wind conditions. The yearly resultant drift direction (RDD) was 329.41°, corresponding to the NNW direction, indicating that the sand on Boao Jade Belt Beach is generally transported in the southwest direction. (3) When the measured data from the sand accumulation instrument in the study area from 2020 to 2024 were used for a statistical analysis, the results showed that the total sediment transport rate in the study area was 39.97 kg/m·a, with the maximum sediment transport rate in the S direction being 17.74 kg/m·a. These results suggest that, when sand fixation systems are constructed for relevant infrastructure in the region, the direction of protective forests and other engineering measures should be perpendicular to the net direction of sand transport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)

22 pages, 7205 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Improved Interpolation Algorithm for Surface Meteorological Observations via Fuzzy Adaptive Optimisation Fusion

by Xiaoya Jiang, Xiong Xiong, Wenlan Wang, Xiaoling Ye, Xin Chen, Yihu Wang and Fangjian Zhang

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 844; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070844 - 11 Jul 2025

Abstract

Meteorological observations are essential for climate modelling, prediction, early warning systems, decision-making processes, and disaster management. These observations are critical to societal development and the safeguarding of human activities and livelihoods. Spatial interpolation techniques play a pivotal role in addressing gaps between observation [...] Read more.

Meteorological observations are essential for climate modelling, prediction, early warning systems, decision-making processes, and disaster management. These observations are critical to societal development and the safeguarding of human activities and livelihoods. Spatial interpolation techniques play a pivotal role in addressing gaps between observation sites, enabling the generation of continuous meteorological datasets. However, due to the inherent complexity of atmosphere–surface interactions, no single interpolation technique has proven universally effective in achieving consistently accurate results for meteorological variables. This study proposes a novel interpolation model based on Fuzzy Adaptive Optimal Fusion (FAOF). The FAOF model integrates fuzzy theory by constructing station-specific fuzzy sets and sub-method element pools, employing a nonlinear membership function with error as the independent variable. An iterative accuracy index is used to identify the optimal parameter combination, facilitating adaptive data fusion and interpolation optimisation. The model’s performance is evaluated against 10 individual methods from the method pool. Experimental results demonstrate that FAOF effectively combines the strengths of multiple methods, achieving significantly enhanced interpolation accuracy. Additionally, the model consistently performs well across diverse regions and meteorological variables, underscoring its robustness and strong generalisation capability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Early Career Scientists’ (ECSs) Contributions to Atmosphere)

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16 pages, 3426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Climate Projections and Time Series Analysis over Roma Fiumicino Airport Using COSMO-CLM: Insights from Advanced Statistical Methods

by Edoardo Bucchignani

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 843; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070843 - 11 Jul 2025

Abstract

The evaluation of climate change effects on airport infrastructures is important to maintain safety and flexibility in air travel operations. Airports are particularly vulnerable to extreme weather events and temperature fluctuations, which can disrupt operations, compromise passenger safety, and cause economic losses. Issues [...] Read more.

The evaluation of climate change effects on airport infrastructures is important to maintain safety and flexibility in air travel operations. Airports are particularly vulnerable to extreme weather events and temperature fluctuations, which can disrupt operations, compromise passenger safety, and cause economic losses. Issues such as flooded runways and the disruption of power supplies highlight the need for strong adaptation strategies. The study focuses on the application of the high-resolution regional model COSMO-CLM to assess climate change impacts on Roma Fiumicino airport (Italy) under the IPCC RCP8.5 scenario. The complex topography of Italy requires fine-scale simulation to catch localized climate dynamics. By employing advanced statistical methods, such as fractal analysis, this research aims to increase an understanding of climate change and improve the model prediction capability. The findings provide valuable insights for designing resilient airport infrastructures and updating operational protocols in view of evolving climate risks. A consistent increase in daily temperatures is projected, along with a modest positive trend in annual precipitation. The use of advanced statistical methods revealed insights into the fractal dimensions and frequency components of climate variables, showing an increasing complexity and variability of future climatic patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Climatology)

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30 pages, 1370 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Performance of Low-Cost Air Temperature Sensors and Applied Calibration Techniques—A Systematic Review

by Jabir Ali Abdinoor, Zainulabdeen Khalaf Hashim, Bálint Horváth, Sándor Zsebő, Dávid Stencinger, Gergő Hegedüs, László Bede, Ali Ijaz and István Mihály Kulmány

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 842; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070842 - 10 Jul 2025

Abstract

Low-cost air temperature sensors are an emerging theme in environmental monitoring. These sensors offer the advantage of making microclimate monitoring feasible due to their affordability. However, they are limited by the quality of the data they provide; in many cases, they have been [...] Read more.

Low-cost air temperature sensors are an emerging theme in environmental monitoring. These sensors offer the advantage of making microclimate monitoring feasible due to their affordability. However, they are limited by the quality of the data they provide; in many cases, they have been reported to have presented errors in the sensor readings. These errors have been shown to improve after calibration was applied. The lack of a comprehensive understanding of the available calibration techniques, models, and sensor types has led to studies presenting heterogeneity in models and techniques alongside different performance metrics. To address this gap, this study conducted a systematic review following the PRISMA guidelines, reviewing studies from 2015 to 2024 across the databases Web of Science and Scopus, alongside the search engine Google Scholar. The aim was to identify the calibration techniques and models, the commercially available low-cost air temperature sensors used, the performance metrics utilised, and the calibration settings. The findings presented three main categories of calibration models utilised in the collected studies: linear, polynomial, and machine learning. Twenty-two commercially available low-cost sensors were identified, with the DHT22 sensor being the most utilised. Indoor settings were identified as the most preferred for conducting calibrations. Key challenges included limitations in reported results for calibration by the studies, the use of different performance metrics across studies, insufficient studies conducting calibration, and the diversity in sensor types utilised. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Atmospheric Techniques, Instruments, and Modeling)

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32 pages, 6467 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Target Prediction to Mechanistic Insights: Revealing Air Pollution-Driven Mechanisms in Endometrial Cancer via Interpretable Machine Learning and Molecular Docking

by Hongyao Liu and Yueqing Zou

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070841 - 10 Jul 2025

Abstract

Air pollution is a known contributor to cancer risk, although its specific impact on endometrial cancer (EC) remains unclear. This study integrates network toxicology, transcriptomics, molecular docking, and machine learning to investigate pollutant–gene interactions in EC. We identify 83 air pollution-associated EC genes [...] Read more.

Air pollution is a known contributor to cancer risk, although its specific impact on endometrial cancer (EC) remains unclear. This study integrates network toxicology, transcriptomics, molecular docking, and machine learning to investigate pollutant–gene interactions in EC. We identify 83 air pollution-associated EC genes (APECGs), with TNF, ESR1, IL1B, NFKB1, and PTGS2 as the hub genes. A 13-gene RSF-SuperPC model, including CCNE1, SLC2A1, AHCY, and CDC25C, shows effective prognostic stratification. Molecular docking reveals strong binding between pollutants (e.g., benzene, toluene, and ethylbenzene) and key APECGs. The enrichment and SHAP analyses suggest that pollutant-driven EC progression involves DNA damage, metabolic reprogramming, epigenetic dysregulation, immune suppression, and inflammation. These findings reveal potential mechanisms linking air pollution to EC and support the development of biomarkers for high-exposure populations. Further experimental and epidemiological validation is needed to enable clinical translation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Air Pollution, Meteorological Conditions and Human Health)

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26 pages, 1819 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Airborne Measurements of Real-World Black Carbon Emissions from Ships

by Ward Van Roy, Jean-Baptiste Merveille, Kobe Scheldeman, Annelore Van Nieuwenhove and Ronny Schallier

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 840; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070840 - 10 Jul 2025

Abstract

The impact of black carbon (BC) emissions on climate change, human health, and the environment is well-documented in the scientific literature. Although BC still remains largely unregulated at the international level, efforts have been made to reduce emissions of BC and Particulate Matter [...] Read more.

The impact of black carbon (BC) emissions on climate change, human health, and the environment is well-documented in the scientific literature. Although BC still remains largely unregulated at the international level, efforts have been made to reduce emissions of BC and Particulate Matter (PM_2.5), particularly in sectors such as energy production, industry, and road transport. In contrast, the maritime shipping industry has made limited progress in reducing BC emissions from ships, mainly due to the absence of stringent BC emission regulations. While the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has established emission limits for pollutants such as SO_x, NO_x, and VOCs under MARPOL Annex VI, as of today, BC emissions from ships are still unregulated at the international level. Whereas it was anticipated that PM_2.5 and BC emissions would be reduced with the adoption of the SO_x regulations, especially within the sulfur emission control areas (SECA), this study reveals that BC emissions are only partially affected by the current MARPOL Annex VI regulations. Based on 886 real-world black carbon (BC) emission measurements from ships operating in the southern North Sea, the study demonstrates that SECA-compliant fuels do contribute to a notable decrease in BC emissions. However, it is important to note that the average BC emission factors (EFs) within the SECA remain comparable in magnitude to those reported for non-compliant fuels in earlier studies. Moreover, ships using exhaust gas cleaning systems (EGCSs) as a SECA-compliant measure were found to emit significantly higher levels of BC, raising concerns about the environmental sustainability of EGCSs as an emissions mitigation strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution from Shipping: Measurement and Mitigation)

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14 pages, 578 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Climate Change and Occupational Risks in Outdoor Workers: A Systematic Review of the Health Effects of Extreme Temperatures

by Maria Francesca Rossi, Raimondo Leone and Umberto Moscato

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 839; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070839 - 10 Jul 2025

Abstract

Climate change is one of the most important current threats to global health. Outdoor workers are among the most vulnerable people to its effects. The aim of this systematic review is to assess the occupational risks related to climate change, investigating health outcomes [...] Read more.

Climate change is one of the most important current threats to global health. Outdoor workers are among the most vulnerable people to its effects. The aim of this systematic review is to assess the occupational risks related to climate change, investigating health outcomes in outdoor workers and estimating its impact in the occupational context. The review was performed following PRISMA guidelines, screening three databases (PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus). Studies written in English or Italian languages, performed on outdoor workers, assessing occupational risks linked to climate change, and reporting on health outcomes were included. A quality assessment was performed using the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale. Thirteen studies were included in the review, performed mostly on construction (seven studies, 53.8%) and agricultural (five studies, 38.5%) workers. Twelve of the included studies (92.3%) reported on occupational risks related to heat stress, one on the effects of cold weather. Four studies (30.8%) reported a high prevalence of heat-related symptoms, ranging from 64.0% to 90.3% of workers. This systematic review highlights heat-related stress in outdoor workers as an important occupational risk, but it also underlines an important gap in scientific knowledge regarding other occupational risks relating to climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies on Climate Change in Urban Areas: Emerging Technologies and Strategies to Address Heat Waves and Improve Thermo-Hygrometric Comfort)

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14 pages, 5338 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modulation of Spring Barents and Kara Seas Ice Concentration on the Meiyu Onset over the Yangtze–Huaihe River Basin in China

by Ziyi Song, Xuejie Zhao, Yuepeng Hu, Fang Zhou and Jiahao Lu

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 838; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070838 - 10 Jul 2025

Abstract

Meiyu is a critical component of the summer rainy season over the Yangtze–Huaihe River Basin (YHRB) in China, and the Meiyu onset date (MOD), serving as a key indicator of Meiyu, has garnered substantial attention. This article demonstrates an in-phase relationship between MOD [...] Read more.

Meiyu is a critical component of the summer rainy season over the Yangtze–Huaihe River Basin (YHRB) in China, and the Meiyu onset date (MOD), serving as a key indicator of Meiyu, has garnered substantial attention. This article demonstrates an in-phase relationship between MOD and the preceding spring Barents–Kara Seas ice concentration (BKSIC) during 1979–2023. Specifically, the loss of spring BKSIC promotes an earlier MOD. Further analysis indicates that decreased spring BKSIC reduces the reflection of shortwave radiation, thereby enhancing oceanic solar radiation absorption and warming sea surface temperature (SST) in spring. The warming SST persists into summer and induces significant deep warming in the BKS through enhanced upward longwave radiation. The BKS deep warming triggers a wave train propagating southeastward to the East Asia–Northwest Pacific region, leading to a strengthened East Asian Subtropical Jet and an intensified Western North Pacific Subtropical High in summer. Under these conditions, the transport of warm and humid airflows into the YHRB is enhanced, promoting convective instability through increased low-level warming and humidity, combined with enhanced wind shear, which jointly contribute to an earlier MOD. These results may advance the understanding of MOD variability and provide valuable information for disaster prevention and mitigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)

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20 pages, 8902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Variation Patterns of and Response Differences in Water Conservation in China’s Nine Major River Basins Under Climate Change

by Qian Zhang and Yuhai Bao

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 837; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070837 - 10 Jul 2025

Abstract

As a crucial manifestation of ecosystem water regulation and supply functions, water conservation plays a vital role in regional ecosystem development and sustainable water resource management. This study investigates nine major Chinese river basins (Songliao, Haihe, Huaihe, Yellow, Yangtze, Pearl, Southeast Rivers, Southwest [...] Read more.

As a crucial manifestation of ecosystem water regulation and supply functions, water conservation plays a vital role in regional ecosystem development and sustainable water resource management. This study investigates nine major Chinese river basins (Songliao, Haihe, Huaihe, Yellow, Yangtze, Pearl, Southeast Rivers, Southwest Rivers, and Inland Rivers) through integrated application of the InVEST model and geographical detector model. We systematically examine the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of water conservation capacity and its driving mechanisms from 1990 to 2020. The results reveal a distinct northwest–southeast spatial gradient in water conservation across China, with lower values predominating in northwestern regions. Minimum conservation values were recorded in the Inland River Basin (15.88 mm), Haihe River Basin (42.07 mm), and Yellow River Basin (43.55 mm), while maximum capacities occurred in the Pearl River Basin (483.68 mm) and Southeast Rivers Basin (517.21 mm). Temporal analysis showed interannual fluctuations, peaking in 2020 at 130.98 mm and reaching its lowest point in 2015 at 113.04 mm. Precipitation emerged as the dominant factor governing spatial patterns, with higher rainfall correlating strongly with enhanced conservation capacity. Land cover analysis revealed superior water retention in vegetated areas (forests, grasslands, and cultivated land) compared to urbanized and bare land surfaces. Our findings demonstrate that water conservation dynamics result from synergistic interactions among multiple factors rather than single-variable influences. Accordingly, we propose that future water resource policies adopt an integrated management approach addressing climate patterns, land use optimization, and socioeconomic factors to develop targeted conservation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Response of Vegetation to Climatic and Anthropogenic Drivers in the Plateau)

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16 pages, 1645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Pricing Strategies and Policies for a Unified Global Carbon Market

by Mohammad Imran Azizi, Xize Xu, Xuehui Duan, Haotian Qin and Bin Xu

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 836; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070836 - 10 Jul 2025

Abstract

Driven by the urgent need to mitigate climate change and achieve net-zero emissions, carbon pricing has emerged as a critical policy tool in major economies worldwide. This study compares carbon pricing in the EU, China, Canada, and Singapore, evaluating effectiveness in emission reductions, [...] Read more.

Driven by the urgent need to mitigate climate change and achieve net-zero emissions, carbon pricing has emerged as a critical policy tool in major economies worldwide. This study compares carbon pricing in the EU, China, Canada, and Singapore, evaluating effectiveness in emission reductions, with the EU ranking first with high carbon prices, road market coverage, and strict penalties, based on carbon price per capita. Conversely, Singapore’s position as fourth in carbon price per capita among these four most mature carbon markets, Singapore has a high GDP per capita and lower carbon prices. Canada’s fragmented provincial policies and China’s limited market coverage, despite being the top global emitter. Our analysis reveals three critical success factors: (1) higher carbon prices per capita are essential for carbon reduction, (2) the necessity of penalties on carbon price per capita from EUR 20–EUR 100, and (3) expanded market coverage maximizes impact. To address global disparities, we propose a Uniform Carbon Pricing Mechanism under the Global Carbon Resilience Framework (GCRF), based on carbon price per capita tiered pricing: EUR 100/t (developed), EUR 30–50 (developing), and EUR 5–15 (least-developed countries). This balanced system supports vulnerable regions while cutting emissions, proving that fair carbon pricing is crucial for climate goals and economic stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution Control)

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16 pages, 1919 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of Utilisation Methods of Multi-Source Precipitation Products for Flood Forecasting in Areas with Insufficient Rainfall Gauges

by Yanhong Dou, Ke Shi, Hongwei Cai, Min Xie and Ronghua Liu

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 835; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070835 - 9 Jul 2025

Abstract

The continuous release of global precipitation products offers a stable data source for flood forecasting in areas without rainfall gauges. However, due to constraints of forecast timeliness, only no/short-lag precipitation products can be utilised for flood forecasting, but these products are prone to [...] Read more.

The continuous release of global precipitation products offers a stable data source for flood forecasting in areas without rainfall gauges. However, due to constraints of forecast timeliness, only no/short-lag precipitation products can be utilised for flood forecasting, but these products are prone to significant errors. Therefore, the keys of flood forecasting in areas lacking rainfall gauges are selecting appropriate precipitation products, improving the accuracy of precipitation products, and reducing the errors of precipitation products by combination with hydrology models. This paper first presents the current no/short-lag precipitation products that are continuously updated online and for which the download of long series historical data is supported. Based on this, this paper reviews the utilisation methods of multi-source precipitation products for flood forecasting in areas with insufficient rainfall gauges from three perspectives: methods for precipitation product performance evaluation, multi-source precipitation fusion methods, and methods for coupling precipitation products with hydrological models. Finally, future research priorities are summarized: (i) to construct a quantitative evaluation system that can take into account both the accuracy and complementarity of precipitation products; (ii) to focus on the improvement of the areal precipitation fields interpolated by gauge-based precipitation in multi-source precipitation fusion; (iii) to couple real-time correction of flood forecasts and multi-source precipitation; and (iv) to enhance global sharing and utilization of rain gauge–radar data for improving the accuracy of satellite-based precipitation products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)

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12 pages, 1253 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ozone Pollution Impairs Athletic Performance in Female Football Players: A Gender-Specific Analysis

by Wei Xing, Yuxin Wang, Yangyang Xie and Wenbo Zheng

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 834; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070834 - 9 Jul 2025

Abstract

There have been some studies investigating the effects of air pollutants on male football players, but few have examined the gender-specific impact of air pollution on the athletic performance of female football players. This research gap limits the development of tailored training and [...] Read more.

There have been some studies investigating the effects of air pollutants on male football players, but few have examined the gender-specific impact of air pollution on the athletic performance of female football players. This research gap limits the development of tailored training and competition strategies. Here, generalized mixed modeling was employed to assess the effects of main ambient air pollutants, i.e., particulate matter less than 2.5 μm (PM_2.5), ozone (O₃), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and carbon monoxide (CO), on athletic performance indicators (total movement distance (TMD), jogging distance (JD), and walking distance (WD)) among 14 female football players during 16 matches in the 2020 season of the Chinese Football Association Women’s Super League. Our findings indicate a significant negative association between the O₃ concentration and athletic performance, with fixed effect coefficients of −22.426 ± 8.889 for TMD, −10.817 ± 3.697 for JD, and −6.943 ± 3.265 for WD. The NO₂ concentration was significantly correlated with both TMD and JD, while PM_2.5, SO₂, and CO concentrations had minimal or negligible effects. Additionally, aerobic fitness was reduced as the O₃ concentration increased. These results provide valuable insights for optimizing gender-specific training and competition strategies under varying air quality conditions, offering a basis for more targeted health and performance interventions in professional female football players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality and Health)

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12 pages, 565 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Children’s Allergic Sensitization to Pets: The Role of Air Pollution

by Yufeng Miao, Yingjie Liu, Ruixue Huang, Yuan Xue, Le Liu and Qihong Deng

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 833; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070833 - 9 Jul 2025

Abstract

Allergic sensitization (AS) to pets is a notable health concern, with a 10–30% prevalence in developed countries, significantly higher than in developing nations; however, the critical exposure windows and reasons for this global disparity remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate associations between [...] Read more.

Allergic sensitization (AS) to pets is a notable health concern, with a 10–30% prevalence in developed countries, significantly higher than in developing nations; however, the critical exposure windows and reasons for this global disparity remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate associations between perinatal and current animal exposure and childhood AS among 2598 preschoolers (aged 3–6) in Changsha, China. Data on AS and pet exposure were gathered via questionnaires, while children’s prenatal and current exposure to outdoor air pollutants (PM₁₀, NO₂) was estimated from monitoring stations. Multiple logistic regression models revealed an overall AS prevalence of 1.8%. Current animal or pet exposure was significantly associated with childhood AS (adjusted OR 2.40, 95% CI 1.12–4.29). Conversely, no significant association was found for perinatal exposure. Intriguingly, a stratified analysis showed that the association with current exposure was significant only in children exposed to low levels of outdoor PM₁₀ (adj. OR 2.97, 95% CI 1.21–7.27) and NO₂ (adj. OR 3.01, 95% CI 1.23–7.37). The study concludes that current exposure to pets significantly increases childhood AS risk. This effect is unexpectedly magnified in environments with low outdoor air pollution. This novel finding not only may explain the higher prevalence of pet allergies in developed countries but also suggests that as air quality improves alongside rising pet ownership, developing nations like China could face a significant future increase in pet sensitization, highlighting a critical emerging public health challenge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Indoor Air Pollution: A Silent Threat to Human Health and the Atmosphere)

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16 pages, 1538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lower Ionospheric Perturbations Associated with Lightning Activity over Low and Equatorial Regions

by Dayanand Bhaskar, Rajat Tripathi, Mahesh N. Shrivastava, Rajesh Singh, Sudipta Sasmal, Abhirup Datta and Ajeet Kumar Maurya

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 832; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070832 - 9 Jul 2025

Abstract

We present lightning-induced ionospheric perturbations in narrowband very-low-frequency (VLF) signals from the transmitters NWC (21.82° S, 114.17° E, 19.8 kHz) and VTX (8.4° N, 77.8° E, 18.6 kHz) recorded at the low-latitude station Dehradun (DDN; 30.3° N, 78.0° E) over a 12-month period [...] Read more.

We present lightning-induced ionospheric perturbations in narrowband very-low-frequency (VLF) signals from the transmitters NWC (21.82° S, 114.17° E, 19.8 kHz) and VTX (8.4° N, 77.8° E, 18.6 kHz) recorded at the low-latitude station Dehradun (DDN; 30.3° N, 78.0° E) over a 12-month period from September 2020 to October 2021. Early/slow VLF events, VLF LOREs, and step-like VLF LOREs associated with lightning were analyzed for their onset and recovery times. This study utilized data from the World Wide Lightning Location Network (WWLLN), which provides lightning locations and energy estimates. The results show that early/slow VLF events occur most frequently, accounting for approximately 68% of cases, followed by VLF LOREs at 12%, and step-like VLF LOREs at 10%. Furthermore, we observed that 100% of the VLF perturbing events occurred during the nighttime, which is not entirely consistent with previous studies. Moreover, more than 60% of VLF LOREs were associated with lightning energies of approximately 1 kJ, and about 40% were associated with lightning energies of ~10 kJ. Step-like VLF LOREs were linked to WWLLN energies between 1 and 5 kJ. The observed WWLLN energy range is somewhat lower than the energies reported in previous studies. Scattering characteristics revealed that 87.3% of events were associated with wide-angle scattering, while approximately 12.6% were linked to narrow-angle scattering. LWPC version 2.1 was used to simulate these perturbing events and to estimate the reflection height (H′, in km) and the exponential sharpness factor (β, in km⁻¹) corresponding to changes in D-region electron density. The reflection height (H′, in km) and the exponential sharpness factor (β, in km⁻¹) of the D-region varied from 83 to 87 km and from 0.42 to 0.79 km⁻¹ for early/slow VLF events, from 83 to 85 km and from 0.5 to 0.75 km⁻¹ for step-like VLF LOREs, and from 81 to 83 km and from 0.75 to 0.81 km⁻¹ for VLF LOREs, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Upper Atmosphere)

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19 pages, 4001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulating Lightning Discharges: The Influence of Environmental Conditions on Ionization and Spark Behavior

by Gabriel Steinberg and Naomi Watanabe

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 831; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070831 - 9 Jul 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the behavior of spark discharges under various environmental conditions to simulate aspects of early-stage lightning dynamics, with a focus on their spectral characteristics, propagation, and ionization behavior. In a laboratory setting, spark discharges generated by a Tesla coil operating with [...] Read more.

This study investigates the behavior of spark discharges under various environmental conditions to simulate aspects of early-stage lightning dynamics, with a focus on their spectral characteristics, propagation, and ionization behavior. In a laboratory setting, spark discharges generated by a Tesla coil operating with high-frequency alternating current (AC) were analyzed under varying air humidity and water surface conductivity. Spectral analysis revealed that the discharges are dominated by the second positive system of molecular nitrogen N₂ (2P) and also exhibit the first negative system of molecular nitrogen ions N₂⁺ (1N). Notably, the N₂ (2P) emissions show strong peaks in the 350–450 nm range, closely matching spectral features typically associated with corona and streamer discharges in natural lightning. Environmental factors significantly influenced discharge morphology: in dry air, sparks exhibited longer and more branched paths, while in moist air, the discharges were shorter and more confined. Over water surfaces, the sparks spread radially, forming star-shaped patterns. Deionized (DI) water, with low conductivity, supported wider lateral propagation, whereas higher conductivity in tap water and saltwater suppressed discharge spread. The gap between the electrode tip and the surface also affected discharge extent and brightness. These findings demonstrate that Tesla coil discharges reproduce key features of early lightning processes and offer insights into how environmental factors influence discharge development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Space Weather Variability with a Specific Focus on Ionospheric Climatological Forecasting and Predictive Modelling)

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16 pages, 3074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of a BCC-CPSv3-S2Sv2 Model for the Monthly Prediction of Summer Extreme Precipitation in the Yellow River Basin

by Zhe Li, Zhongyuan Xia and Jiaying Ke

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 830; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070830 - 9 Jul 2025

Abstract

The performance of monthly prediction of extreme precipitation from the BCC-CPSv3-S2Sv2 model over the Yellow River Basin (YRB) using historical hindcast data from 2008 to 2022 was evaluated in this study, mainly from three aspects: overall performance in predicting daily precipitation rates, systematic [...] Read more.

The performance of monthly prediction of extreme precipitation from the BCC-CPSv3-S2Sv2 model over the Yellow River Basin (YRB) using historical hindcast data from 2008 to 2022 was evaluated in this study, mainly from three aspects: overall performance in predicting daily precipitation rates, systematic biases, and monthly prediction of extreme precipitation metrics. The results showed that the BCC-CPSv3-S2Sv2 model demonstrates approximately 10-day predictive skill for summer daily precipitation over the YRB. Relatively higher skill regions concentrate in the central basin, while skill degradation proves more pronounced in downstream areas compared to the upper basin. After correcting model systematic biases, prediction skills for total precipitation-related metrics significantly surpass those of extreme precipitation indices, and metrics related to precipitation amounts demonstrate relatively higher skill compared to those associated with precipitation days. Total precipitation (TP) and rainy days (RD) exhibit comparable skills in June and July, with August showing weaker performance. Nevertheless, basin-wide predictions within 10-day lead times remain practically valuable for most regions. Prediction skills for extreme precipitation amounts and extreme precipitation days share similar spatiotemporal patterns, with high-skill regions shifting progressively south-to-north from June to August. Significant skills for June–July are constrained within 10-day leads, while August skills rarely exceed 1 week. Further analysis reveals that the predictive capability of the model predominantly originates from normal or below-normal precipitation years, whereas the accurate forecasting of extremely wet years remains a critical challenge, which highlights limitations in capturing mechanisms governing exceptional precipitation events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Atmospheric Techniques, Instruments, and Modeling)

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19 pages, 1214 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Different Aerosol Fractions in the Southern Baikal Region (Russia) During the Warm Season

by Liudmila P. Golobokova, Tamara V. Khodzher, Vladimir A. Obolkin, Vladimir L. Potemkin and Natalia A. Onischuk

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 829; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070829 - 8 Jul 2025

Abstract

The Baikal region, including areas with poor environmental conditions, has significant clean background zones. In the summer of 2023, we analyzed the physical and chemical parameters of aerosol particles with different size fractions at Irkutsk and Listvyanka monitoring stations. Reduced wildfires and minimal [...] Read more.

The Baikal region, including areas with poor environmental conditions, has significant clean background zones. In the summer of 2023, we analyzed the physical and chemical parameters of aerosol particles with different size fractions at Irkutsk and Listvyanka monitoring stations. Reduced wildfires and minimal impact from fuel and energy industries allowed us to observe regional and transboundary pollution transport. A large data array indicated that, during the shift of cyclones from Mongolia to the south of the Baikal region, the concentrations of Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, and Cl⁻ ions increased at the Irkutsk station, dominated by NH₄⁺ and SO₄²⁻. The growth of the ionic concentrations at the Listvyanka station was observed in aerosol particles during the northwesterly transport. When air masses arrived from the southerly direction, the atmosphere was the cleanest. The analysis of 27 elements in aerosols revealed that Al, Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn made the greatest contribution to air pollution at the Irkutsk station, while Fe, Al, Cu, Cr, Mn, and Ni made the greatest contribution to air pollution at the Listvyanka station. The dynamics of the investigated elements were mainly due to natural processes in the air under various synoptic situations and weather conditions in the region, although anthropogenic factors also affected the formation of aerosol composition wth certain directions of air mass transport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Environmental Effects, and Source Analysis of Particulate Matters)

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26 pages, 9032 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relative Humidity and Air Temperature Characteristics and Their Drivers in Africa Tropics

by Isaac Kwesi Nooni, Faustin Katchele Ogou, Abdoul Aziz Saidou Chaibou, Samuel Koranteng Fianko, Thomas Atta-Darkwa and Nana Agyemang Prempeh

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 828; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070828 - 8 Jul 2025

Viewed by 174

Abstract

In a warming climate, rising temperature are expected to influence atmospheric humidity. This study examined the spatio-temporal dynamics of temperature (TEMP) and relative humidity (RH) across Equatorial Africa from 1980 to 2020. The analysis used RH data from European Centre of Medium-range Weather [...] Read more.

In a warming climate, rising temperature are expected to influence atmospheric humidity. This study examined the spatio-temporal dynamics of temperature (TEMP) and relative humidity (RH) across Equatorial Africa from 1980 to 2020. The analysis used RH data from European Centre of Medium-range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis v.5 (ERA5) reanalysis, TEMP and precipitation (PRE) from Climate Research Unit (CRU), and soil moisture (SM) and evapotranspiration (ET) from the Global Land Evaporation Amsterdam Model (GLEAM). In addition, four teleconnection indices were considered: El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), and Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO). This study used the Mann–Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimator to analyze trends, alongside multiple linear regression to investigate the relationships between TEMP, RH, and key climatic variables—namely evapotranspiration (ET), soil moisture (SM), and precipitation (PRE)—as well as large-scale teleconnection indices (e.g., IOD, ENSO, PDO, and NAO) on annual and seasonal scales. The key findings are as follows: (1) mean annual TEMP exceeding 30 °C and RH less than 30% were concentrated in arid regions of the Sahelian–Sudano belt in West Africa (WAF), Central Africa (CAF) and North East Africa (NEAF). Semi-arid regions in the Sahelian–Guinean belt recorded moderate TEMP (25–30 °C) and RH (30–60%), while the Guinean coastal belt and Congo Basin experienced cooler, more humid conditions (TEMP < 20 °C, RH (60–90%). (2) Trend analysis using Mann–Kendal and Sen slope estimator analysis revealed spatial heterogeneity, with increasing TEMP and deceasing RH trends varying by region and season. (3) The warming rate was higher in arid and semi-arid areas, with seasonal rates exceeding annual averages (0.18 °C decade⁻¹). Winter (0.27 °C decade⁻¹) and spring (0.20 °C decade⁻¹) exhibited the strongest warming, followed by autumn (0.18 °C decade⁻¹) and summer (0.10 °C decade⁻¹). (4) RH trends showed stronger seasonal decline compared to annual changes, with reduction ranging from 5 to 10% per decade in certain seasons, and about 2% per decade annually. (5) Pearson correlation analysis demonstrated a strong negative relationship between TEMP and RH with a correlation coefficient of r = − 0.60. (6) Significant associations were also observed between TEMP/RH and both climatic variables (ET, SM, PRE) and large scale-teleconnection indices (ENSO, IOD, PDO, NAO), indicating that surface conditions may reflect a combination of local response and remote climate influences. However, further analysis is needed to distinguish the extent to which local variability is independently driven versus being a response to large-scale forcing. Overall, this research highlights the physical mechanism linking TEMP and RH trends and their climatic drivers, offering insights into how these changes may impact different ecological and socio-economic sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Precipitation in Africa (2nd Edition))

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19 pages, 6481 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aerosol Composition in a Semi-Urban Environment in Central Mexico: Influence of Local and Regional Processes on Overall Composition and First Quantification of Nitroaromatics

by Sara E. Olivares-Salazar, Roya Bahreini, Ying-Hsuan Lin, Telma Castro, Harry Alvarez-Ospina and Dara Salcedo

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 827; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070827 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 141

Abstract

The Metropolitan Area of Queretaro (MAQ) is a significant industrial hub in central Mexico whose air quality, including high concentrations of particulate matter (PM), poses a risk to the population. However, there have not been many studies on the sources and processes that [...] Read more.

The Metropolitan Area of Queretaro (MAQ) is a significant industrial hub in central Mexico whose air quality, including high concentrations of particulate matter (PM), poses a risk to the population. However, there have not been many studies on the sources and processes that influence the concentration of atmospheric pollutants. We used aerosol chemical composition and meteorological data from 1 January to 15 May 2022, along with back-trajectory modeling, to investigate emission sources not previously described in the region and the impact of local and regional meteorology on the chemical composition of aerosols. Furthermore, this study presents the first quantitative analysis of nitroaromatic compounds (NACs) in particulate matter in the MAQ using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry. The NAC concentrations ranged from 0.086 to 3.618 ng m⁻³, with the highest concentrations occurring during a period of atmospheric stability. The secondary inorganic and organic fractions of the PM were the most abundant (50%) of the PM concentration throughout the campaign. Local and regional meteorology played a significant role in the variability of PM chemical composition, as it influenced oxidation and transport processes. The results reveal that emissions from biomass burning are a recurrent PM source, and regional emissions significantly impact the organic fraction of the PM. These results underscore the importance of considering both local and regional sources in assessing air pollution in the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aerosols)

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11 pages, 4042 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of ERA5-Land Reanalysis Precipitation Data in the Qilian Mountains of China

by Lihui Qian and Peng Zhao

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 826; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070826 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 64

Abstract

Precipitation serves as a crucial indicator of climate change and a vital part of the water cycle in mountainous regions. ERA5-Land, a cutting-edge global reanalysis dataset designed for land applications, has been extensively utilized in climate-related studies. In this research, we assessed the [...] Read more.

Precipitation serves as a crucial indicator of climate change and a vital part of the water cycle in mountainous regions. ERA5-Land, a cutting-edge global reanalysis dataset designed for land applications, has been extensively utilized in climate-related studies. In this research, we assessed the reliability of ERA5-Land monthly averaged reanalysis precipitation data in the Qilian Mountains (QLM). We did this by comparing it with the observations from 17 meteorological stations spanning from 1979 to 2017. The findings indicated that, overall, the ERA5-Land reanalysis precipitation data tended to overestimate the observed precipitation in the Qilian Mountains. The determination coefficient (R²) of the linear regression between ERA5-Land reanalysis precipitation and the observations was 0.97. This value implies that ERA5-Land reanalysis precipitation generally has good applicability in the Qilian Mountains. However, the annual-scale root mean square error (RMSE) was 3.97. This suggests that ERA5-Land reanalysis precipitation data cannot be directly applied to studies at a single meteorological station. The deviation between the ERA5-Land reanalysis precipitation data and the observed precipitation data can be ascribed to the altitude difference between meteorological stations and ERA5-Land grid points. Generally, as the altitude difference between meteorological stations and ERA5-Land grid points increases, the precipitation deviation also rises. This research can furnish a reference for the application of ERA5-Land reanalysis precipitation data in the Qilian Mountains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)

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13 pages, 2769 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Vertical Redistribution of Electron Density in Ionosphere During an X-Class Solar Flare Using GNSS Data

by Susanna Bekker

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 825; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070825 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 124

Abstract

The impact of solar flares on the Earth’s ionosphere has been studied for many decades using both experimental and theoretical approaches. However, the accuracy of predicting ionospheric layer dynamics in response to variations in solar radiation remains limited. In particular, understanding the vertical [...] Read more.

The impact of solar flares on the Earth’s ionosphere has been studied for many decades using both experimental and theoretical approaches. However, the accuracy of predicting ionospheric layer dynamics in response to variations in solar radiation remains limited. In particular, understanding the vertical redistribution of charged particles in the ionosphere during flares with different spectral characteristics presents a significant challenge. In this study, a method is presented for reconstructing the temporal evolution of the vertical electron concentration (

N e

) profile based on GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) measurements of total electron content along partially illuminated satellite-receiver paths. Using this method, vertical profiles of

N e

were reconstructed during various phases of the X13.3-class solar flare that occurred on 6 September 2017. The resulting profiles correctly respond to the observed variations in solar extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation. This indicates that the method can be effectively applied to analyse other powerful solar events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Upper Atmosphere (2nd Edition))

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12 pages, 1858 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Botanical Studies Based on Textual Evidence in Eastern Asia and Its Implications for the Ancient Climate

by Haiming Liu, Huijia Song, Fei Duan and Liang Shen

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 824; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070824 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 112

Abstract

Understanding morphological descriptions of plants documented by ancient peoples over 1000 years ago and identifying the species they described are critical for reconstructing the natural geographic distribution of plant taxa, tracking taxonomic variations, and inferring historical climate dynamics. Analyzing shifts in plant communities [...] Read more.

Understanding morphological descriptions of plants documented by ancient peoples over 1000 years ago and identifying the species they described are critical for reconstructing the natural geographic distribution of plant taxa, tracking taxonomic variations, and inferring historical climate dynamics. Analyzing shifts in plant communities and climatic conditions during this period is essential to unravel the interplay among floristic composition, climate fluctuations, and anthropogenic impacts. However, research in this field remains limited, with greater emphasis placed on plant taxa from hundreds of millions of years ago. Investigations into flora and climate during the last two millennia are sparse, and pre-millennial climatic conditions remain poorly characterized. In this study, a historical text written 1475 years ago was analyzed to compile plant names and morphological features, followed by taxonomic identification. The research identified three gymnosperm species (one in Pinaceae, two in Cupressaceae), 1 Tamaricaceae species (dicotyledon), and 19 dicotyledon species. However, three plant groups could only be identified at the genus level. Using textual analysis and woody plant coexistence methods, the climate of 1475 years ago in western Henan Province, located in the middle-lower Yellow River basin in East Asia, was reconstructed. Results indicate that the mean temperature of the coldest month (MTCM) was approximately 1.3 °C higher than modern values. In comparison, the mean temperature of the warmest month (MTWM) and mean annual temperature (MAT) were lower than present-day levels. This suggests slightly cooler overall conditions with milder seasonal extremes in ancient Luoyang—a finding supported by contemporaneous studies. Furthermore, annual precipitation (AP), precipitation of the warmest quarter (PWQ), and precipitation of the coldest quarter (PCQ) in the Luoyang region 1475 years ago exceeded modern measurements, despite the area’s monsoonal climate. This suggests significantly higher atmospheric moisture content in ancient air masses compared to today. This study provides floristic and climatic baseline data for advancing our understanding of global climate variability at millennial scales. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Climatology)

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18 pages, 939 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimates of Isotope Ratios in the Magnetosphere and Implications for Implantation of Atmosphere in Lunar Regolith

by James R. Lyons and Sarah Uddin

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 823; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070823 - 7 Jul 2025

Viewed by 137

Abstract

The plasma in Earth’s magnetosphere is comprised of ions from the solar wind and from Earth’s polar wind, with the orientation of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) acting to modulate the relative contributions from these two sources. Although ion composition and charge state [...] Read more.

The plasma in Earth’s magnetosphere is comprised of ions from the solar wind and from Earth’s polar wind, with the orientation of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) acting to modulate the relative contributions from these two sources. Although ion composition and charge state are strong indicators of ion provenance, here we consider isotope ratios as a possible additional method for tracing plasma provenance. Solar wind isotope ratios have been well characterized, but isotope ratios have not been measured for magnetospheric plasma, and only a few measurements have been made for Earth’s ionosphere. Accounting for diffusive separation in the ionosphere, and using a magnetospheric source flux model, we estimate isotope ratios for several light ions (H⁺, He⁺, N⁺ and O⁺) in the magnetosphere. The primary source of N and O magnetospheric ions is the polar wind, and He ions come primarily from the solar wind. H ions come from both polar and solar winds. The extreme diffusive separation of O⁺ isotopes argues against the polar wind as a significant source of O to the lunar regolith during the passage of the Moon through the magnetotail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Space-Based Exploration on Space Plasma)

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17 pages, 4778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence and Atmospheric Patterns Associated with Individual and Compound Heatwave–Ozone Events in São Paulo Megacity

by Vanessa Silveira Barreto Carvalho, Paola do Nascimento Silva, Aline Araújo de Freitas, Vitor Lucas dos Santos Rosa Tenório, Michelle Simões Reboita, Taciana Toledo de Almeida Albuquerque and Leila Droprinchinski Martins

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070822 - 6 Jul 2025

Viewed by 182

Abstract

High ozone (O₃) concentrations are frequently recorded in São Paulo Megacity, with extreme O₃ levels often linked to high temperatures and heatwaves, phenomena expected to intensify with climate change. The co-occurrence of extreme O₃ and heatwaves poses amplified risks [...] Read more.

High ozone (O₃) concentrations are frequently recorded in São Paulo Megacity, with extreme O₃ levels often linked to high temperatures and heatwaves, phenomena expected to intensify with climate change. The co-occurrence of extreme O₃ and heatwaves poses amplified risks to environmental and human health. Hence, this study aims to analyze individual and compound extreme O₃ and heatwave events and assess the associated atmospheric patterns. Hourly O₃ and temperature (T) data from 20 sites (1998–2023) were used to calculate the maximum daily 8 h average O₃ (MD8A-O₃) and maximum daily temperature (Tmax). The Mann–Kendall test identified trends for these variables. The 90th percentile of data from September to March defined thresholds for extreme events. Events were classified as extreme when MD8A-O₃ and Tmax exceeded their thresholds for at least six consecutive days. ERA5 data were used to evaluate atmospheric patterns during these events. The results show positive trends in MD8A-O₃ in 62% of sites, with values exceeding WHO Air Quality Guidelines, alongside positive Tmax trends in 90% of sites. Over the study period, four compound events, seven heatwaves, and four extreme O₃ events were identified. Compound and individual events were associated with the South America Subtropical Anticyclone and positive temperature anomalies. Individual O₃ events were linked to cold anomalies south of 30° S and positive geopotential height anomalies at 850 hPa. These findings highlight the increasing occurrence of extreme O₃ and heatwaves in São Paulo and their atmospheric drivers, offering insights to enhance awareness, forecasting, and policy responses to mitigate health and environmental impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)

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23 pages, 31371 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluations of GPM IMERG-Late Satellite Precipitation Product for Extreme Precipitation Events in Zhejiang Province

by Ruijin Zhu, Zhe Lv, Muzhi Li, Jiaxi Wu, Meiying Dong and Huiyan Xu

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070821 - 6 Jul 2025

Viewed by 184

Abstract

In recent years, satellite products have played an increasingly significant role in monitoring and estimating global extreme weather events, owing to their advantages of an excellent spatiotemporal continuity and broad coverage. This study systematically evaluates the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Integrated Multi-Satellite Retrievals [...] Read more.

In recent years, satellite products have played an increasingly significant role in monitoring and estimating global extreme weather events, owing to their advantages of an excellent spatiotemporal continuity and broad coverage. This study systematically evaluates the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Integrated Multi-Satellite Retrievals for the GPM Late Run (IMERG-L) product for regional precipitation events based on the observations in Zhejiang Province from 2001 to 2020. In this study, seven typical precipitation indices with seven accuracy evaluation indexes are applied to analyze the performance of IMERG-L from multiple perspectives in terms of the precipitation intensity, frequency and spatial distribution dimensions. The results show that IMERG-L is capable of capturing the spatial distribution trends, especially in the frequency-based precipitation indices (CWD, R10mm and R20mm), which can depict the regional wetness and precipitation pattern. However, the product suffers from a systematic overestimation in capturing heavy precipitation and an extreme precipitation intensity, with a high false alarm rate and unstable accuracy, especially in heavy rainfall and above class events, where the Probability of Detection (POD) drops significantly, showing an obvious reduction in the recognition capability and risk of misclassification. Specifically, IMERG-L failed to reproduce the observed eastward-increasing trends in the annual maximum precipitation for both one-day (RX1day) and five-day (RX5day) durations, demonstrating its limitations in accurately capturing extreme precipitation patterns across Zhejiang Province. Overall, furthering the optimization and improvement of IMERG-L in reducing the intensity-dependent biases in heavy rainfall detection, increasing spatial inhomogeneity in trend representations and improving the false alarm suppression for extreme events are needed for the accurate monitoring and quantitative estimation of high-intensity extreme precipitation events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Atmospheric Techniques, Instruments, and Modeling)

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24 pages, 17002 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Air Mass Advection and Solar Radiation in Modulating Air Temperature Anomalies in Poland

by Olga Zawadzka-Mańko and Krzysztof M. Markowicz

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070820 - 5 Jul 2025

Viewed by 220

Abstract

This study examines the roles of air mass advection and solar radiation in shaping daily air temperature anomalies in Warsaw, Poland, from 2008 to 2023. It integrates solar radiation data, HYSPLIT back-trajectories, air temperature measurements, and machine learning methods, which are key atmospheric [...] Read more.

This study examines the roles of air mass advection and solar radiation in shaping daily air temperature anomalies in Warsaw, Poland, from 2008 to 2023. It integrates solar radiation data, HYSPLIT back-trajectories, air temperature measurements, and machine learning methods, which are key atmospheric factors contributing to temperature anomalies in different seasons. Radiation dominates during warm seasons, while advection-related geographic factors are more influential during winter. Increased solar radiation is observed across all seasons during high-positive temperature anomalies (exceeding two standard deviations). In contrast, cold anomalies in summer are accompanied by strong negative solar radiation anomalies (−136.3 W/m²), while winter cold events may still coincide with positive radiation anomalies (25.7 W/m²). Very slow circulation over Central Europe, which occurs twice as often in summer as in winter, leads to positive temperature (1.3 °C) and negative radiation (−2.1 W/m²) anomalies in summer and to negative temperature (−1.9 °C) anomalies and slightly positive radiation (0.3 W/m²) anomalies in winter. The seasonal variability in the spatial origin of air masses reflects shifts in synoptic-scale circulation patterns. These findings highlight the importance of considering the combined influence of radiative and advective processes in driving temperature extremes and their seasonal dynamics in mid-latitude climates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)

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23 pages, 1622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Beneficial Spatial Spillover Effects of China’s Carbon Emissions Trading System on Air Quality

by Diwei Zheng and Daxin Dong

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 819; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070819 - 5 Jul 2025

Viewed by 162

Abstract

Between 2013 and 2020, China had implemented a pilot cap-and-trade carbon emissions trading system (ETS) in some cities. Previous research has reported that this policy significantly reduces air pollution in the policy-implementing districts. However, whether and to what extent there are spatial spillover [...] Read more.

Between 2013 and 2020, China had implemented a pilot cap-and-trade carbon emissions trading system (ETS) in some cities. Previous research has reported that this policy significantly reduces air pollution in the policy-implementing districts. However, whether and to what extent there are spatial spillover effects of this policy on air pollution in other regions has not been sufficiently analyzed. The research objective of this study is to quantitatively assess the spatial spillover effects of China’s carbon ETS on air pollution. Based on data from 288 Chinese cities between 2005 and 2020, this study employs a multiple linear regression approach to estimate the policy effects. Our study finds that the policy significantly reduces the concentrations of black carbon (BC), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), organic carbon (OC), particulate matter less than 1 micron in size (PM₁), fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), and particulate matter less than 10 microns in size (PM₁₀) in non-ETS regions. This indicates that the carbon ETS has beneficial impacts on air quality beyond the areas where the policy was implemented. The heterogeneity tests reveal that the beneficial spatial spillover effects of the ETS can be observed across cities with different levels of industrialization, population density, economic development, resource endowments, and geographical locations. Further mechanism analyses show that although the policy does not affect the degree of environmental regulation in other regions, it promotes green innovation, low-carbon energy transition, and industrial structure upgrading there, which explains the observed spatial spillover effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution in China (4th Edition))

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19 pages, 3093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Developing a Composite Drought Indicator Using PCA Integration of CHIRPS Rainfall, Temperature, and Vegetation Health Products for Agricultural Drought Monitoring in New Mexico

by Bishal Poudel, Dewasis Dahal, Sujan Shrestha, Roshan Sewa and Ajay Kalra

Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070818 - 4 Jul 2025

Viewed by 187

Abstract

Drought indices are important resources for monitoring and warning of drought impacts. However, regions like New Mexico, which are highly vulnerable to drought, as identified by the United States Drought Monitor (USDM), lack a comprehensive drought monitoring system that integrates multiple agrometeorological variables [...] Read more.

Drought indices are important resources for monitoring and warning of drought impacts. However, regions like New Mexico, which are highly vulnerable to drought, as identified by the United States Drought Monitor (USDM), lack a comprehensive drought monitoring system that integrates multiple agrometeorological variables into a single indicator. The purpose of this study is to create a Combined Drought Indicator for New Mexico (CDI-NM) as an indicator tool for use in monitoring historical drought events and measuring its extent across the New Mexico. The CDI-NM was constructed using four key variables: the Vegetation Condition Index (VCI), temperature, Smoothed Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (SMN), and gridded rainfall data. A quantitative approach was used to assign weights to these variables employing Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to produce the CDI-NM. Unlike conventional indices, CDI-NM assigns weights to each variable based on their statistical contributions, allowing the index to adapt to local spatial and temporal drought dynamics. The performance of CDI-NM was evaluated against gridded rainfall data using the 3-month Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI3) over a 17-year period (2003–2019). The results revealed that CDI-NM reliably detected moderate and severe droughts with a strong correlation (R² > 0.8 and RMSE = 0.10) between both indices for the entire period of analysis. CDI-NM showed negative correlation (r < 0) with crop yield. While promising, the method assumes linear relationships among variables and consistent spatial resolution in the input datasets, which may affect its accuracy under certain local conditions. Based on the results, the CDI-NM stands out as a promising instrument that brings us closer to improved decision-making by stakeholders in the fight against agricultural droughts throughout New Mexico. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Footprints of Drought: Focusing on Emerging Issues and Their Underlying Mechanisms (2nd Edition))

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Atmosphere, Volume 16, Issue 7 (July 2025) – 97 articles

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