Next Article in Journal
Long-Term Integrated Measurements of Aerosol Microphysical Properties to Study Different Combustion Processes at a Coastal Semi-Rural Site in Southern Italy
Previous Article in Journal
Estimating Urban Linear Heat (UHIULI) Effect Along Road Typologies Using Spatial Analysis and GAM Approach
Previous Article in Special Issue
Long-Term Caragana korshinskii Restoration Enhances SOC Stability but Reduces Sequestration Efficiency over 40 Years in Degraded Loess Soils
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Atmosphere
Volume 16
Issue 7
10.3390/atmos16070865
atmosphere-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Spatiotemporal Patterns of Hongshan Culture Settlements in Relation to Middle Holocene Climatic Fluctuation in the Horqin Dune Field, Northeast China

by
Wenping Xue
1,*,
Heling Jin
2,*,
Wen Shang
1 and
Jing Zhang
1
1
School of Management, Northwest Minzu University, Baiyin Road, Lanzhou 730000, China
2
Key Laboratory of Desert and Desertification, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Donggang West Road, Lanzhou 730000, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Atmosphere 2025, 16(7), 865; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070865
Submission received: 30 April 2025 / Revised: 14 June 2025 / Accepted: 7 July 2025 / Published: 16 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Desert Climate and Environmental Change: From Past to Present)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Given the increasing challenges posed by frequent extreme climatic events, understanding the climate–human connection between the climate system and the transitions of ancient civilizations is crucial for addressing future climatic challenges, especially when examining the relationship between the abrupt events of the Holocene and the Neolithic culture development. Compared with the globally recognized “4.2 ka collapse” of ancient cultures, the initial start time and the cultural significance of the 5.5 ka climatic fluctuation are more complex and ambiguous. The Hongshan culture (6.5–5.0 ka) is characterized by a complicated society evident in its grand public architecture and elaborate high-status tombs. However, the driving mechanisms behind cultural changes remain complex and subject to ongoing debate. This paper delves into the role of climatic change in Hongshan cultural shifts, presenting an integrated dataset that combines climatic proxy records with archaeological data from the Hongshan culture period. Based on synthesized aeolian, fluvial-lacustrine, loess, and stalagmite deposits, the study indicates a relatively cold and dry climatic fluctuation occurred during ~6.0–5.5 ka, which is widespread in the Horqin dune field and adjacent areas. Combining spatial analysis with ArcGis 10.8 on archaeological sites, we propose that the climatic fluctuation between ~6.0–5.5 ka likely triggered the migration of the Hongshan settlements and adjustment of survival strategies.

1. Introduction

Understanding the climate system and interpreting the dynamics of ancient societies largely hinges on reconstructing climatic fluctuations during the Holocene, especially given the rising threat of frequent extreme weather phenomena that have historically exerted a profound influence on human habitats [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]. The Holocene epoch is marked by significant variability, frequently punctuated by widespread abrupt events spanning multi-decadal to centennial timescales with varying magnitudes, and which may have been important factors in the rise and fall of ancient civilizations, including those in Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia (the Indus-Sarasvati region), northern China, and coastal Peru [6,7,9,10].
The middle Holocene climatic fluctuation refers to climatic shifts occurring between 6000 and 5000 calibrated years before the present (cal BP). In comparison to research on the 4.2 ka abrupt climate event, the initial start time and the cultural implications of the middle Holocene climatic fluctuation are more intricate and less clearly defined [6,7,8,9,11,12,13,14,15]. Magny and Hass synthesized 44 proxy indicators from both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, drawing on terrestrial and marine data. Their analysis suggested that the prevailing climate conditions during the 5.6–5.0 ka period were cold and dry [11]. In China, synthesized data from 49 sites, including fluvial-lacustrine, loess, stalagmite, an ice core, and marine records, manifest prominent climatic fluctuations between 6000 and 5000 cal BP, which are identical to the synthesized records along the monsoonal boundary zone in Northern China [8,15]. In eastern China, precisely dated isotopic records from speleothems pinpoint the ecological upheaval to around 6.3 and 5.7 ka, exhibiting a dual-declining pattern similar to the amplitude changes observed during the 8.2 ka and 4.2 events [13].
Occurrences of drought are often associated with the collapse of civilizations, as seen in the decline of the Akkadian Empire, the end of Egypt’s Old Kingdom approximately 2000 years ago, and the downfall of the Mayan civilization [4,7,16,17]. Northeastern China, one of the cradles of Chinese Neolithic Culture, has garnered significant attention over the past decade [2,14,18,19,20]. This culture is renowned for its monumental public structures and elaborate elite burial practices, which are linked to the widespread use of jade at ritual sites, such as Niuheliang and Dongshanzui, dating back to around 5500 cal BP [14,21,22,23,24,25]. Pronounced increases in social complexity in the middle-late Hongshan coincided with climatic and environmental deterioration, and in particular with increased aridity [2]. Social complexity is manifested in the emergence of social stratification, the trend of burying weapons as grave goods, and the appearance of fortified settlements [26]. The rise of complex societies may stem not only from societal development but also from resource stress and redistribution triggered by climate change [6]. This societal stress, rooted in the population size established before the Holocene Optimum of around 5500 cal BP, was exacerbated by the event’s impact on agriculture and human survival strategies, potentially driving increased societal complexity [2,6]. An analysis of the late Yangshao culture site at Xishan in Zhengzhou reveals a surge in pottery diversity, with farming, fishing, and hunting as key survival strategies [27]. The city’s primary function was to defend against external threats, thereby protecting its community’s resources and wealth [27]. Climate changes acted as a significant catalyst for the transformation of ancient civilizations in the Hexi Corridor, prompting early communities to migrate from elevations of 2500 m to lower altitudes [28].
However, integrated and comprehensive research examining the relationship between the emergence of complex societies and climate remains scarce [14,18,29,30]. Robust data on climatic change patterns, combined with insights into the geographical distribution of ancient human settlements, are crucial for deepening our understanding of how climate influenced human adaptation throughout the Holocene epoch, as well as for informing strategies that promote the enduring progress of human societies. Employing synthesized climatic data (Table 1) and GIS-based spatial analysis, this study investigates the link between mid-Holocene climatic fluctuation and the change in spatiotemporal distribution of Neolithic Hongshan cultures in the Western Liao River, Northeastern China. Applying systematic analysis of comprehensive digital archaeological data, we expect to address a critical research gap in understanding cultural dynamics relative to climatic variations [31,32].

2. Study Areas

The Horqin dune field (42°40′–45°15′ N, 118°30′–124°30′ E; 120–800 m above sea level), with an area of 21.68 × 104 km2, is located in the Asian summer monsoonal boundary (ASMB), which represents a region significantly influenced by climatic variations, characterized by the convergence of agricultural and pastoral environments, a zone that is ecologically sensitive [50,51,52]. The landscape is dominated by stable and semi-stabilized dunes, interspersed with expansive meadows between sand ridges. The Western Liaohe River and its numerous tributaries, including the Xilamulun River to the west, the Jiaolai and Laoha rivers to the south, and the Xinkai and Ulijimulun rivers to the north, flow through this region. Moreover, low-lying areas are dotted with several ponds and lakes, a result of ongoing shifts or alterations in ancient waterways [53,54,55]. The current climatic regime, controlled by the ASMB system, is of a temperate semi-arid type, featuring prolonged, cold winters with little snowfall, dry and windy springs, hot summers with concentrated rainfall, and sudden autumnal cooling often accompanied by early frosts [54]. The region experiences an annual mean temperature between 3 and 7 °C, with mean annual precipitation varying from 350 to 500 mm, approximately 70% of which occurs during summer. Predominant soil types are chestnut, chernozem, and chestnut-brown soils, while the vegetation predominantly comprises sparse forest-steppe. Prolonged agricultural intensification and excessive pressure gradually pushed the landscape toward a desert-steppe transition [56] (Figure 1).

3. Material and Methods

3.1. Synthesis of Holocene Aeolian Dated Records from the Horqin Dune Field

Precipitation is the dominant factor for dune activity and vegetation distribution in the ASMB. The paleosols deposits are characteristic of intervals of a relatively warm and wet climate; while aeolian sand and loess are indicators of a dry and cold climate [52,57,58,59]. In this study, we first compiled aeolian sequences that had been previously documented in the literature and from our own prior research [32,50]. Our own prior research included XJM, YXM, and TL profiles. The characteristics of typical eolian depositional strata can reflect climatic changes (Figure 2). A total of 231 optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dates has been obtained from 63 different stratigraphic profiles. Previously published data from the 11.7 ka age in the Horqin dune field has been incorporated into the dataset. A complete list of all OSL ages used in this study is presented in the Supplementary Table S1. The dataset offers a comprehensive compilation of the OSL ages used in this study. It is important to emphasize that the OSL ages selected for analysis are genuine and determined through luminescence techniques. To uphold data integrity, every OSL age was rigorously verified. Ages that deviated from the expected stratigraphic sequence were excluded from the analysis.
All 231 overall OSL ages from 63 sections since 11.7 ka are divided for each time slice in the Horqin dune field, and the activation ratio and stabilization ratio are calculated as follows: activation ratio = number of aeolian dated records/total dated records of each time slice, while the stabilization ratio = number of paleosol dated records/total dated records. The spatiotemporal patterns of sand and paleosol development can be observed in the study area, as illustrated in Figure 3.

3.2. Synthesis of Other Proxy Records in Northeastern China and Adjacent Regions

To reconstruct climatic fluctuations during the approximately 6.0–5.0 ka period, we systematically compiled published paleoenvironmental records from lacustrine sediments, stalagmites, and pollen sequences across Northeastern China and its surrounding areas. The complete dataset for these stratigraphic sections is provided in Table 1.

3.3. Archaeological Data: Sources and Mapping

A Neolithic archaeological database has been established and published [31,61], facilitating a deeper understanding of the evolution of Chinese civilization. The archaeological data for this study was sourced from published literature, including the dataset accessible at https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.860072 (accessed on 6 June 2019) and “Atlas of Chinese Cultural Relics”. Our focus was on conducting a statistical analysis of archaeological sites within the West Liaohe River basin, encompassing the entire Hongshan cultural period. We employed ArcGIS 10.8’s spatial analysis tools to process the archaeological site data, thereby elucidating the evolving patterns of the geographical environment and the spatiotemporal distribution of these sites.
GIS spatial analysis includes density mapping, distance mapping, surface analysis, and reclassification [62]. The specific methods employed in this study are kernel density, direction distribution, average nearest neighbor, landform type, slope, and spectrum analysis:
(1)
Kernel Density Analysis: Using the “Kernel Density Analysis” tool in ArcGIS 10.8, with a search radius set to 5 km, kernel density analysis was conducted on the early (6.5–6.0 ka) and middle-late (6.0–5.0 ka) Hongshan Culture archaeological sites in the study area to reflect the continuity of site density changes. A higher kernel density value indicates greater point concentration [62].
(2)
Directional Distribution: The directional distribution describes quantitatively and qualitatively the spatial characteristics of archaeological sites, including centrality and directionality. Parameters such as the mean center, semi-major/minor axes, and directional angle visually depict geographic elements. The movement of the mean center indicates the overall directional shift. The major axis represents the distribution direction of cultural sites, and the minor axis indicates dispersion [63,64].
(3)
Average Nearest Neighbor: The average nearest neighbor analysis evaluates the spatial distribution pattern of sites by comparing the ratio of the observed average distance between each site and its nearest neighbor to the expected average distance. This effectively reflects the spatial distribution features of the sites [65].
(4)
Landform Types: By integrating elevation and topographical data in ArcGIS, the study reconstructed a landform map of the research area, reflecting ground undulation characteristics and representing altitude and surface fragmentation [66,67].
(5)
Slope: Typically used to assess the steepness of the terrain, slopes were classified into five categories based on a standard slope classification table [66,67].
(6)
Aspect: For archaeological sites, the aspect refers to the horizontal angle between the projected normal vector of a slope and true north (0°/360°). ArcGIS 10.8’s default aspect classification includes nine categories. Each interval spans 45° (excluding flat areas), measured clockwise. For further analysis, aspects were reclassified into high sunlight exposure, moderate sunlight exposure, low sunlight exposure, and poor sunlight exposure [66,67].

4. Results

4.1. Climatic Fluctuation During 6.5–5.0 ka Indicated by Aeolian Deposits in Horqin Dune Field

Preserved aeolian sands and sandy paleosols offer direct indicators of dune mobilization and stabilization cycles in sandy land. Paleosol formation specifically indicates periods of relatively warm and humid climate, while the accumulation of aeolian sands and loess point to arid and cold climatic regimes [52,57,68,69]. Figure 2 and Figure 3 depict the spatiotemporal distribution of dune mobility and stability in the Horqin dune field. The locations of the HXT, XJM, TL, and TQ sections in the Horqin dune field are illustrated in Figure 1, while Figure 2 provides descriptions of their stratigraphic sequences. The HXT section comprises three distinct units: aeolian sand (750–665 cm and 160–10 cm), sandy loess (665–470 cm), and sandy paleosols (470–160 cm). The XJM and TL sections consist of two units: aeolian sand (500–350 cm, 170–135 cm, and 100–20 cm) and sandy paleosols in the XJM section (350–170 cm and 135–100 cm), as well as aeolian (671–531 cm, 503–493 cm, 421–411 cm, 315–305 cm, 265–260 cm, 212–188 cm, 112–92 cm, 64–40 cm, and 28–10 cm) and sandy paleosols (571–503 cm, 493–421 cm, 411–315 cm, 305–265 cm, 260–212 cm, 188–112 cm, 92–64 cm, and 40–28 cm) in the TL section. The TQ section is characterized by two main lithological units: eolian sands (520–500 cm, 390–370 cm, and 290–280 cm) and sandy paleosols (500–390 cm, 370–290 cm, 280–130 cm, and 130–0 cm) [60]. Dating of the aeolian sand strata from the HXT (160–10 cm), XJM (500–350 cm), TL (503–493 cm), and TQ (370–290 cm) profiles yielded ages of 6.7 ± 0.5–5.0 ± 0.4 ka, 6.6 ± 0.5–5.9 ± 0.5 ka, 5.6 ± 0.08–5.5 ± 0.1 ka, and 5.6 ± 0.46 ka, respectively, corresponding to a cold, dry climate condition (Figure 2) [60]. In contrast to the warm and humid climate indicated by the early paleosols, the deposition of aeolian sand during the approximately 6.0–5.5 ka period suggests climate oscillation.
However, individual or localized dune sections possess limited capacity to document the comprehensive evolutionary history of sandy landscapes. Employing multi-section stratigraphic analysis combined with high-resolution optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating offers an effective methodological approach to tackle the inherent discontinuity in aeolian depositional records, thereby enabling the reconstruction of a more complete chronology of sandy land development [70]. In the Horqin dune field, all 231 OSL ages from 63 sections, dating back to 11.7 ka, are categorized for each time slice, and the activation and stabilization ratios are calculated as mentioned above. The spatiotemporal patterns of sand and paleosol development in the study are illustrated in Figure 3. From 11.7 to 6.0 ka, the ratio of paleosol development increased from 34% to 63%, while the activation ratio decreased from 66% to 37%. During the 6.0–5.0 ka period, the ratio of aeolian sand to paleosol development was 65% to 35%, indicating a greater prevalence of aeolian sand. After 5.0 ka, the percentage of paleosol reached a maximum of over 90% and remained so until 2.0 ka. Since 2.0 ka, dune activity has become more frequent.

4.2. Climatic Fluctuation During 6.0–5.0 ka Indicated by Other Records in Northeastern China and Adjacent Regions

Table 1 provides a partial summary of synthesized climatic fluctuations from published literature on stalagmite and fluvial-lacustrine records. Overall, the climate during this period was the warmest and wettest of all Holocene stages, save for a few brief cold-dry episodes, such as one occurring around 6.0 ka. During this anomalous event, precipitation dropped below 400 mm, the mean annual temperature fell below 4.58 °C, and the mean warm-season temperature decreased below 19.8 °C. In contrast, the prevailing climatic conditions were characterized by precipitation exceeding 450 mm, mean annual temperature above 5.58 °C, and mean warm-season temperature surpassing 19.78 °C in the Daihai Lake area [49]. Research on Bayanchagan Lake has reconstructed Holocene climate parameters, indicating a drier and colder climate after 5.5 ka [71]. From 6.2 to 3 ka, the TOC content stayed at a relatively low level (~0.5%), and the Rb/Sr ratio fluctuated between about 0.2 and 0.3, representing relatively low moisture conditions [45] (Figure 4j).
In Hulun Lake, the decline in the percentage of Artemisia pollen and the rise in the proportion of Chenopodiaceae pollen between 6400–4400 cal. BP indicate a drying climate [33], and this period also saw a reduction in birch forests and an expansion of pine forests in the surrounding mountains. The reconstructed climate record shows a slight decrease in Pa, with values fluctuating around 330 mm. Mean annual temperature and mean warm-season temperature dropped to ~0.1 °C and 16.21 °C [33] (Figure 4a). Hulun Lake experienced low water levels during the intervals of 6.6–5.8 Ka BP [34] (Figure 4b). Pollen records from Jinbo Lake sediments show notable shifts in vegetation, reflecting climatic variations during the mid-Holocene. Before 6100 cal. BP, the region was predominantly covered by broad-leaved deciduous forests, dominated by Quercus, Fraxinus, and Betula, suggesting warm climatic conditions. From 6100 and 5600 cal. BP, there was a significant decrease in deciduous taxa, coupled with a rise in Pinus abundance, indicating a transition from pure deciduous forests to mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. After 5600 cal. BP, the development of stable mixed forests with a co-dominance of Pinus, Quercus, and Betula reflects a gradual decline in the intensity of the Asian summer monsoon [36] (Figure 4c). Principal components analysis on the pollen percentages represents cold-dry climatic conditions after 5.7 ka in Xilongwan Maar Lake, whereas negative sample scores of principal components analysis represent warm-humid conditions before 9.2–5.7 ka [14]. In the Jinchuan peat, the early Holocene vegetation was dominated by broad-leaved deciduous forests. Around 5500 cal B.P., a gradual shift in plant composition took place, marked by an increasing abundance of coniferous taxa, primarily Pinus, and a corresponding decline in broad-leaved deciduous components, particularly Quercus, Juglans, and Ulmus-Zelkova. This trend peaked when the coniferous pollen fraction, dominated by Pinus, reached its highest level in the record, while broad-leaved deciduous pollen types hit their lowest values [39] (Figure 4e). Sensitive grain-size component records from Hani peat and Gushantun show a sharp decline in the 37.0–497.8 μm component, which is linked to the strengthening of the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM), and these findings align well with other paleoenvironmental records, such as stalagmite δ18O records from Nuanhe Cave in the East Asian monsoon area, indicating weak monsoon events occurred at 6.5 ka and 5.5 ka [40,43] (Figure 4f–h). Pollen evidence from Dali Lake indicates significant mid-Holocene vegetation changes in the Hunshandake area after 6000 cal BP. A decline in the proportions of Ulmus and Ephedra pollen signals a distinct expansion of shrubland vegetation. Meanwhile, the continued prevalence of Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae assemblages reveals the widespread formation of dry steppe communities across both hilly areas and lacustrine plains. These vegetation shifts coincided with a gradual decrease in Pinus and Betula pollen concentrations, clearly illustrating the slow retreat of montane forest ecosystems during this period [44] (Figure 4i). Pollen and oxygen-isotope records from Taishizhuang reveal that the climate between 5.6–5.4 ka was unstable, generally colder, and drier than the present [48]. In the Loess Profile of Luochuan, Shaanxi Province, the development of the paleosol during the period of 6000–5000 years ago was relatively weak compared to earlier paleosols, with a noticeable coarsening of the grain size, which indicates that the period was characterized by a deterioration of the environment, marked by colder and drier climate conditions and heightened sandstorm activities [72].
In the Zhenjiang area of the Yangtze River Delta Plain, between 5800 and 5600 years ago, forests were predominantly pine-oak woodlands, with Pinus as the main component and Quercus as a secondary one. The presence of a small number of dry-cool species like Ephedra and Tsuga, suggests a significant temperature drop during that period [73].

4.3. Spatiotemporal Pattern of Hongshan Culture Archaeological Sites

In the Horqin dune field and adjacent areas, 1236 archaeological sites dating from 6.5–5.0 ka and associated with the Hongshan Culture have been identified. All the archaeological site data were imported into ArcGIS 10.8 to analyze the spatiotemporal distribution of these ancient human activity sites and their relationship with the geographical environment.
The distribution of archaeological sites during the 6.5–6.0 ka and 6.0–5.0 ka periods are presented in Figure 5. Archaeological sites dating from 6.5 to 6.0 ka are primarily distributed in the western southern Horqin dune field, as well as the eastern and northern foothills of the Greater Khingan Mountains and Yanshan Mountains, especially in the West Liao River Basin and its tributaries, as presented in Figure 5(a-1), while archaeological sites dating from 6.0 to 5.0 ka are mainly distributed in the southeastern edge of the Horqin dune field, the Liaohe Plain, and the surrounding hilly areas, as presented in Figure 5(a-2). By applying kernel density analysis, mean center analysis, and directional distribution evolution analysis in ArcGIS, we could achieve a more in-depth understanding of the spatiotemporal patterns of Hongshan archaeological sites during 6.5–6.0 ka and 6.0–5.0 ka. A higher kernel density value signifies a denser distribution of archaeological sites, while a lower value indicates a sparser distribution of site points. During the early Hongshan period, the kernel density values ranged from 0 to 0.2 (Figure 5(b-1)), suggesting that archaeological sites were more densely clustered than in the middle-late Hongshan period, which ranged from 0 to 0.0049 (Figure 5(b-2)). Data on the evolution of the mean center and directional distribution indicate that in the early Hongshan cultural period, the center was situated in the southwestern area of the Horqin dune field and the surrounding foothill areas, as depicted in Figure 5(c-1). During the mid-late Hongshan period, it migrated towards the Liaohe Plain and the southeastern area of the Horqin dune field (Figure 5(c-2)). Average nearest neighbor analysis is a valuable tool for uncovering the spatial distribution patterns of archaeological sites. When conducting significance testing using Z-scores and p-values, the results were classified as follows: a result was deemed highly significant if |Z| ≥ 2.58 and p ≤ 0.01; generally significant if |Z| ≥ 1.96 and p ≤ 0.05; and not significant if |Z| ≤ 1.96 and p ≥ 0.05 [74]. The analysis results show that the distribution of both site points is of a clustered type, achieving a highly significant level with 99% confidence (Figure 6a,b).
Conducting geographic and mathematical statistical analyses of archaeological sites across different landforms provides insights into the settlement and development location preferences of the ancient Hongshan people, thereby further exploring the characteristics of human–land relationships in different historical periods. Based on research on the re-classification of basic landform types in Northeastern China, the landforms in this region are categorized into low-altitude plains, low-altitude platforms, low-altitude hills, small undulating mountains, medium undulating mountains, large undulating mountains, and extremely large undulating mountains (Figure 7a) [66]. During the 6.5–6.0 ka period, archaeological sites were primarily concentrated in small and medium undulating mountains, accounting for 27.6% and 47.1% of the total, respectively. In contrast, from 6.0–5.0 ka, the sites were mainly found in low plains, low hills, and small undulating mountains, with respective proportions of 22.1%, 29.5%, and 20.6% (Figure 7b). These data indicate that the early Hongshan culture settlers favored higher elevations, while during the middle and late periods, they progressively shifted towards lower altitude regions.
In addition, slope and aspect, being closely linked to terrain and sunlight exposure, are critical natural factors, which influenced the ancient people’s choice of living areas. Gentler slopes provide a flatter terrain, making them more suitable for long-term settlement and productive activities. However, steep slopes exhibit more pronounced surface inclination, creating difficulties for daily living and making large-scale agricultural or other productive activities impractical [67,75]. Throughout the entire Hongshan period, over 60% of the inhabitants settled on gentle slopes, and more than 45% selected locations with ample sunlight exposure (Figure 7b and Figure 8a). When comparing the early Hongshan period with the mid-late Hongshan period, settlements in the latter favored gentle slopes even more, with a proportion reaching 73.80%. During the 6.5–6.0 ka and 6.0–5.0 ka sub-periods, settlements with high and moderate sunlight exposure accounted for 57.86% and 57.54%, respectively (Table 2).

5. Discussion

5.1. The Influence of Climatic Fluctuation on Spatiotemporal Patterns of HongShan Settlements

On a regional scale, multi-decadal to centennial-scale climatic variability emerged as a critical factor that triggered the collapse of Neolithic civilizations and subsequent large-scale human migrations [5]. The aeolian deposits from the Horqin dune field and other relevant records mentioned earlier offer compelling evidence of a distinct climatic fluctuation during 6.0–5.0 ka, more precisely constrained to 6.0–5.5 ka based on high-resolution chronological data. Precipitation in the Daihai Lake region plummeted by approximately 200 mm, with the highest annual precipitation during the Holocene reaching only about 650 mm [48]. Climatic reconstruction using BrGDGT from the Hani peatland revealed that the mean annual air temperature fell from 12.6 °C at 6.1 ka to 9.4 °C at 5.8 ka [42]. Additionally, pollen-based climatic reconstruction from annually laminated maar sediments in Northeastern China indicated that the temperature in the warmest month declined from 27.5 °C at 6.2 ka to 25.9 °C at 5.8 ka [76]. In coastal South China, the MAAT reconstruction, based on BrGDGT, shows a decline from 27.9 °C at 6.3 ka to 24.5 °C at 5.7 ka [77]. The value of δ18O from the Dunde ice core demonstrates three successive temperature drops during the 6.0–5.0 ka period, which is synchronous with the glacial advances with 1.5 °C dropped at around 5.7 ka in Heyuan, near Urumqi, Xinjiang Province [78,79].
The pre-6.0 ka Holocene Optimum (HO) represented a climatically favorable phase for the growth of China’s primitive population and the development of Neolithic cultures, setting the stage for prehistoric human activity and population expansion [2]. In Northeastern China, the early Hongshan culture, dating from 6.5–6.0 ka, boasted as many as 1030 archaeological sites (Figure 3). The Hongshan inhabitants preferred to live in small undulating mountains and medium undulating mountains of the Greater Khingan Mountains and Nulu’erhu Mountain, along the West Liao River and its tributaries, which even extended to the entire Horqin dune field. In the early-middle Neolithic period, encompassing the early Hongshan time, hunter-gatherer communities mainly inhabited higher-elevation areas, with an average altitude of 1074 m above sea level. The adoption of mixed subsistence strategies during this time led to a downward shift in human settlement patterns, primarily clustering within the 600–1000 m above sea level elevation range [29]. Later, the evolution of agricultural systems in the late Neolithic period induced further altitudinal relocation of human settlements, which predominantly became established between 400–800 m above sea level [29]. On the Loess Plateau, Neolithic settlements were densely clustered, with inhabitants settling on loess tablelands, such as the Longxi Nuanquanshan site (8500–6800 BP) and Pingliang’s Qiaojiazhuang site, both situated on high terraces, with the latter rising 240 m above the Jing River [2,61]. In western China, Neolithic culture extended its reach to the Hexi Corridor and the eastern regions of Qinghai Province. Remarkably, even on the northwestern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, an area where modern environmental conditions remain harsh and unwelcoming for human settlement, over 30 microlithic cultural sites have been unearthed, with their age speculated to belong to this period as well [80].
However, during the 6.0–5.0 ka period, the number of archaeological sites dropped to 203. Mid-late Hongshan settlements transitioned from small and medium undulating mountains to low plains and low hills in the Liaohe Plain. Settlements in the Horqin dune field contracted and clustered along its southeastern edge, likely due to the dune field’s activation, and this was driven by climatic deterioration during the 6.0–5.5 ka interval, which exerted significant environmental pressures on ecosystems. The resulting vegetation changes exhibited distinct regional patterns: in northern China, forests were largely replaced by steppe communities, while in the northeastern and southern regions, conifers and deciduous broad-leaved species, which are more tolerant of cold and drought, gradually took over from evergreen broadleaved vegetation [13]. This migration was marked by a shift from the periphery towards the central zones, and from the highlands to the drying lowlands that became habitable and conducive to survival strategies. As a result, new resources were tapped into, necessitating their division among multiple social communities. In the process of this resource reallocation, conflicts among social communities were inevitable, and the appearance of sites like Niuheliang and Dongshanzui in the middle-late Hongshan culture, as well as the Dadiwan site in the middle-late Yangshao culture in the Hulu River basin of the Gansu–Qinghai region, may be related not only to primitive religious practices but also to cultural adaptations in response to resource scarcity [2].

5.2. The Influence of Climatic Fluctuation on Survival Strategy of Hongshan Settlements

The Holocene Optimum provided favorable environmental conditions for hunting and gathering subsistence strategies in the western Liao River region during the early Hongshan period [22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29]. Subsistence strategies were diverse, primarily including gathering, hunting, fishing, millet and broomcorn cultivation, and animal husbandry, which likely did not rely primarily on millet broomcorn cultivation in the early Hongshan period [23,24,25]. Flotation and grain analysis conducted at the Weijiawopu site revealed that foxtail millet and broomcorn millet were the main cultivated crops. While containers and methods for grain storage were discovered, the flotation rate of these crops stood at a mere 7%, in contrast to the 80% observed in the Central Plains region. This suggests that millet and broomcorn cultivation accounted for only a limited proportion of the economic structure and likely did not play a dominant role [25]. During this period, animal husbandry made significant strides, marked by an expanded range of domesticated animals, such as pigs, dogs, and horses; however, the meat supply from pigs remained limited. The residents still largely relied on hunting and gathering for food, with these activities likely forming the cornerstone of their subsistence. Fishing complemented their diet as an additional food source. The early Hongshan inhabitants led a lifestyle characterized by diverse food sources and a high dependence on wild animals and plant resources. The survival strategy confined human activities to higher elevations [24,25,28,29].
During 6.0–5.0 ka, an aridifying and cooling climate prompted humans to settle at lower-elevation sites, which offered more favorable conditions for survival, including soil suitable for crop cultivation [49]. The level of millet cultivation had advanced considerably, and changes in the form of grinding slabs and rollers might also be related to the increase in millet yield. Some settlements were also located on small undulating mountains at higher altitudes. The adoption of mixed subsistence strategies led humans to inhabit areas that struck a balance between these different elevations [28]. Hunting and gathering remained important; however, given the more open natural geography and drier climatic conditions compared to the earlier climate and geographical conditions, crop cultivation probably assumed a more prominent role in subsistence strategies [25]. Moreover, pottery production grew increasingly specialized, encompassing both practical vessels for daily use and ritual objects for ceremonies. Most notably, the large-scale public architecture and elite burials with abundant jade artifacts at ritual centers like Niuheliang and Dongshanzui bear witness to the emergence of the earliest complex societies during the late Hongshan period [14,81,82]. The increased complexity of core region monumental architecture does not stem from larger population communities or more extensive political integration efforts [82]. The social evolution of the mid-late Hongshan culture followed a path similar to that of the contemporary Yanshao culture in northern-central China [15]. The ancient Western Mountain city, dating back to the Yangshao cultural period in Zhengzhou, was constructed as a defense against external hostile plunders and disturbances [26,83]. In the burials of the late Dawenkou culture in Shandong, the Songze culture in Jiangsu and Zhejiang, the Xuejiagang culture in Anhui, and the Daxi culture in the two-lake regions, finely crafted stone axes were frequently interred, which may indicate that warfare may have started to emerge as a regular social phenomenon [2,83].
During 6.0–5.0 ka, in response to deteriorating climatic and environmental conditions, the Hongshan civilization adopted a survival strategy that entailed relocating settlements, constructing monumental architectural structures for religious ceremonies and fostering elite ritualistic powers [14]. At the same time, during the late Yangshao periods in Henan, large-scale movements of populations from the southeastern regions to Henan were evidenced by the presence of ceramics and typical cultural practices, such as tooth extraction, which came from the mid-late Dawenkou culture in Shangdong and Qujialing cultures in Hubei, confirming the development of greater social complexity and probably due to resource shortage as a result of environmental deterioration [84,85]. In central-south Inner Mongolia, starch and phytolith analyses, as well as use-wear analysis, suggested various underground storage organs, such as yams, lily bulbs, snake gourd roots, and cattail rhizomes. They were staple foods before 3500 BC; by 3500–3000 BC, cereal-based agriculture, such as millets and Job’s tears, replaced tubers and roots and became a more important source of starchy foods. The transformation of the diet structure can probably be attributed to climatic fluctuations that might have led to the depletion of wild resources around 3500 BC [86]. A typical jade dragon was found in the Nihewan–Huliu Basin of Hebei with obvious characteristics of the Hongshan culture, also indicating geographically different cultures meeting and coexisting ~6.0–5 ka ago [87,88]. We posit that the climatic shifts around 6.0–5.0 ka triggered large-scale population migrations and a drop in productivity, which, in turn, intensified conflicts among different groups and fueled an increase in social complexity [2].

6. Conclusions

The synthesized aeolian sequence and other proxy deposits, such as fluvial-lacustrine, loess, and stalagmite, demonstrate climatic fluctuation in the Horqin dune field and adjacent areas between 6.0–5.0 ka, which lead to the precipitation declining and temperature dropping. The spatiotemporal distribution of archaeological sites from 6.5–5.0 ka appears to be linked to the climatic fluctuations specifically occurring between 6.0–5.0 ka, exactly at 6.0–5.5 ka. In the early Hongshan period (6.5–6.0 ka), settlements were established in the small and medium undulating mountains of the Greater Khingan Mountains and Nulu’erhu Mountain, along the West Liao River and its tributaries, and even spread across the entire Horqin dune field. However, during the middle-late Hongshan period (6.0–5.0 ka), ancient settlements shifted to the southern and eastern low plains and low hills at Liaohe Plain. Climate may have not only likely led to a decline in the prehistoric human population but also triggered spatiotemporal changes in Hongshan settlements and resource scarcity, thereby leading to transformations in subsistence strategies, such as an increased reliance on agriculture and heightened social conflicts and complexity.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/atmos16070865/s1, Table S1: A list of the OSL ages in the Horqin dune field cited in the article.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, W.X. and H.J.; methodology, W.X.; software, W.X.; validation, W.X.; formal analysis, W.X.; investigation, W.X.; W.S. and J.Z.; data curation, W.X. and H.J.; writing—original draft preparation, W.X.; writing—review and editing, W.X.; visualization, W.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by The Talent Introduction Program of Northwest Minzu University, grant number xbyjrc202211, and by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) Project, grant number 41977393.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original data presented in this study are openly available at https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.860072, accessed on 6 June 2019 and included as Supplementary Materials.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Y. Zhang for improving an early version of the manuscript. Special thanks are expressed to the editor and anonymous reviewers who spent considerable time and energy providing valuable suggestions and critical comments on the paper.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
ASMBAsian summer monsoonal boundary
OSLoptically stimulated luminescence

References

  1. Overpeck, J.; Webb, R. Nonglacial rapid climate events: Past and future. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97, 1335–1338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Wu, W.; Liu, T. Possible role of the “Holocene Event 3” on the collapse of Neolithic cultures around the Central Plain of China. Quat. Int. 2004, 117, 153–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Kuper, R.; Kröpelin, S. Climate-controlled Holocene occupation in the Sahara: Motor of Africa’s evolution. Science 2006, 313, 803–807. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Weiss, H. Global megadrought, societal collapse and resilience at 4.2–3.9 Ka BP across the Mediterranean and West Asia. Past Glob. Changes Mag. 2016, 24, 62–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Dong, G.; Liu, F.; Chen, F. Environmental and technological effects on ancient social evolution at different spatial scales. Sci. China Earth Sci. 2017, 60, 2067–2077. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Brooks, N. Cultural responses to aridity in the Middle Holocene and increased social complexity. Quat. Int. 2006, 151, 29–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Haug, G.H.; Günther, D.; Peterson, L.C.; Sigman, D.M.; Hughen, K.A.; Aeschlimann, B. Climate and the collapse of Maya civilization. Science 2003, 299, 1731–1735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Hou, M.; Wu, W.X. A review of 6000–5000 cal BP climatic anomalies in China. Quat. Int. 2021, 571, 58–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Bond, G.; Kromer, B.; Beer, J.; Muscheler, R.; Evans, M.N.; Showers, W.; Hoffmann, S.; Lotti-Bond, R.; Hajdas, I.; Bonani, G. Persistent solar influence on North Atlantic climate during the Holocene. Science 2001, 294, 2130–2136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Mayewski, P.A.; Rohling, E.E.; Stager, J.C.; Karlén, W.; Maasch, K.A.; Meeker, L.D.; Meyerson, E.A.; Gasse, F.; van Kreveld, S.; Holmgren, K.; et al. Holocene climate variability. Quat. Res. 2004, 62, 243–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Magny, M.; Haas, J.N. A major widespread climatic change around 5300 cal. yr BP at the time of the Alpine Iceman. J. Quat. Sci. 2004, 19, 423–430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Morrill, C.; Overpeck, J.T.; Cole, J.E. A synthesis of abrupt changes in the Asian summer monsoon since the last deglaciation. Holocene 2003, 13, 465–476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Huang, K.; Xie, D.; Chen, C.; Tang, Y.; Wan, Q.; Zhang, X. An environmental crisis and its cultural impact in Eastern China around 6000 years ago. Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl. 2023, 624, 111670. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Xu, D.; Lu, H.; Chu, G.; Liu, L.; Shen, C.; Li, F.; Wang, C.; Wu, N. Synchronous 500-year oscillations of monsoon climate and human activity in Northeast Asia. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 4105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Xue, W.; Jin, H.; Liu, B.; Sun, L.; Liu, Z. The possible stimulation of the mid-Holocene period’s initial hydrological recession on the development of Neolithic cultures along the margin of the East Asian summer monsoon. Sustainability 2019, 11, 2106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Hassan, F.A. Nile floods and political disorder in Early Egypt. NATO ASI Ser. I Glob. Environ. Change 1996, 16, 1–18. [Google Scholar]
  17. Dalfes, H.N.; Kukla, G.; Weiss, H. Late Third Millennium Abrupt Climate Change and Social Collapse in West Asia and Egypt. In Third Millennium BC Climate Change and Old World Collapse; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1997; pp. 711–723. [Google Scholar]
  18. Li, Y.Y.; Willis, K.J.; Zhou, L.P.; Cui, H.T. The impact of ancient civilization on the northeastern Chinese landscape: Palaeoecological evidence from the western Liaohe River Basin, Inner Mongolia. Holocene 2006, 16, 1109–1121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Jia, X.; Sun, Y.; Wang, L.; Sun, W.; Zhao, Z.; Lee, H.F.; Huang, W.; Wu, S.; Lu, H. The transition of human subsistence strategies in relation to climate change during the Bronze Age in the West Liao River Basin, Northeast China. Holocene 2016, 26, 781–789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Guo, L.; Xiong, S.; Ding, Z.; Jin, G.; Wu, J.; Ye, W. Role of the mid-Holocene environmental transition in the decline of Late Neolithic cultures in the deserts of NE China. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2018, 190, 98–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Cao, C. Review of the study on the stages of Hongshan Culture since the new century. J. Chifeng Univ. Soc. Sci. 2022, 43, 4. [Google Scholar]
  22. Li, Z. Research on Periodization of Hongshan Culture. Master’s Thesis, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China, 2022. [Google Scholar]
  23. Gao, Y. Cultural Evolution and Social Development in Northeast China Before 3000 BC. Ph.D. Thesis, Jilin University, Changchun, China, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  24. Teng, H. Production technology and economic structure in Hongshan Culture period. J. Chifeng Univ. Soc. Sci. 2017, 38, 5. [Google Scholar]
  25. Chen, Z. The Settlement Changes in the Neolithic Age and the Early Society in Liaoxi Area. Ph.D. Thesis, Jilin University, Changchun, China, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  26. Yang, Z. On the character of the city-site of the Yangshao Culture at Xishan, Zhengzhou. HuaXia Archaeol. 1997, 1, 55–59. [Google Scholar]
  27. Gao, J.Y.; Hou, G.L.; Lancuo, Z.; Zhu, Y.; Hou, X.Q. Spatiotemporal evolution and environmental change of ancient sites in Hexi Corridor. J. Earth Environ. 2019, 10, 12–16. [Google Scholar]
  28. Jia, X.; Yi, S.; Sun, Y.; Wu, S.; Lee, H.F.; Wang, L.; Lu, H. Spatial and temporal variations in prehistoric human settlement and their influencing factors on the south bank of the Xar Moron River, Northeastern China. Front. Earth Sci. 2017, 11, 137–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Lin, W.; Xin, J.; Hong, W. Study on the temporal-spatial evolution of prehistoric settlements and its correlation with subsistence strategy and climate history in the Western Liao River area. Adv. Earth Sci. 2016, 31, 1159. [Google Scholar]
  30. Wang, J. The Evolution of Human Living Environment During the Holocene and Its Influence on Prehistoric Human Activities in the Songliao Plain. Ph.D. Thesis, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China, 2022. [Google Scholar]
  31. Hosner, D.; Wagner, M.; Tarasov, P.E.; Chen, X.; Leipe, C. Spatiotemporal distribution patterns of archaeological sites in China during the Neolithic and Bronze Age: An overview. Holocene 2016, 26, 1576–1593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Gao, S.; Cheng, W.; Jin, H.; Dong, G.; Li, B.; Yang, G.; Liu, L.; Guan, Y.; Sun, Z.; Jin, J. Preliminary study on the desert changes at the northwest edge of China. Sci. China Ser. 1993, 23, 202–208. [Google Scholar]
  33. Xiao, J.; Chang, Z.; Wen, R.; Zhai, D. Holocene weak monsoon intervals indicated by low lake levels at Hulun Lake in the monsoonal margin region of Northeastern Inner Mongolia, China. Holocene 2009, 19, 899–908. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Liu, H.; Yin, Y.; Zhu, J.; Zhao, F.; Wang, H. How did the forest respond to Holocene climate drying at the forest-steppe ecotone in Northern China? Quat. Int. 2010, 227, 46–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Li, C.; Wu, Y.; Hou, X. Holocene vegetation and climate in Northeast China revealed from Jingbo Lake sediment. Quat. Int. 2011, 229, 67–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Liu, Y.; Zhang, S.; Liu, J. Vegetation and environment history of Erlongwan Maar Lake during the Late Pleistocene on pollen record. Acta Micropalaeontol. Sin. 2008, 25, 274–280. [Google Scholar]
  37. You, H.; Liu, J. High-resolution climate evolution derived from the sediment records of Erlongwan Maar Lake since 14 Ka BP. Chin. Sci. Bull. 2012, 57, 3610–3616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Jiang, W.; Leroy, S.A.G.; Ogle, N.; Chu, G.; Wang, L.; Liu, J. Natural and anthropogenic forest fires recorded in the Holocene pollen record from a Jinchuan peat bog, Northeastern China. Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl. 2008, 261, 47–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Li, N.; Chen, F.; Yang, J.; Jie, D.; Liu, L.; Liu, H.; Gao, G.; Gao, Z.; Li, D.; Shi, J.; et al. Records of East Asian monsoon activities in Northeastern China since 15.6 ka, based on grain size analysis of peaty sediments in the Changbai Mountains. Quat. Int. 2018, 447, 158–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Hong, Y.T.; Hong, B.; Lin, Q.H.; Shibata, Y.; Hirota, M.; Zhu, Y.X.; Leng, X.T.; Wang, Y.; Yi, L. Inverse phase oscillations between the East Asian and Indian Ocean summer monsoons during the last 12000 years and paleo-El Niño. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2005, 231, 337–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Zheng, Y.; Pancost, R.D.; Liu, X.; Wang, Z.; Naafs, B.D.A.; Xie, X.; Yi, W.; Zhou, W. Atmospheric connections with the North Atlantic enhanced the deglacial warming in Northeast China. Geology 2017, 45, 1031–1034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Wu, J.; Wang, Y.; Dong, J. Changes in East Asian summer monsoon during the Holocene recorded by stalagmite δ18O records from Liaoning Province. Quat. Sci. 2011, 31, 990–998. [Google Scholar]
  43. Wen, R.; Xiao, J.; Fan, J.; Zhang, S.; Yamagata, H. Pollen evidence for a mid-Holocene East Asian summer monsoon maximum in Northern China. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2017, 176, 29–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Ming, G.; Zhou, W.; Wang, H.; Cheng, P.; Shu, P.; Xian, F.; Fu, Y.; Du, H. Moisture variations in lacustrine-eolian sequence from the Hunshandake Sandy Land associated with the East Asian summer monsoon changes since the Late Pleistocene. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2020, 233, 106210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Tang, L.; Wang, X.; Zhang, S.; Chu, G.; Chen, Y.; Pei, J.; Xu, Q.; Lin, X. High-resolution magnetic and palynological records of the last deglaciation and Holocene from Lake Xiarinur in the Hunshandake Sandy Land, Inner Mongolia. Holocene 2015, 25, 844–856. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Jiang, W.; Guiot, J.; Chu, G.; Wu, H.; Yuan, B.; Hatté, C.; Guo, Z. An improved methodology of the modern analogues technique for palaeoclimate reconstruction in arid and semi-arid regions. Boreas 2009, 39, 145–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Jin, G.; Liu, D. Mid-Holocene climate change in North China, and the effect on cultural development. Chin. Sci. Bull. 2002, 47, 408–413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Xu, Q.; Xiao, J.; Li, Y.; Tian, F.; Nakagawa, T. Pollen-based quantitative reconstruction of Holocene climate changes in the Daihai Lake area, Inner Mongolia, China. J. Clim. 2010, 23, 2856–2868. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Huang, C.C.; Zhou, J.; Pang, J.; Han, Y.; Hou, C. A regional aridity phase and its possible cultural impact during the Holocene Megathermal in the Guanzhong Basin, China. Holocene 2000, 10, 135–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Jin, H.; Dong, G.; Su, Z.; Sun, L. Reconstruction of the spatial patterns of desert/loess boundary belt in North China during the Holocene. Chin. Sci. Bull. 2001, 46, 969–974. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Liu, B.; Zhao, H.; Li, S.H.; Jin, H.; Li, Y.; Wang, H.; Liu, J.; Dong, C. Asynchronous palaeosol development during the past 20 ka in response to climate change across the dune fields of the Asian summer monsoonal boundary, Northern China. Earth-Sci. Rev. 2022, 234, 104232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Qiu, S.; Li, Q.; Xia, Y.; Wang, J. Paleosols of sandy lands and environmental changes in the western part of Northeast Plain of China during Holocene. Chin. Geogr. Sci. 1995, 5, 137–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Wang, T. Atlas of Sandy Desert and Aeolian Desertification in Northern China; Science Press: Beijing, China, 2014. [Google Scholar]
  54. Han, G.; Zhang, G.; Dong, Y. A model for the active origin and development of source-bordering dunefields on a semiarid fluvial plain: A case study from the Xiliaohe Plain, Northeast China. Geomorphology 2007, 86, 512–524. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Ren, H.; Li, Y.; Yang, P.; Cheng, H.; Shi, Y. History and present status of desertification in Horqin Sandy Land region. J. Desert Res. 2004, 24, 28–31. [Google Scholar]
  56. Mason, J.A.; Lu, H.; Zhou, Y.; Miao, X.; Swinehart, J.B.; Liu, Z.; Goble, R.J. Dune mobility and aridity at the desert margin of Northern China at a time of peak monsoon strength. Geology 2009, 37, 947–950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Yang, L.; Wang, T.; Zhou, J.; Lai, Z.; Long, H. OSL chronology and possible forcing mechanisms of dune evolution in the Horqin dunefield in Northern China since the Last Glacial Maximum. Quat. Res. 2012, 78, 185–196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Guo, L.; Xiong, S.; Yang, P.; Ye, W.; Jin, G.; Wu, W.; Ding, Z. Holocene environmental changes in the Horqin Desert revealed by OSL dating and δ13C analyses of paleosols. Quat. Int. 2018, 469, 11–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Wen, R.; Xiao, J.; Chang, Z.; Zhai, D.; Xu, Q.; Li, Y.; Itoh, S.; Lomtatidze, Z. Holocene precipitation and temperature variations in the East Asian monsoonal margin from pollen data from Hulun Lake in Northeastern Inner Mongolia, China. Boreas 2010, 39, 262–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Guo, L.; Xiong, S.; Dong, X.; Ding, Z.; Yang, P.; Zhao, H.; Wu, W.; Jin, G. Linkage between C4 vegetation expansion and dune stabilization in the deserts of NE China during the Late Quaternary. Quat. Int. 2019, 503, 10–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Wagner, K.C.; Byrd, G.D. Evaluating the effectiveness of clinical medical librarian programs: A systematic review of the literature. J. Med. Libr. Assoc. 2004, 92, 14–33. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  62. Li, Y. The spatial characteristics and dynamic evolution of fiscal investment in public cultural services in China. Stat. Decis. 2023, 39, 142–146. [Google Scholar]
  63. Wang, G.; Li, S.J.; Ma, Q.F. Spatial equilibrium and pattern evolution of ecological civilization construction efficiency in China. Acta Geogr. Sin. 2018, 73, 2198–2209. [Google Scholar]
  64. Han, Y.J. Research on the Development of Cultural Heritage Industry in Xixian New Area. Master’s Thesis, Northwest University, Xi’an, China, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  65. Wang, L.C. Construction of the Heritage Corridor of Jingxing Ancient Road in Taihang Mountain Area and Spatiotemporal Distribution of Traditional Settlements Along the Route. Master’s Thesis, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin, China, 2020. [Google Scholar]
  66. Li, B.; Pan, B.; Han, J. Basic terrestrial geomorphological types in China and their circumscriptions. Quat. Sci. 2008, 28, 535–543. [Google Scholar]
  67. Luo, S. The Relationship Between Paleoenvironment/Ancient Flood and Cultural Spatial Distribution in the Yi/Shu River Basin During the Holocene. Master’s Thesis, JiangXi Normal University, Nanchang, China, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  68. Dong, G.; Jin, H.; Chen, H. Desert-loess boundary belt shift and climatic change since the last interglacial period. Quat. Sci. 1997, 17, 158–167. [Google Scholar]
  69. Xu, Z.; Lu, H.; Yi, S.; Vandenberghe, J.; Mason, J.A.; Zhou, Y.; Wang, X. Climate-driven changes to dune activity during the Last Glacial Maximum and deglaciation in the Mu Us dune field, north-central China. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2015, 427, 149–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Telfer, M.; Thomas, D. Late Quaternary linear dune accumulation and chronostratigraphy of the southwestern Kalahari: Implications for aeolian palaeoclimatic reconstructions and predictions of future dynamics. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2007, 26, 2617–2630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Jiang, W.; Guo, Z.; Sun, X.; Wu, H.; Chu, G.; Yuan, B.; Hatté, C.; Guiot, J. Reconstruction of climate and vegetation changes of Lake Bayanchagan (Inner Mongolia): Holocene variability of the East Asian monsoon. Quat. Res. 2006, 65, 411–420. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Zhao, J.; Huang, Y.; Yue, Y. Change of paleosol and climate during Middle Holocene in Luochuan area of Shaanxi Province. Quat. Sci. 2006, 26, 969–975. [Google Scholar]
  73. Xu, X.; Zhang, M. The vegetational and climatic changes in the Zhenjiang region since 15,000 years BP. Acta Geogr. Sin. 1984, 39, 277–284. [Google Scholar]
  74. Carver, S.J. Integrating multi-criteria evaluation with geographical information systems. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Syst. 1991, 5, 321–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  75. Yin, J. Holocene Climate Change and Its Impact on Human Activities in Linfen Basin. Master’s Thesis, Shanxi Normal University, Xi’an, China, 2023. [Google Scholar]
  76. Stebich, M.; Rehfeld, K.; Schlütz, F.; Tarasov, P.E.; Liu, J.; Mingram, J. Holocene vegetation and climate dynamics of NE China based on the pollen record from Sihailongwan Maar Lake. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2015, 124, 275–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Li, Q.; Sun, Q.; Xie, M.; Ling, Y.; Zhu, Z.; Zhu, Q.; Wang, X.; Chu, G. Coupled temperature variations in the Huguangyan Maar Lake between high and low latitude. Quat. Sci. Rev. 2023, 305, 108011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Thompson, L.G.; Mosley-Thompson, E.; Davis, M.E.; Bolzan, J.F.; Dai, J.; Klein, L.; Yao, T.; Wu, X.; Xie, Z.; Gundestrup, N. Holocene-Late Pleistocene climatic ice core records from Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Science 1989, 246, 474–477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  79. Chen, J. Preliminary researches on lichenometric chronology of Holocene glacial fluctuations and on other topics in the headwater of Urumqi River, Tianshan Mountains. Sci. China Chem. 1989, 32, 1487–1500. [Google Scholar]
  80. Yin, Z.; Yang, Y. Holocene Environmental Evolution and the Rise and Fall of Human Civilizations in the Arid Region of Northwest China; Geological Publishing House: Beijing, China, 1992. [Google Scholar]
  81. Peterson, C.E.; Lu, X.; Drennan, R.D.; Zhu, D. Hongshan chiefly communities in Neolithic Northeastern China. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 5756–5761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  82. Schmidt, R.; Kamenik, C.; Roth, M. A multi proxy core study of the last 7000 years of climate and alpine land-use impacts on an Austrian mountain lake (Unterer Landschitzsee, Niedere Tauern). Palaeogeogr. Palaeocl. 2002, 187, 101–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Yan, W. The Cradle of East Civilization: Occurrence of Agriculture and Origin of Civilization; Science Press: Beijing, China, 2000. [Google Scholar]
  84. Liu, L.; Chen, X.C.; Lee, Y.K.; Wright, H.; Rosen, A. Settlement patterns and development of social complexity in the Yiluo region, North China. J. Field Archaeol. 2004, 29, 75–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Sun, G.Q. Henan jingnei de Dawenkou wenhua he Qujialing wenhua (The Dawenkou culture and Qujialing culture in Henan). Zhongyuan Wemvu 2000, 2, 22–28. [Google Scholar]
  86. Liu, L.; Chen, X.C.; Wright, H.; Xu, H.; Li, Y.Q.; Chen, G.L.; Zhao, H.T.; Kim, H.; Lee, G. Rise and fall of complex societies in the Yiluo region, North China: The spatial and temporal changes. Quat. Int. 2019, 521, 4–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Mo, D.W.; Yang, X.Y.; Wang, H.; Li, S.C.; Guo, D.S.; Zhu, D. Study on the Environmental background of Niuheliang site, Hongshan culture, and the relationship between ancient man and environment. Quat. Sci. 2002, 22, 174–181. [Google Scholar]
  88. Zhang, J.X.; Wang, X.Y.; Yang, R.X.; Li, X.Z.; Zhang, W. Multicultural responses to environmental changes of the Holocene in the Nihewan-Huliu Basin of North China. Quat. Int. 2019, 507, 53–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Atmosphere 16 00865 g001
Figure 1. Study area and locations of aeolian sequences, fluvial-lacustrine, and stalagmite deposits are shown in Figure 1 and listed in Table 1. The red rectangle in the attached figure marks the study area. Black triangles denote the aeolian sequences within the Horqin dune field, where the red numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively represent the locations of the HXT, XJM, TL, and TQ profiles, while red lozenges represent published fluvial-lacustrine and stalagmite deposits, and the black numbers respond to Table 1, indicating the precise locations of the published fluvial-lacustrine and stalagmite deposits.
Figure 1. Study area and locations of aeolian sequences, fluvial-lacustrine, and stalagmite deposits are shown in Figure 1 and listed in Table 1. The red rectangle in the attached figure marks the study area. Black triangles denote the aeolian sequences within the Horqin dune field, where the red numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 respectively represent the locations of the HXT, XJM, TL, and TQ profiles, while red lozenges represent published fluvial-lacustrine and stalagmite deposits, and the black numbers respond to Table 1, indicating the precise locations of the published fluvial-lacustrine and stalagmite deposits.
Atmosphere 16 00865 g001
Atmosphere 16 00865 g002
Figure 2. The aeolian-paleosol stratigraphic profile of the Horqin dune field. The HXT, XJM, and TL sections are based on our group’s previous research, while the TQ section data is sourced from Guo’s work [60]. The black number means the Holocene stratigraphic ages, especially the red colored number means middle Holocene age. The yellow dotted lines represent lateral correlation of contemporaneous strata, reflecting mid-Holocene climatic fluctuation and aeolian sand development in the Horqin dune field.
Figure 2. The aeolian-paleosol stratigraphic profile of the Horqin dune field. The HXT, XJM, and TL sections are based on our group’s previous research, while the TQ section data is sourced from Guo’s work [60]. The black number means the Holocene stratigraphic ages, especially the red colored number means middle Holocene age. The yellow dotted lines represent lateral correlation of contemporaneous strata, reflecting mid-Holocene climatic fluctuation and aeolian sand development in the Horqin dune field.
Atmosphere 16 00865 g002
Atmosphere 16 00865 g003
Figure 3. The pattern of aeolian and paleosol across the Horqin dune field for each time slice over the past 11 ka. Red circles represent aeolian development, while black circles indicate paleosol development.
Figure 3. The pattern of aeolian and paleosol across the Horqin dune field for each time slice over the past 11 ka. Red circles represent aeolian development, while black circles indicate paleosol development.
Atmosphere 16 00865 g003
Atmosphere 16 00865 g004
Figure 4. Precipitation, temperature, and effective oscillation indicated by fluvial-lacustrine and stalagmitic records in Northeastern China and adjacent areas. The yellow rectangle in the figure marks the climate change that occurred between 6.0–5.0 ka during the Middle Holocene. The locations of the relevant profiles are displayed in Figure 1.
Figure 4. Precipitation, temperature, and effective oscillation indicated by fluvial-lacustrine and stalagmitic records in Northeastern China and adjacent areas. The yellow rectangle in the figure marks the climate change that occurred between 6.0–5.0 ka during the Middle Holocene. The locations of the relevant profiles are displayed in Figure 1.
Atmosphere 16 00865 g004
Atmosphere 16 00865 g005
Figure 5. The spatiotemporal pattern of Hongshan settlements during 6.5–6.0 ka and 6.0–5.0 ka: (a-1) and (a-2) represent the spatiotemporal distribution of archaeological sites for the periods 6.5–6.0 ka and 6.0–5.0 ka, respectively. (b-1,b-2) illustrate the kernel density analysis patterns for these same time intervals. (c-1,c-2) present the shifts in the mean center and directional distribution during 6.5–6.0 ka and 6.0–5.0 ka.
Figure 5. The spatiotemporal pattern of Hongshan settlements during 6.5–6.0 ka and 6.0–5.0 ka: (a-1) and (a-2) represent the spatiotemporal distribution of archaeological sites for the periods 6.5–6.0 ka and 6.0–5.0 ka, respectively. (b-1,b-2) illustrate the kernel density analysis patterns for these same time intervals. (c-1,c-2) present the shifts in the mean center and directional distribution during 6.5–6.0 ka and 6.0–5.0 ka.
Atmosphere 16 00865 g005
Atmosphere 16 00865 g006
Figure 6. The average nearest neighbor summary of the archaeological sites during 6.5–6.0 ka (a) and 6.0–5.0 ka (b).
Figure 6. The average nearest neighbor summary of the archaeological sites during 6.5–6.0 ka (a) and 6.0–5.0 ka (b).
Atmosphere 16 00865 g006
Atmosphere 16 00865 g007
Figure 7. The reclassification of basic landform types in Northeastern China. (a) illustrates the spatiotemporal distribution pattern of archaeological sites across various landforms, while (b) presents the quantity and proportion of archaeological sites within each landform type.
Figure 7. The reclassification of basic landform types in Northeastern China. (a) illustrates the spatiotemporal distribution pattern of archaeological sites across various landforms, while (b) presents the quantity and proportion of archaeological sites within each landform type.
Atmosphere 16 00865 g007
Atmosphere 16 00865 g008
Figure 8. Geographic statistical analysis, including slope analysis (a) and sunlight exposure (b).
Figure 8. Geographic statistical analysis, including slope analysis (a) and sunlight exposure (b).
Atmosphere 16 00865 g008
Table 1. List for fluvial-lacustrine and stalagmitic records of mid-Holocene climatic change in Northeastern China and adjacent areas. The site location is shown in Figure 1.
Table 1. List for fluvial-lacustrine and stalagmitic records of mid-Holocene climatic change in Northeastern China and adjacent areas. The site location is shown in Figure 1.
No. SiteLatitudeLongitudeDating MethodProxy UsedProxy
Indication		Oscillation Age (ka)Reference
1. Hulun Lake49.13117.51AMS 14CPollenP, T~6.4–4.4[33]
2. Hulun Lake HL0649.07117.51AMS 14CGZ, GMLake level~6.0[34]
3. Jingpo Lake~43.5~129AMS 14CPollenP~6.0–5.6[35]
4. Erlongwan Maar Lake42.30126.36AMS 14CPollenP~6.0[36]
5. Erlongwan Maar Lake42.301126.35AMS 14CTOC, TN, δ13CP~6.0–5.7[37]
6. Xiaolongwan Maar Lake42.3126.36AMS 14CPollenP~5.7[14]
7. Jinchuan42.20126.22AMS 14CPollenP~5.5[38]
8. Gushantun peat42.30126.28AMS 14CGsP~6.2, ~5.5[39]
9. Hani peat bog42.21126.52AMS 14Cδ13CP~6.0[40]
10. Hani peat bog42.22126.5AMS 14CGsP~6.2, ~5.5[39]
11. Hani peat bog42.22126.52AMS 14CbrGDGTsT~5.8[41]
12. Nuanhe41.20124.55AMS 14CStalagmitesP~5.6[42]
13. Dalinur43.26116.60AMS 14CPollenP~6.0[43]
14. Bayan Nur Lake43.12114.5AMS 14CGS, TOC, GMEH~6.2[44]
15. Xiari Nur Lake42.62115.47AMS 14CPollenP~6.0–5.5[45]
16. Bayanchagan Lake41.65115.21AMS 14CPollenP, T~5.5[46]
17. Taishizhuang40.067115.083AMS 14CPollenP~5.6[47]
18. Daihai Lake40.48112.55AMS 14CPollenP, T~6.0[48]
19. Qingqiucun34.22107.83AMS 14CGS, MS, GMP~6.0–5.0[49]
GS: Grain Size; EH: Effective Humidity; P: Precipitation; T: Temperature.
Table 2. The distribution proportions of archaeological sites based on slope and sunlight exposure preferences during the Hongshan periods.
Table 2. The distribution proportions of archaeological sites based on slope and sunlight exposure preferences during the Hongshan periods.
TypeClassification6.5–6.0 ka6.0–5.0 ka
NumberPercentageNumberPercentage
SlopeGentle slope68466.41%15073.80%
Moderate slope30829.90%2411.80%
Steep slope686.60%199.3%
Cliff201.94%104.93%
Sunlight exposureHigh sunlight12311.94%188.87%
Moderate sunlight47345.92%9948.77%
Low sunlight25724.95%5125.12%
Limited sunlight17717.18%3517.24%
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Xue, W.; Jin, H.; Shang, W.; Zhang, J. Spatiotemporal Patterns of Hongshan Culture Settlements in Relation to Middle Holocene Climatic Fluctuation in the Horqin Dune Field, Northeast China. Atmosphere 2025, 16, 865. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070865

AMA Style

Xue W, Jin H, Shang W, Zhang J. Spatiotemporal Patterns of Hongshan Culture Settlements in Relation to Middle Holocene Climatic Fluctuation in the Horqin Dune Field, Northeast China. Atmosphere. 2025; 16(7):865. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070865

Chicago/Turabian Style

Xue, Wenping, Heling Jin, Wen Shang, and Jing Zhang. 2025. "Spatiotemporal Patterns of Hongshan Culture Settlements in Relation to Middle Holocene Climatic Fluctuation in the Horqin Dune Field, Northeast China" Atmosphere 16, no. 7: 865. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070865

APA Style

Xue, W., Jin, H., Shang, W., & Zhang, J. (2025). Spatiotemporal Patterns of Hongshan Culture Settlements in Relation to Middle Holocene Climatic Fluctuation in the Horqin Dune Field, Northeast China. Atmosphere, 16(7), 865. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos16070865

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop