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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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19 pages, 12399 KiB  
Article
Urban Microclimate, Outdoor Thermal Comfort, and Socio-Economic Mapping: A Case Study of Philadelphia, PA
by Farzad Hashemi, Ute Poerschke, Lisa D. Iulo and Guangqing Chi
Buildings 2023, 13(4), 1040; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13041040 - 15 Apr 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6953
Abstract
Urban areas are often warmer than rural areas due to the phenomenon known as the “urban heat island” (UHI) effect, which can cause discomfort for those engaging in outdoor activities and can have a disproportionate impact on low-income communities, people of color, and [...] Read more.
Urban areas are often warmer than rural areas due to the phenomenon known as the “urban heat island” (UHI) effect, which can cause discomfort for those engaging in outdoor activities and can have a disproportionate impact on low-income communities, people of color, and the elderly. The intensity of the UHI effect is influenced by a variety of factors, including urban morphology, which can vary from one area to another. To investigate the relationship between outdoor thermal comfort and urban morphology in different urban blocks with varying social vulnerability status, this study developed a geographic information system (GIS)-based workflow that combined the “local climate zone” (LCZ) classification system and an urban microclimate assessment tool called ENVI-met. To demonstrate the effectiveness of this methodology, the study selected two different urban blocks in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania–with high and low social vulnerability indices (SVI)–to compare their microclimate conditions in association with urban morphological characteristics such as green coverage area, sky view factor (SVF), albedo, and street height to width (H/W) ratio. The results of the study showed that there was a strong correlation between tree and grass coverage and outdoor air and mean radiant temperature during hot seasons and extremely hot days, which in turn affected simulated predicted mean vote (PMV). The effects of greenery were more significant in the block associated with a low SVI, where nearly 50% of the site was covered by trees and grass, compared to only 0.02% of the other block associated with a high SVI. Furthermore, the investigation discovered that reduced SVF, along with increased albedo and H/W ratio, had a beneficial impact on the microclimate at the pedestrian level within the two studied urban blocks. This study provided an effective and easy-to-implement method for tackling the inequity issue of outdoor thermal comfort and urban morphology at fine geographic scales. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Performance-Based Urban Design: Integrated Urban Analytics, Simulation and Climate-Responsive Design)
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19 pages, 8006 KiB  
Article
Effect of Fibre Orientation on the Bond Properties of Softwood and Hardwood Interfaces
by Xin Li, Mahmud Ashraf, Bidur Kafle and Mahbube Subhani
Buildings 2023, 13(4), 1011; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13041011 - 12 Apr 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1770
Abstract
Increasing concerns regarding carbon emissions and climate change are prompting a shift toward the use of sustainable materials in the construction industry. Engineered timber products are gaining attention in the construction industry due to advancements in lamination techniques and adhesives as well as [...] Read more.
Increasing concerns regarding carbon emissions and climate change are prompting a shift toward the use of sustainable materials in the construction industry. Engineered timber products are gaining attention in the construction industry due to advancements in lamination techniques and adhesives as well as the renewable characteristics of wood. Bond properties play a significant role in engineered timber products. In Australia, Radiata Pine (RP, softwood) and Shining Gum (SG, hardwood) share a large proportion of local and native plantation forest resources. The present paper investigates the bond behaviours of Australian softwoods (RP–RP), hardwoods (SG–SG) and hybrid-wood (RP–SG) combinations in both parallel (PAL) and perpendicular (PER) bonding directions using one-component polyurethane adhesives. The results indicate that most of the softwood samples were subjected to wood-side (timber) failure, whereas hardwood samples failed due to delamination but exhibited higher strength and stiffness regardless of bond direction. In contrast, bond direction had a significant effect on the bond characteristics of hybrid configurations. Improved bond properties were observed when bonded in PAL directions; however, negative effects were seen when bonded in PER directions. Obtained characteristic (5th percentile) shear bond strengths for RP–RP–PAL, RP–SG–PAL and SG–SG–PAL samples were 3.88 MPa, 6.19 MPa and 8.34 MPa, whilst those for RP–RP–PER, RP–SG–PER and SG–SG–PER samples were 3.45 MPa, 2.96 MPa and 7.83 MPa, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments in Timber Engineering)
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17 pages, 3227 KiB  
Article
A Comparative Case Study of Certified and Non-Certified Green Buildings and Their Response to Climate Change
by Laura Almeida, Keivan Bamdad and Mohammad Reza Razavi
Buildings 2023, 13(4), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13040977 - 6 Apr 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4551
Abstract
Green buildings (GBs) employ a wide range of passive and active energy-saving strategies to improve buildings’ energy performance. The suitability and performance of some of these strategies depend on outdoor climate conditions and may change over time due to global warming. Therefore, a [...] Read more.
Green buildings (GBs) employ a wide range of passive and active energy-saving strategies to improve buildings’ energy performance. The suitability and performance of some of these strategies depend on outdoor climate conditions and may change over time due to global warming. Therefore, a GB may not retain its performance in the future. To address this issue and explore how much GB performance may be affected by climate change, this research aims to (1) evaluate the energy performance and thermal comfort of a GB and non-GB under present climate conditions; (2) predict the impact of climate change on these buildings, and (3) evaluate the climate resilience of a GB as opposed to a non-GB. To this end, a university GB and non-GB are simulated using DesignBuilder and calibrated with measured data. Future weather files based on Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) are used to predict climate conditions in the 2050s and 2090s. A comparison between the GB and non-GB revealed that the GB would save 15.1% and up to 21.9% of site energy under present and future climate conditions, respectively. It was also found that the thermal comfort level in the GB will remain significantly higher than in the non-GB in the future. The overheating issue in non-GBs will deteriorate in the future, with an increase of nearly 70% by the 2090s. The GB produces approximately 15% and up to 22% fewer GHG emissions than the non-GB under present and future climate conditions (RCP 8.5), respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cities and Buildings as Drivers for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation: New Models and Computational Tools)
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21 pages, 15776 KiB  
Article
Finite Element Modeling of Interface Behavior between Normal Concrete and Ultra-High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
by Xuan-Bach Luu and Seong-Kyum Kim
Buildings 2023, 13(4), 950; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13040950 - 3 Apr 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3979
Abstract
The behavior at the interface between normal strength concrete (NSC) and Ultra-High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) plays a crucial role in accurately predicting the capacity of UHPFRC for strengthening and repairing concrete structures. Until now, there has been a lack of sufficient finite [...] Read more.
The behavior at the interface between normal strength concrete (NSC) and Ultra-High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) plays a crucial role in accurately predicting the capacity of UHPFRC for strengthening and repairing concrete structures. Until now, there has been a lack of sufficient finite element (FE) models for accurately predicting the behavior at the interface between NSC and UHPFRC. This study aims to investigate the structural behavior of composite members made of NSC and UHPFRC by developing a model that accurately simulates the interface between the two materials using a linear traction-separation law. Novel parameters for the surface-based cohesive model, based on the traction-separation model, were obtained and calibrated from prior experiments using analytical methods. These parameters were then integrated into seven FE models to simulate the behavior at the interface between NSC and UHPFRC in shear, tensile, and flexural tests. The accuracy of the FE models was validated using experimental data. The findings revealed that the proposed FE models could effectively predict the structural behavior of composite NSC-UHPFRC members under various working conditions. Specifically, the maximum deviations between EXP and FEA were 6.8% in ultimate load for the shear test and 15.9% and 2.8% in ultimate displacement for the tensile and flexural tests, respectively. The model can be utilized to design the use of UHPFRC and ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced shotcrete (UHPFRS) for repairing and strengthening damaged concrete structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Numerical and Computer Methods in Civil Engineering)
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13 pages, 2201 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Smart Readiness Indicator for Educational Buildings
by Gvidas Plienaitis, Mindaugas Daukšys, Evi Demetriou, Byron Ioannou, Paris A. Fokaides and Lina Seduikyte
Buildings 2023, 13(4), 888; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13040888 - 28 Mar 2023
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3161
Abstract
The Smart Readiness Indicator (SRI) is an assessment scheme for the intelligence of buildings, which was introduced by the European Commission in the directive for the Energy Performance of Buildings in 2018. Since its introduction, many activities related to the maturation and employment [...] Read more.
The Smart Readiness Indicator (SRI) is an assessment scheme for the intelligence of buildings, which was introduced by the European Commission in the directive for the Energy Performance of Buildings in 2018. Since its introduction, many activities related to the maturation and employment of the SRI have been initiated. One of the adaptation needs of the SRI, revealed through public consultation with relevant stakeholders, is the requirement for a tailored SRI for different types of buildings. The aim of this study is to analyze possible scenarios to optimize the smartness performance, as addressed by the SRI score, in educational buildings. The subject of this study concerned campus buildings of the Kaunas University of Technology, in Lithuania. For the definition of the SRI, the calculation sheet developed by the European Commission was used. The effect of the improvements in the smartness performance of buildings on their energy efficiency was examined with the use of a whole-building, BIM-based energy assessment tool (IDA-ICE). The findings of this study revealed that despite the improvement in the automation and control levels of the building heating system, the maximum SRI values achieved deviate significantly by a high-smartness level. This study revealed the importance of services at a city level towards achieving the optimal smartness levels at a building unit level. It also delivered useful findings related to the linkage between energy and smartness performance of a building. The policy implication of the study findings also covers topics relevant to utilities management at a district level, as well as on the need for tailored SRI services catalogs for different types of buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Healthy, Digital and Sustainable Buildings and Cities)
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21 pages, 7651 KiB  
Review
A State-of-the-Art Review of Passive Energy Dissipation Systems in Steel Braces
by Magdalini D. Titirla
Buildings 2023, 13(4), 851; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13040851 - 24 Mar 2023
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 8643
Abstract
An extensive investigation of the international literature is carried out regarding the passive energy dissipation systems and more specifically the dampers that can be positioned in steel braces to increase the absorption of seismic energy and to protect them from buckling, such as [...] Read more.
An extensive investigation of the international literature is carried out regarding the passive energy dissipation systems and more specifically the dampers that can be positioned in steel braces to increase the absorption of seismic energy and to protect them from buckling, such as Friction (FDs), Metallic (MDs), and Viscous dampers (VDs). This review paper systematically reviews/refers to 196 publications from the literature; it presents a brief overview of the steel braces frames and their problems. The efficacy of all of these types of dampers has been proved, as they have been used all around the world, and their comparison in experimental or numerical studies, applications, and optimization shows that there is no unilateral solution, as the appropriate selection of effective retrofit strategies takes into account parameters such as cost, duration, technical aspects, architectural needs, etc. Finally, the aim of this review paper is to systematically present an overview of passive energy dampers that can be installed on steel braces, summarize the advantages and the disadvantages of each one, compare global parameters such as the relation of velocity and damper force, economic details, and type of study, and facilitate future researchers working in the related field, for its better understanding and development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seismic Analysis of Multistoried Buildings)
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16 pages, 335 KiB  
Article
Barriers to Undertaking Green Building Projects in Developing Countries: A Turkish Perspective
by Emre Caner Akcay
Buildings 2023, 13(4), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13040841 - 23 Mar 2023
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6295
Abstract
Green buildings (GBs) play an important role in achieving sustainable development goals. However, the implementation of green technologies in building projects has not reached the desired level in developing countries such as Turkey because of barriers stemming from country-related factors as well as [...] Read more.
Green buildings (GBs) play an important role in achieving sustainable development goals. However, the implementation of green technologies in building projects has not reached the desired level in developing countries such as Turkey because of barriers stemming from country-related factors as well as factors related to design and construction. The objective of this study was to explore the barriers to undertaking GB projects in Turkey. A questionnaire survey was administered to 116 construction practitioners to analyze the criticality of barriers to GB design and construction in the Turkish construction industry. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were adopted to evaluate the data obtained from the questionnaire survey. The findings suggest that the major barriers that hinder the adoption of GBs in Turkey are higher construction cost, lack of knowledge about GBs, lack of an authorized GB rating system, unavailability of GB materials, and inadequate market demand, whereas longer design time is the least critical barrier. The results of factor analysis indicate that the barriers to undertaking GB projects can be grouped under five “factors”, i.e., cost- and demand-related barriers, market-related barriers, people-related barriers, government-related barriers, and time-related barriers. In light of the results, policy makers and construction practitioners can devise strategies to promote GBs in Turkey, which can also be valid in other developing countries with similar socio-economic conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
18 pages, 8212 KiB  
Article
Sharing Is Saving? Building Costs Simulation of Collaborative and Mainstream Housing Designs
by Sara Brysch, Vincent Gruis and Darinka Czischke
Buildings 2023, 13(3), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030821 - 21 Mar 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2666
Abstract
Building costs play a significant role in determining the affordability of a housing project, and these depend to a large extent on design choices. This paper is based on the premise that collaborative design processes, or co-design, used in collaborative housing (CH) in [...] Read more.
Building costs play a significant role in determining the affordability of a housing project, and these depend to a large extent on design choices. This paper is based on the premise that collaborative design processes, or co-design, used in collaborative housing (CH) in Europe reduce building costs and consequently increase the affordability of these housing projects. However, research remains scarce on the extent to which CH is an affordable solution from a design perspective compared to affordable mainstream housing (MH), in which no co-design is used. Therefore, this paper aims to fill this knowledge gap by assessing the impact of design choices on building costs in CH and MH. To this end, we developed a simulation model to compare the building costs of CH with MH based on their design choices. Findings indicate that CH represents a more affordable and space-efficient solution when compared to MH, if we look at the building costs per unit. This is because CH provides less expensive units while it includes larger common spaces and extra quality. These results help to refute existing claims about the unaffordability of CH design solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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20 pages, 7561 KiB  
Article
Usability and Biomechanical Testing of Passive Exoskeletons for Construction Workers: A Field-Based Pilot Study
by Sean T. Bennett, Wei Han, Dilruba Mahmud, Peter G. Adamczyk, Fei Dai, Michael Wehner, Dharmaraj Veeramani and Zhenhua Zhu
Buildings 2023, 13(3), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030822 - 21 Mar 2023
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6882
Abstract
The labor-intensive nature of the construction industry requires workers to frequently perform physically demanding manual work, thereby exposing them to the risk of musculoskeletal injury (approximately 31.2 cases per 10,000 full-time equivalent workers). Exoskeletons and exosuits (collectively called EXOs here) are designed to [...] Read more.
The labor-intensive nature of the construction industry requires workers to frequently perform physically demanding manual work, thereby exposing them to the risk of musculoskeletal injury (approximately 31.2 cases per 10,000 full-time equivalent workers). Exoskeletons and exosuits (collectively called EXOs here) are designed to protect workers from these injuries by reducing exertion and muscle fatigue during work. However, the usability of EXOs in construction is still not clear. This is because extant EXO assessments in construction were mainly conducted in laboratory environments with test participants who are not construction professionals. In this research, we conducted a pilot study to investigate the usability of EXOs in a real construction workplace. Four experienced workers were recruited to push/empty construction gondolas with and without a Back-Support EXO, HeroWear Apex. Three workers were recruited to install/remove wooden blocks between steel studs with and without two Arm-Support EXOs, i.e., Ekso EVO and Hilti EXO-001. Their motions, postures, heart rates, and task completion times were recorded and compared. The workers were also surveyed to gather their attitudes toward the EXO’s usefulness and ease of use. The study results demonstrated that the workers responded to the use of EXOs differently and consequently were not unanimously in favor of EXO adoption in practice. The preliminary results and findings from this pilot study help in building a foundation of understanding to improve EXO products to fit the needs of construction workers and foster EXO-enabled construction tasks in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Technologies, Tools, and Methods for Enabling Safer, Healthier, and More Productive Work Settings in Construction Project Management)
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34 pages, 10758 KiB  
Review
The Phenomenon of Cracking in Cement Concretes and Reinforced Concrete Structures: The Mechanism of Cracks Formation, Causes of Their Initiation, Types and Places of Occurrence, and Methods of Detection—A Review
by Grzegorz Ludwik Golewski
Buildings 2023, 13(3), 765; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030765 - 14 Mar 2023
Cited by 149 | Viewed by 21549
Abstract
Cracks and cavities belong to two basic forms of damage to the concrete structure, which may reduce the load-bearing capacity and tightness of the structure and lead to failures and catastrophes in construction structures. Excessive and uncontrolled cracking of the structural element may [...] Read more.
Cracks and cavities belong to two basic forms of damage to the concrete structure, which may reduce the load-bearing capacity and tightness of the structure and lead to failures and catastrophes in construction structures. Excessive and uncontrolled cracking of the structural element may cause both corrosion and weakening of the adhesion of the reinforcement present in it. Moreover, cracking in the structure negatively affects its aesthetics and in extreme cases may cause discomfort to people staying in such a building. Therefore, the following article provides an in-depth review of issues related to the formation and development of damage and cracking in the structure of concrete composites. It focuses on the causes of crack initiation and characterizes their basic types. An overview of the most commonly used methods for detecting and analyzing the shape of microcracks and diagnosing the trajectory of their propagation is also presented. The types of cracks occurring in concrete composites can be divided according to eight specific criteria. In reinforced concrete elements, macrocracks depend on the type of prevailing loads, whereas microcracks are correlated with their specific case. The analyses conducted show that microcracks are usually rectilinear in shape in tensioned elements; in shear elements there are wing microcracks with straight wings; and torsional stresses cause changes in wing microcrack morphology in that the tips of the wings are twisted. It should be noted that the subject matter of microcracks and cracks in concrete and structures made of this material is important in many respects as it concerns, in a holistic approach, the durability of buildings, the safety of people staying in the buildings, and costs related to possible repairs to damaged structural elements. Therefore, this problem should be further investigated in the field of evaluation of the cracking and fracture processes, both in concrete composites and reinforced concrete structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experiment and Analysis of Building Structures)
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27 pages, 1437 KiB  
Review
Assessing Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation to Limit Aerosol Dispersion—Literature Review
by Nadine Hobeika, Clara García-Sánchez and Philomena M. Bluyssen
Buildings 2023, 13(3), 742; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030742 - 11 Mar 2023
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5491
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of indoor air quality (IAQ) and ventilation, which researchers have been warning about for years. During the pandemic, researchers studied several indicators using different approaches to assess IAQ and diverse ventilation systems in indoor spaces. To provide [...] Read more.
The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of indoor air quality (IAQ) and ventilation, which researchers have been warning about for years. During the pandemic, researchers studied several indicators using different approaches to assess IAQ and diverse ventilation systems in indoor spaces. To provide an overview of these indicators and approaches in the case of airborne transmission through aerosols, we conducted a literature review, which covered studies both from before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. We searched online databases for six concepts: aerosol dispersion, ventilation, air quality, schools or offices, indicators, and assessment approaches. The indicators found in the literature can be divided into three categories: dose-, building-, and occupant-related indicators. These indicators can be measured in real physical spaces, in a controlled laboratory, or modeled and analyzed using numerical approaches. Rather than organizing this paper according to these approaches, the assessment methods used are grouped according to the following themes they cover: aerosol dispersion, ventilation, infection risk, design parameters, and human behavior. The first finding of the review is that dose-related indicators are the predominant indicators used in the selected studies, whereas building- and occupant-related indicators are only used in specific studies. Moreover, for a better understanding of airborne transmission, there is a need for a more holistic definition of IAQ indicators. The second finding is that although different design assessment tools and setups are presented in the literature, an optimization tool for a room’s design parameters seems to be missing. Finally, to efficiently limit aerosol dispersion in indoor spaces, better coordination between different fields is needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Ventilation and Indoor Air Quality, 2nd Edition)
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23 pages, 4654 KiB  
Article
Investigating the Influence of Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Storage of Lightweight Concrete Panels on the Energy and Thermal Comfort in Residential Buildings
by Dileep Kumar, Morshed Alam and Abhijeet Jayeshbhai Doshi
Buildings 2023, 13(3), 720; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030720 - 9 Mar 2023
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3837
Abstract
Phase change materials (PCM) are integrated into lightweight concrete (LWC) panels to increase their thermal mass. However, the integration of PCM into LWC also increases the thermal conductivity of the panels, which may have a negative impact. This study investigated the impact of [...] Read more.
Phase change materials (PCM) are integrated into lightweight concrete (LWC) panels to increase their thermal mass. However, the integration of PCM into LWC also increases the thermal conductivity of the panels, which may have a negative impact. This study investigated the impact of thermal resistance and storage of LWC panels on thermal comfort and energy use in buildings. Six different LWC panels with varying levels of thermal conductivity and storage were developed using various combinations lightweight aggregates and PCM. The experimentally measured properties were used in building simulation software EnergyPlus V9.3 to calculate overheating and building energy consumption for each panel. The result showed that thermal mass influences severe discomfort hours more than thermal resistance. However, the level of influence depends on the position of the panels compared to the insulation layer. The presence of an insulation layer reduced the energy savings rate. The cooling energy consumption was more influenced by the thermal mass, whereas the heating was more influenced by the resistance of the wall. Overall, the LWC panel with the highest thermal mass was the best to reduce severe discomfort hours and energy consumption despite having the highest thermal conductivity. The outcome of this study can help to design an external building envelope with PCM panel as per user requirements, which could be to reduce overheating or cooling only, heating only, or both cooling and heating. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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51 pages, 7703 KiB  
Review
Climate Zoning for Buildings: From Basic to Advanced Methods—A Review of the Scientific Literature
by Alexey Remizov, Shazim Ali Memon and Jong R. Kim
Buildings 2023, 13(3), 694; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030694 - 6 Mar 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4307
Abstract
Understanding the link between the energy-efficiency of buildings and climatic conditions can improve the design of energy-efficient housing. Due to global climate change and growing requirements for building energy-efficiency, the number of publications on climate zoning for buildings has grown over the last [...] Read more.
Understanding the link between the energy-efficiency of buildings and climatic conditions can improve the design of energy-efficient housing. Due to global climate change and growing requirements for building energy-efficiency, the number of publications on climate zoning for buildings has grown over the last 20 years. This review attempted to give the reader an up-to-date assessment of the scientific literature in the field of climate mapping for buildings on a global and national scale, filling in the gaps of previous works and focusing on details that were not presented before. There were 105 scientific sources examined. The most dominant climate zoning variables were thoroughly analyzed. A clear categorization of climate zoning methods with specific criteria was shown. The most used methods were evaluated, emphasizing their similarities and differences, as well as their essential components and advantages. The main literature review was supported with bibliometric and bibliographic analysis. The existence of many climate zoning methods can be an indicator of the lack of agreement on the most effective strategy. A tendency has been established for the popularization among scientists of methods based on machine learning and building energy simulations, which are relatively easy to use and have proven to be the most reliable climate zoning methods. A transformation is emerging by shifting from a climate-based to a building performance-based climate zoning approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Saving, Storage and Carbon Emission Mitigation Application for Buildings)
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21 pages, 2034 KiB  
Review
Moving toward Net Zero Carbon Buildings to Face Global Warming: A Narrative Review
by Davide Tirelli and Daniela Besana
Buildings 2023, 13(3), 684; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030684 - 5 Mar 2023
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 10209
Abstract
The increase in global surface temperatures will surpass the 2 °C target set by the Paris Agreement unless carbon emissions are lowered to zero by 2050. To date, the building sector is responsible for 38% of all carbon emissions, thus one of the [...] Read more.
The increase in global surface temperatures will surpass the 2 °C target set by the Paris Agreement unless carbon emissions are lowered to zero by 2050. To date, the building sector is responsible for 38% of all carbon emissions, thus one of the main targets is represented by the development of building strategies that can facilitate the transition toward carbon-neutral buildings. The main strategies are today represented by nearly zero energy buildings (nZEBs), zero energy buildings (ZEBs)/net zero energy buildings (NZEBs) and net zero carbon buildings (NZCBs). Particularly, NZCBs completely target zero operational and embodied carbon during their life cycles, fulfilling the leadership role in the decarbonization of the construction sector. Moreover, adopting the European Standard EN 15978:2011, carbon emissions can be precisely classified to enhance strategies aimed at reducing them. Commercial viability remains a fundamental economic driver, but the higher initial capital costs hinder the NZCBs. In addition, legislative, socio-cultural, technological, professional and geographical barriers hold back its diffusion. NZCBs can be met by a four-steps program: embodied carbon reduction, operational carbon reduction, increase in renewable energy supply and offset and carbon storage. Circular economy principles are strictly connected to design for disassembly and for adaptability to reduce embodied carbon, while passive design and solar and geothermal energy production can satisfy the renewable energy demand of the building. The aim of this narrative review is to determine and describe which is the current state of the art for NZCB definition, the drivers and barriers toward its application in a broader context and which strategies are eligible to meet the ambitious goal of zero operational and zero embodied carbon emissions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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20 pages, 1622 KiB  
Review
Socio-Spatial Experience in Space Syntax Research: A PRISMA-Compliant Review
by Ju Hyun Lee, Michael J. Ostwald and Ling Zhou
Buildings 2023, 13(3), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030644 - 28 Feb 2023
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6225
Abstract
Characterising and predicting socio-spatial experience has long been a key research question in space syntax research. Due to the lack of synthesised knowledge about it, this review conducts the first systematic scoping review of space syntax research on the relationships between spatial properties [...] Read more.
Characterising and predicting socio-spatial experience has long been a key research question in space syntax research. Due to the lack of synthesised knowledge about it, this review conducts the first systematic scoping review of space syntax research on the relationships between spatial properties and experiential values. Adopting the “Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses” (PRISMA) framework, this review of space syntax research identifies 38 studies that examine socio-spatial experiences in architectural, medical, and urban spaces. The data arising from this systematic review are used to identify trends in this sub-field of research, including the growth of socio-spatial methods and applications in urban analytics since 2016 and key methodological approaches, characteristics, and factors in space syntax research about socio-spatial experience. The research identified using the systematic framework employs a mixture of descriptive, correlation, and regression methods to examine the dynamic effects of spatial configurations on human experiences. Arising from the results of the review, the article further identifies a collective, predictive model consisting of five syntactic predictors and three categories of experiential values. This article, finally, examines research gaps and limitations in the body of knowledge and suggests future research directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Analytical Methods for Buildings and Cities: Space Syntax and Shape Grammar)
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22 pages, 6411 KiB  
Article
Multi-Criteria Decision-Making of Countermeasure Combination for Mitigating the Stack Effect in High-Rise Office Building
by Yiran Li, Neng Zhu and Yingzhen Hou
Buildings 2023, 13(3), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030653 - 28 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2128
Abstract
Energy loss and performance deterioration caused by the stack effect are emerging issues in high-rise office buildings (HROB). However, a single countermeasure may not completely remove the stack effect problems, so combinations of countermeasures are often considered in building commissioning or retrofit projects [...] Read more.
Energy loss and performance deterioration caused by the stack effect are emerging issues in high-rise office buildings (HROB). However, a single countermeasure may not completely remove the stack effect problems, so combinations of countermeasures are often considered in building commissioning or retrofit projects to achieve the desired results. Therefore, a comprehensive study on combinations is necessary for the final decision-making. In this study, a multi-criteria decision-making model is proposed, which is utilized to calculate the ranking of countermeasure combinations for the final decision-making index by assigning weights and conducting comprehensive analysis on four criteria: infiltration energy loss, maximum pressure difference, investment cost, and implementation resistance. Based on a two-level Fractional-Factorial design (FFD), the interaction effects between countermeasures were verified, and the regression models of infiltration energy loss and maximum pressure difference were obtained as well. The investment cost and implementation resistance were defined according to the investigation and survey. An Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was applied to establish the weights of each criterion. A weighted Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method was applied to establish the decision-making index. Through the case study of a HROB located in northern China, it was concluded that the ideal combination can reduce infiltration and pressure difference by 26.88% and 87.58%, respectively, with low-level investment costs and implementation resistance. The results indicate that the multi-criteria model provides a comprehensive ranking of countermeasure combinations, which can serve as a quantitative basis for the final decision-making. Furthermore, this multi-criteria decision-making approach can be extended to other buildings in other regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment, 2nd Edition)
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16 pages, 1936 KiB  
Review
Lean-BIM Approach for Improving the Performance of a Construction Project in the Design Phase
by Karim EL Mounla, Djaoued Beladjine, Karim Beddiar and Bélahcène Mazari
Buildings 2023, 13(3), 654; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030654 - 28 Feb 2023
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 12710
Abstract
Over the last decade, the construction industry has suffered from various issues affecting the planning processes, team management, and decision-making during the design phase. Today, the concepts of Lean construction and Building Information Modeling (BIM) overlap and bring solutions to all phases of [...] Read more.
Over the last decade, the construction industry has suffered from various issues affecting the planning processes, team management, and decision-making during the design phase. Today, the concepts of Lean construction and Building Information Modeling (BIM) overlap and bring solutions to all phases of a construction project. Numerous studies have shown that leveraging BIM data through Lean principles can significantly improve the overall management of a project. However, the literature is still limited to optimizing the design phase to anticipate any deviation before the start of the work. This article aims to provide an updated review of the interaction between BIM and Lean in the design phase. The study is based on a systematic review of 61 articles selected using the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) approach. The obtained results allowed for the analysis of different Lean methods and tools that interact with BIM. Digitizing these methods and using them together is necessary to facilitate their application in a construction project. Finally, our study provides recommendations for researchers and professionals by identifying future scientific challenges. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application and Practice of Building Information Modeling (BIM))
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21 pages, 5472 KiB  
Article
Modelling Strategies for the Updating of Infilled RC Building FEMs Considering the Construction Phases
by Vanni Nicoletti and Fabrizio Gara
Buildings 2023, 13(3), 598; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030598 - 24 Feb 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2039
Abstract
This paper deals with modelling strategies for the updating of Finite Element Models (FEMs) of infilled Reinforced Concrete (RC) frame buildings. As is known, this building typology is the most adopted worldwide for residential houses and strategic buildings, such as hospitals, schools, police [...] Read more.
This paper deals with modelling strategies for the updating of Finite Element Models (FEMs) of infilled Reinforced Concrete (RC) frame buildings. As is known, this building typology is the most adopted worldwide for residential houses and strategic buildings, such as hospitals, schools, police stations, etc. The importance of achieving trustworthy numerical models for these kinds of structures, especially the latter ones, is clear. The updating procedure mainly consists in changing the geometrical and mechanical material properties of models until pre-determined convergence criteria are verified, the latter based on the comparison between numerical and experimental outcomes. In this work, the modelling strategies that can be adopted to refine FEMs of infilled RC buildings are treated in-depth, starting from the simple model usually developed for design purposes. Modelling techniques relevant to the geometry, the mechanical properties, the mass, and the restraint conditions of the model are discussed. Moreover, the approaches that can be adopted to calibrate numerical models during the construction process are addressed as well. Then, an application of the proposed strategies is provided with reference to a real building that was investigated during its construction. The proposed modelling strategies proved to be effective in the model updating of the considered building and provide useful support for the calibration of FEMs of this building typology in general. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Construction Process Monitoring and Structural Damage Identification for Buildings and Bridges)
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35 pages, 5929 KiB  
Article
A Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Model for Selecting the Best Project Delivery Systems for Offsite Construction Projects
by Mohamed Assaf, Mohamed Hussein, Sherif Abdelkhalek and Tarek Zayed
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 571; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020571 - 20 Feb 2023
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6118
Abstract
Off-site construction (OSC) is an innovative construction method that transfers most of the site-based work to a more controlled environment. Construction waste minimization, speedy schedules, higher sustainability, and better quality are some of the perceived benefits of OSC. Therefore, significant research attention has [...] Read more.
Off-site construction (OSC) is an innovative construction method that transfers most of the site-based work to a more controlled environment. Construction waste minimization, speedy schedules, higher sustainability, and better quality are some of the perceived benefits of OSC. Therefore, significant research attention has been given to OSC. However, minimal research attention has been given to procurement management in OSC, which could impact its pace of adoption. Existing studies on the procurement methods of OSC projects have overlooked several criteria related to OSC that impact the selection of the appropriate procurement methods (i.e., design-build, construction management, etc.). In addition, the literature lacks decision-making tools to assist OSC practitioners in selecting the appropriate procurement method. In this regard, this study contributes to the body of knowledge by (1) identifying the criteria that impact the selection of OSC procurement methods; (2) developing a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) model to select the appropriate OSC procurement methods. The developed MCDM model uses a hybrid approach of analytic network process (ANP) and evidential reasoning (ER). The ANP, which considers the interdependencies among the collected OSC procurement criteria, is used to calculate the relative importance weights through questionnaire surveys. The ER method evaluates various OSC procurement methods in accordance with the criteria importance weights. The results indicate that project quality, cost control, and funding arrangement are the prominent selection factors. On the other hand, the model reveals that the integrated project delivery (IPD) and construction management (CM) methods have the highest utility scores. The MCDM model has been validated by comparing the results with similar studies. The present study could assist OSC practitioners in selecting the appropriate procurement method for OSC projects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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14 pages, 4456 KiB  
Article
Predicting the Influence of Soil–Structure Interaction on Seismic Responses of Reinforced Concrete Frame Buildings Using Convolutional Neural Network
by Jishuai Wang, Yazhou Xie, Tong Guo and Zhenyu Du
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020564 - 18 Feb 2023
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3826
Abstract
Most regional seismic damage assessment (RSDA) methods are based on the rigid-base assumption to ensure evaluating efficiency, while these practices introduce factual errors due to neglecting the soil–structure interaction (SSI). Predicting the influence of the SSI on seismic responses of regionwide structure portfolios [...] Read more.
Most regional seismic damage assessment (RSDA) methods are based on the rigid-base assumption to ensure evaluating efficiency, while these practices introduce factual errors due to neglecting the soil–structure interaction (SSI). Predicting the influence of the SSI on seismic responses of regionwide structure portfolios remains a challenging undertaking, as it requires developing numerous high-fidelity, integrated models to capture the dynamic interplay and uncertainties in structures, foundations, and supporting soils. This study develops a one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) model to efficiently predict to what degree considering the SSI would change the inter-story drifts and base shear forces of RC frame buildings. An experimentally validated finite element model is developed to simulate the nonlinear seismic behavior of the building-foundation–soil system. Subsequently, a database comprising input data (i.e., structural and soil parameters, ground motions) and output predictors (i.e., changes in story drift and base shear) is constructed by simulating 1380 pairs of fixed-base versus soil-supported structures under earthquake loading. This large-scale dataset is used to train, test, and identify the optimal hyperparameters for the 1D-CNN model to quantify the demand differences in inter-story drifts and base shears due to the SSI. Results indicate the 1D-CNN model has a superior performance, and the absolute prediction errors of the SSI influence coefficients for the maximum base shear and inter-story drift are within 9.3% and 11.7% for 80% of cases in the testing set. The deep learning model can be conveniently applied to enhance the accuracy of the RSDA of RC buildings by updating their seismic responses where no SSI is considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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19 pages, 1913 KiB  
Article
Implementing Lean Construction: A Literature Study of Barriers, Enablers, and Implications
by Sina Moradi and Piia Sormunen
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 556; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020556 - 17 Feb 2023
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 12730
Abstract
The challenges of adopting and implementing lean construction (LC) have led to substantial but isolated research studies concerning the relevant barriers, enablers, and implications, which lack a comprehensive approach and analytical as well as conceptual perspectives. Hence, this study aims to fill the [...] Read more.
The challenges of adopting and implementing lean construction (LC) have led to substantial but isolated research studies concerning the relevant barriers, enablers, and implications, which lack a comprehensive approach and analytical as well as conceptual perspectives. Hence, this study aims to fill the mentioned knowledge gap by identifying the barriers, enablers, and implications of implementing lean construction and exploring their relatedness. A systematic literature review was carried out through which 230 located studies were analyzed using thematic and content analysis methods to realize the objectives of this study. The findings suggest that the lack of awareness and understanding of LC, resistance to change, and a lack of support and commitment from top management are the top three barriers toward LC adoption and implementation, which can be overcome using the identified enablers, among which the top three ones were developing lean culture, application of lean principles tools and techniques, and top management support and commitment. Moreover, the results present a model which portrays the relatedness between the discovered barriers, enablers, and implications of applying lean construction. The findings can be insightful for the research community and project practitioners in their efforts for facilitating the adoption and implementation of lean construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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20 pages, 1370 KiB  
Article
A Study of the Soft Skills Possessed and Required in the Construction Sector
by Andries (Hennie) van Heerden, Mostafa Babaeian Jelodar, Gregory Chawynski and Sean Ellison
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 522; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020522 - 14 Feb 2023
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 9222
Abstract
Soft skills are essential to employability and retention; therefore, if obtained and observed, they can significantly reduce sector-wide turnover. This study aims to investigate and compare soft skills that industry professionals currently possess and soft skills the industry requires and needs to attain. [...] Read more.
Soft skills are essential to employability and retention; therefore, if obtained and observed, they can significantly reduce sector-wide turnover. This study aims to investigate and compare soft skills that industry professionals currently possess and soft skills the industry requires and needs to attain. A questionnaire was administered using the RICS database, and 741 respondents participated in this study. Initially, the soft skills possessed and the soft skills required were analysed and compared via descriptive statistics. Furthermore, principal component factor analysis was used to identify the underlying factors and classify the identified soft skills. It was found that there are alignments and evident discrepancies between the actual skills currently possessed and the skills required by these professionals. The soft skills currently possessed by the industry were classified into three groups: (a) Ethics and Professionalism Cluster; (b) Self-Effort Management Cluster; and (c) Management—Leadership and Power Cluster. This was different to the two clusters identified for the soft skills requirements, which were: (a) trait-based cluster—less controllable; (b) training-based cluster—more controllable. The study concludes that there are controllable and less-controllable skills, which need to be possessed and managed in building professionals. Controllable soft skills are easier to train, whereas trait-based soft skills are more difficult to train and possess. The findings of this research are significant as their understanding can be used to help mitigate turnover and guide construction sector professionals to plan for the appropriate skills they require. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Workforce Development and Education in the Construction Industry: Challenges and Strategies)
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17 pages, 7460 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study on Inner Interface Mechanical Properties of the ESDCM Pile with Steel Core
by Hua Bao, Jie Peng, Zhangjianing Cheng, Junqing Hong and Yuan Gao
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020486 - 10 Feb 2023
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2391
Abstract
The mechanical property of the pile-core–cement-soil interface is a crucial factor affecting the shaft capacity of the expanded stiffened deep-cement-mixing (ESDCM) pile. The research on the characteristics of the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface is very limited, and the conventional concrete–cement-soil interface research results cannot provide [...] Read more.
The mechanical property of the pile-core–cement-soil interface is a crucial factor affecting the shaft capacity of the expanded stiffened deep-cement-mixing (ESDCM) pile. The research on the characteristics of the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface is very limited, and the conventional concrete–cement-soil interface research results cannot provide direct guidance for the engineering application of the steel-pipe–cement-soil combination pile. Hence, in this study, we employed a model pile with a steel-pipe–cement-soil combination. By using a confining pressure transfer test and an inner interface shear test, the influence of confining pressure on the inner interface and shear deformation of the inner interface were investigated. The results demonstrated that the lateral confining pressure has almost no effect on the inner interface due to the encapsulation of the soil-cement column. The interface shear experienced four stages: the steel pipe small deformation, which is the extra stage compared to the common concrete–cement-soil combination form; the whole pipe compression; the brittle failure; and the shear-slip stage. The peak shear stress at the interface is 194 kPa, and the corresponding pile core top displacement and core bottom displacement are 5.9 mm and 5.4 mm, respectively. The inner interface bond coefficient is only 0.052, indicating that even the smooth steel pipe can work closely with the cement-soil at a low bonding coefficient. Further optimization of the steel-pipe–cement-soil interface structure can be an essential means to improve the mechanical properties of the pile. When the upper load is transferred downward, it spreads around through the cement-soil, and as the load increases, the load that can finally be transferred to the deep part accounts for a relatively small amount, only about 7%. This work promotes the understanding of the interface mechanical properties of ESDCM piles and guides the application of an ESDCM pile with a steel core in practical engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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24 pages, 6534 KiB  
Article
Data-Driven Model-Based Control Strategies to Improve the Cooling Performance of Commercial and Institutional Buildings
by Etienne Saloux and Kun Zhang
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020474 - 9 Feb 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2597
Abstract
The increasing amount of operational data in buildings opens up new methods for improving building performance through advanced controls. Although predictive control has been widely investigated in the literature, field demonstrations still remain rare. Alternatively, model-based controls can provide similar improvement while being [...] Read more.
The increasing amount of operational data in buildings opens up new methods for improving building performance through advanced controls. Although predictive control has been widely investigated in the literature, field demonstrations still remain rare. Alternatively, model-based controls can provide similar improvement while being easier to implement in real buildings. This paper investigates three data-driven model-based control strategies to improve the cooling performance of commercial and institutional buildings: (a) chiller sequencing, (b) free cooling, and (c) supply air temperature reset. These energy efficiency measures are applied to an existing commercial building in Canada with data from summer 2020 and 2021. The impact of each measure is individually assessed, as well as their combined effects. The results show that all three of the measures together reduce building cooling energy by 12% and cooling system electric energy by 33%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Practical Applications of Model Predictive Control and Other Advanced Control Methods in the Built Environment)
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22 pages, 7145 KiB  
Article
Research on the Preferred Illuminance in Office Environments Based on EEG
by Li Tong, Nian Liu, Songtao Hu, Mingli Lu, Yuxi Zheng and Xiaohui Ma
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020467 - 8 Feb 2023
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3957
Abstract
The quality of the indoor light environment in buildings directly influences the emotional state, health condition, and work efficiency of people. The application of EEG to indoor light environments is beneficial to further reveal the neural mechanisms of light comfort. In this study, [...] Read more.
The quality of the indoor light environment in buildings directly influences the emotional state, health condition, and work efficiency of people. The application of EEG to indoor light environments is beneficial to further reveal the neural mechanisms of light comfort. In this study, the absolute power of spontaneous EEG was calculated as an objective physiological index, and its trend with the illuminance level of the task area was analyzed. Then, the absolute power of the band, which has the strongest correlation with subjective evaluation and task performance, was selected as the characteristic value. The subjective and objective parameters were validated to explore the preferred illuminance choices for subjects’ comfort and efficiency during the rest stage and the task stage, respectively. The results showed that the power of the δ band and β band at partial channels in the parietal region had statistically significant differences under five illuminance levels in the resting state. The total logarithmic power of EEG and the logarithmic power of the δ band at the Cz channel were negatively correlated with the subjective evaluation. The total logarithmic power of EEG was relatively low when the subjective evaluation was comfortable. There was no statistical difference in the total EEG logarithmic power among the five illuminance levels in the task state, but the subjects had the highest performance indicator and the best cognitive task performance at 500 lux and 750 lux conditions. This research may provide a design reference for the selection of task area illuminance levels for staff during high-intensity mental work and rest. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Physical Environments on Occupant Comfort)
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27 pages, 23008 KiB  
Article
Architecture for Community-Based Ageing—A Shape Grammar for Transforming Typical Single-Family Houses into Older People’s Cohousing in Slovenia
by Ana Belčič and Sara Eloy
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020453 - 7 Feb 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3761
Abstract
In Slovenia, the existing organised housing infrastructure for people over 65 years of age is insufficient and lacks diversification. Older people are often homeowners, many of whom dwell in large, underused single-family houses that require adaptations. Some have the potential to be transformed [...] Read more.
In Slovenia, the existing organised housing infrastructure for people over 65 years of age is insufficient and lacks diversification. Older people are often homeowners, many of whom dwell in large, underused single-family houses that require adaptations. Some have the potential to be transformed into small co-housing communities of 3–6 older people. The houses in question are mostly pattern-book houses of various types, built in the first decades after WWII. To approach the problem of converting this mass resource while providing enough flexibility for individual customisation, a shape grammar was proposed, with the intension of expanding the range of design variations for the transformation of single-family houses and presenting them to both users and architects for further assessment. The shape grammar was inferred based on a corpus of case studies developed by architecture students across two weeklong workshops. Three general strategies emerged—splitting the house vertically (according to sleeping/private and living/communal functions), horizontally, or with the maximum number of sleeping/private spaces. Essential spaces were catalogued to determine the conditions and requirements for assigning every transformation rule. The result was a simple, yet versatile composition generator. Through the development of a user-friendly interface, this resource could be used to empower potential inhabitants in the transformation design process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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22 pages, 3576 KiB  
Concept Paper
Data Cooperatives as a Catalyst for Collaboration, Data Sharing and the Digital Transformation of the Construction Sector
by Michael Max Bühler, Konrad Nübel, Thorsten Jelinek, David Riechert, Thomas Bauer, Thomas Schmid and Martin Schneider
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020442 - 5 Feb 2023
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5917
Abstract
Digital federated platforms and data cooperatives for secure, trusted and sovereign data exchange will play a central role in the construction industry of the future. With the help of platforms, cooperatives and their novel value creation, the digital transformation and the degree of [...] Read more.
Digital federated platforms and data cooperatives for secure, trusted and sovereign data exchange will play a central role in the construction industry of the future. With the help of platforms, cooperatives and their novel value creation, the digital transformation and the degree of organization of the construction value chain can be taken to a new level of collaboration. The goal of this research project was to develop an experimental prototype for a federated innovation data platform along with a suitable exemplary use case. The prototype is to serve the construction industry as a demonstrator for further developments and form the basis for an innovation platform. It exemplifies how an overall concept is concretely implemented along one or more use cases that address high-priority industry pain points. This concept will create a blueprint and a framework for further developments, which will then be further established in the market. The research project illuminates the perspective of various governance innovations to increase industry collaboration, productivity and capital project performance and transparency as well as the overall potential of possible platform business models. However, a comprehensive expert survey revealed that there are considerable obstacles to trust-based data exchange between the key stakeholders in the industry value network. The obstacles to cooperation are predominantly not of a technical nature but rather of a competitive, predominantly trust-related nature. To overcome these obstacles and create a pre-competitive space of trust, the authors therefore propose the governance structure of a data cooperative model, which is discussed in detail in this paper. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data-Driven and Intelligent Decision Support Systems in Digitized Construction)
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14 pages, 4287 KiB  
Article
Portland/Sulfoaluminate Cement Blends for the Control of Early Age Hydration and Yield Stress
by Noura Khalil, Georges Aouad, Joelle Kleib and Sebastien Rémond
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020409 - 2 Feb 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2322
Abstract
Early age hydration and the rheological behavior of cement pastes are related to their reactivity. The reactivity of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and calcium sulfoaluminate cement (CSA) blends, with a CSA percentage of less than 10%, are investigated in this paper. Different percentages [...] Read more.
Early age hydration and the rheological behavior of cement pastes are related to their reactivity. The reactivity of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) and calcium sulfoaluminate cement (CSA) blends, with a CSA percentage of less than 10%, are investigated in this paper. Different percentages of CSA replacement are studied. First, an isothermal calorimetry study of the different cement pastes is performed to understand the effect of CSA on the evolution of the heat of hydration. Then, in order to understand the reactional mechanism of these cement pastes, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA/DTG) studies were conducted on one blended mix made out of 7% CSA and compared to the pure cement pastes of OPC and CSA. Later, the evolution of the yield stress as a function of the CSA percentage was studied. A synergy is shown between both OPC and CSA once mixed together, leading to a 57% and 45% higher ettringite formation for the blend compared to 100% OPC and 100% CSA cement pastes, respectively. This implies that the CSA amount affects the reactivity of OPC/CSA blends. This was confirmed by the variation in both the heat of hydration and yield stress evolution as a function of the percentage of CSA. Full article
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30 pages, 5941 KiB  
Article
Overheating Risk Analysis in Long-Term Care Homes—Development of Overheating Limit Criteria
by Abdelaziz Laouadi, Lili Ji, Chang Shu, Liangzhu (Leon) Wang and Michael A. Lacasse
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 390; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020390 - 1 Feb 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3415
Abstract
Climate heat waves occurring in urban centers are a serious threat to public health and wellbeing. Historically, most heat-related mortalities have arisen from excessive overheating of building interiors housing older occupants. This paper developed an approach that combines the results from building simulation [...] Read more.
Climate heat waves occurring in urban centers are a serious threat to public health and wellbeing. Historically, most heat-related mortalities have arisen from excessive overheating of building interiors housing older occupants. This paper developed an approach that combines the results from building simulation and bioheat models to generate health-based limit criteria for overheating in long-term care homes (LTCHs) by which the body dehydration and core temperature of older residents are capped during overheating events. The models of the LTCHs were created for buildings representative of old and current construction practices for selected Canadian locations. The models were calibrated using measurements of indoor temperature and humidity acquired from monitoring the building interiors and the use of published building energy use intensity data. A general procedure to identify overheating events and quantify their attributes in terms of duration, intensity, and severity was developed and applied to LTCHs to generate the limit criteria. Comparing the limit criteria from the proposed and comfort-based methods showed evident differences. The proposed method predicted the overheating risk consistent with the overall thermal comfort during overheating events in contrast to the comfort-based methods. The new limit criteria are intended to be used in any study to evaluate overheating risk in similar buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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22 pages, 4584 KiB  
Article
BIM and Ontology-Based DfMA Framework for Prefabricated Component
by Bing Qi and Aaron Costin
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020394 - 1 Feb 2023
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3856
Abstract
The integration of Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) into the design process of industrialized construction has the potential to reduce errors and changes occurring after the design has been finalized, ultimately improving overall productivity. Based on DfMA, the designers would need to [...] Read more.
The integration of Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) into the design process of industrialized construction has the potential to reduce errors and changes occurring after the design has been finalized, ultimately improving overall productivity. Based on DfMA, the designers would need to consider whether their designs meet the architectural and performance requirements, as well as the manufacturing and assembly requirements from assembly and manufacturing technicians. However, some limitations present challenges for DfMA-oriented prefabricated design, such as lack of information interoperability, lack of conflict detection and management, and inefficient data processing and requirement checking. Thus, this research presents a novel BIM and ontology-based framework for DfMA of prefabricated and modular components. Various types of algorithms, plugins, and programming are also integrated to support the operation of the framework. The primary functions of this framework include: (1) collection of various stakeholder requirements in a standardized data format; (2) conflict detection and resolution between the design, manufacturing, and assembly requirements; and (3) automated compliance checking of whether the designed BIM models meet DfMA requirements. This research applies the framework on a prefabricated hotel project as a case study to validate the feasibility of the framework. Based on the results of a user experience survey, the developed framework shows promise for improving the DfMA process and stakeholder communication. Although a few limitations were encountered, such as the low computer operating speed and the limited ontology, the framework has been validated and shows great potential in advancing prefabricated component design applications Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies in Prefabricated Buildings)
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25 pages, 2274 KiB  
Review
Current Trends in Stone Consolidation Research: An Overview and Discussion
by B. Sena da Fonseca
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020403 - 1 Feb 2023
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3708
Abstract
This work aims to reveal the recent research trends in the consolidation of stone-built heritage and discuss the advantages and drawbacks of the options and strategies followed by researchers over the last 10 years. Peer-reviewed articles were used to build a database and [...] Read more.
This work aims to reveal the recent research trends in the consolidation of stone-built heritage and discuss the advantages and drawbacks of the options and strategies followed by researchers over the last 10 years. Peer-reviewed articles were used to build a database and analyze the details of the stone samples (chemical nature, type of voids, and condition), treatment protocols (application methods and consolidation products), and testing methods to assess the strengthening results of the treatments. In addition, the reported increments in the mechanical properties were also examined to reveal the strengthening capabilities of recent consolidation treatments. The statistical treatment of the results allowed pinpointing the stone varieties that need more frequent consolidation actions (limestone, biocalcarenite, and sandstone) and the aspects that make them more difficult and riskier. Other tendencies were discussed, for example, the predominant use of sound samples over decayed samples (61% vs. 39%) or the predominant use of alkoxysilanes (~46%) over other families of consolidants (e.g., nanolime, ~21%). The current consolidation treatments were found to improve stone strength; however, the most problematic issue in state-of-the-art is the difficulty of identifying high-risk situations of over-consolidation or poor distribution in depth because of either the lack of testing or limitations of the various assessment techniques. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation of Porous Building Materials Used in Historical Constructions)
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23 pages, 4668 KiB  
Article
An Analysis of Real-Time Measured Solar Radiation and Daylight and Its Energy Implications for Semi-Transparent Building-Integrated Photovoltaic Façades
by Danny H. W. Li, Emmanuel I. Aghimien and Khalid Alshaibani
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 386; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020386 - 31 Jan 2023
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3504
Abstract
For analyzing cooling loads, day-lighting, and building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems, solar radiation and daylight illuminance data are required. However, these data are sparse. Furthermore, studies have shown that the energy potential of building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems for the entire building skin (BS) and [...] Read more.
For analyzing cooling loads, day-lighting, and building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems, solar radiation and daylight illuminance data are required. However, these data are sparse. Furthermore, studies have shown that the energy potential of building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems for the entire building skin (BS) and unconventional orientations, such as east, west, and north need further exploration. Thus, this study presents findings from measured solar data and an energy analysis of semi-transparent BIPV. Firstly, solar radiation and daylight data measured from June 2019 to May 2020 in Hong Kong are presented. The analyzed solar-radiation data were used to determine the solar-energy potential of BIPV for BS and the four principal building orientations (i.e., N, E, S and W). With a simple analytical approach, the solar data’s building-energy implications for semi-transparent BIPV were assessed. The findings showed that the annual average horizontal global-, diffuse-, and direct-irradiance values were 291.8, 164.3, and 127.5 W/m2/day, respectively. Similarly, 120, 72, and 107 klux were obtained as the peak global, diffuse, and direct illuminance, respectively. Furthermore, the results show the potential of using BIPV on the entire BS in Hong Kong. It was also observed that a semi-transparent BIPV façade integrated with daylight-linked lighting controls could offer significant energy savings in electric lighting and cooling while also producing energy. In particular, BIPV façades with a large window-to-wall ratio (WWR) of 80% can provide an overall energy benefit of up to 7126 kWh. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems II)
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17 pages, 7043 KiB  
Article
Green Walls as Retrofitting Measure: Influence on Energy Performance of Existing Industrial Buildings in Central Italy
by Neri Banti, Cecilia Ciacci, Vincenzo Di Naso and Frida Bazzocchi
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 369; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020369 - 29 Jan 2023
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2840
Abstract
Industrial buildings in Italy are currently highly energy intensive. Their old age prevents them from complying with current environmental and energy requirements; consequently, redevelopment initiatives should therefore be considered in order to improve the overall performances of these facilities. Within this framework, this [...] Read more.
Industrial buildings in Italy are currently highly energy intensive. Their old age prevents them from complying with current environmental and energy requirements; consequently, redevelopment initiatives should therefore be considered in order to improve the overall performances of these facilities. Within this framework, this research aims to evaluate the results achievable by introducing indirect green façades as retrofitting solutions. Starting from a real case study building located in central Italy, energy simulations were carried out using DesignBuilder, varying buildings’ geometry, dimensions and windows-to-wall ratios as well as greenery coverage percentage. The evidence shows an appreciable potential for green walls to improve the summer performance of industrial buildings, as they resulted in a reduction in cooling energy demand during the summer season of about 14%. Moreover, external surface temperature was reduced by 8 °C during the hottest days, ensuring higher durability in building components. Furthermore, indoor air temperature during the summer design week decreased by 0.6 °C. During the winter season, the green façades avoid exploiting free solar gains due to incident solar radiation, and a slight increase of about 4% occurred in heating energy needs. For this reason, the implementation of deciduous vegetation species should be evaluated for industrial buildings located in Mediterranean latitudes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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16 pages, 1515 KiB  
Article
Towards a Conceptual Framework of Using Technology to Support Smart Construction: The Case of Modular Integrated Construction (MiC)
by Becky P. Y. Loo and Rosana W. M. Wong
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 372; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020372 - 29 Jan 2023
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7493
Abstract
Construction is a major source of carbon emissions. Moreover, it faces various other sustainability challenges, such as construction waste, construction noise, vehicular traffic near construction sites, dust and other air and water pollutants, and safety and well-being of construction workers. Poorly designed and [...] Read more.
Construction is a major source of carbon emissions. Moreover, it faces various other sustainability challenges, such as construction waste, construction noise, vehicular traffic near construction sites, dust and other air and water pollutants, and safety and well-being of construction workers. Poorly designed and constructed buildings will continue to affect the well-being of their occupants and overall energy efficiency throughout the building lifecycle. Hence, accelerating the transformation of the construction industry towards smart construction or Construction 4.0 is an important topic. The ways that technology can help to achieve smart construction, especially with the adoption of construction methods with increasing construction modularity, should be further explored. Focusing on modular integrated construction (MiC), this paper examines the following questions: (1) How has technology been applied to support MiC development and smart construction in Hong Kong? (2) What are the lessons learned? A case study approach of a building information model (BIM)-enabled multifunctional blockchain-based digital platform is adopted to allow us to systematically consider (1) the main objectives and scope, (2) the stakeholders involved, (3) the key outcomes and processes, (4) the applications of blockchain technology, and (5) the integration with other digital software and management platforms in practice. Drawing upon the experience, we propose a generic four-stage approach in understanding and facilitating the adoption of relevant technology towards smart construction. At Stage One, the technologies of BIM, RFID, and blockchain are applied to support the core elements of MiC production: just-in-time transportation and on-site installation. At Stage Two, the digital platform is extended to serve as an interface for third parties, notably government; monitoring, authentication, and certifications for information sharing; visualization; and real-time monitoring and updating of MiC projects. At Stage Three, the system focuses on people in the construction process, aiming to enhance the safety and well-being of workers and drivers throughout the construction process. Different Internet-of-Thing devices and sensors, construction robotics, closed-circuit television, dashboards, and cloud-based monitoring are deployed. At Stage Four, the full construction lifecycle is the focus, whereby a centralized smart command theatre is set up with multiple sources of data in a city information model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart and Digital Construction in AEC Industry)
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22 pages, 106013 KiB  
Article
Experimental Application of Robotic Wire-and-Arc Additive Manufacturing Technique for Strengthening the I-Beam Profiles
by Harald Kloft, Linus Paul Schmitz, Christoph Müller, Vittoria Laghi, Neira Babovic and Abtin Baghdadi
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 366; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020366 - 28 Jan 2023
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4004
Abstract
In recent years, the use of Wire-and-Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) for strengthening standardized steel elements received significant interest within the research community. The reason for this lies in the theoretical potential of WAAM to improve the economic and environmental aspects of contemporary steel [...] Read more.
In recent years, the use of Wire-and-Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) for strengthening standardized steel elements received significant interest within the research community. The reason for this lies in the theoretical potential of WAAM to improve the economic and environmental aspects of contemporary steel construction through efficient material consumption. As efficiency is often obtained through detailed design study, the paper presents a design exploration of suitable stiffener geometries under the assumption of infinite geometrical freedom. The assumption is eventually invalidated as process constraints specific to the generated geometries emerge from test trials. Once identified, process constraints are documented and overcome through adequate and precise path planning. Feasibility analysis is an important step between design and fabrication, especially in the case of large-scale or geometrically complex components. With reference to the case of stiffeners, a feasibility analysis is necessary to take into account the specific geometrical limits of the build volume, which is not typically the case for conventional WAAM fabrication. The current research provides the first investigation to understand the means for future on-site WAAM strengthening of existing steel structural elements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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13 pages, 8061 KiB  
Article
Assessment of Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Cement-Based Materials—Part 1: Crumb Rubber Concrete
by Alexandra Cojocaru, Dorina Nicolina Isopescu, Sebastian George Maxineasa and Sergiu George Petre
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020324 - 21 Jan 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2415
Abstract
The energy performance of buildings and the high consumption of traditional building materials are considered to be the most important aspects that are related to the implementation of the sustainability concept in the construction industry with respect to the natural environment. At the [...] Read more.
The energy performance of buildings and the high consumption of traditional building materials are considered to be the most important aspects that are related to the implementation of the sustainability concept in the construction industry with respect to the natural environment. At the same time, another important global ecological problem is represented by different types of waste resulting from existing industries. Therefore, it is necessary that civil engineering specialists find new solutions and materials that can improve the thermal and environmental performances of buildings by taking into consideration the large amounts of existing waste. Taking into account the fact that concrete is the most used material in the construction sector and that concrete elements have a significant influence over the overall energy performance of a building, the present paper takes under observation the use of tire rubber waste as a replacement for concrete aggregates. This study considers a replacement of 10%, 20%, and 30% of the 4–8 mm aggregates with crumb rubber cylindrical granules. The resulting values show an improvement in the thermal performance, but at the same time, the mechanical properties are reduced. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Characterization of Advanced and Sustainable Cement-Based Materials)
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21 pages, 7392 KiB  
Article
Data-Driven Shear Strength Prediction of FRP-Reinforced Concrete Beams without Stirrups Based on Machine Learning Methods
by Yuanzhang Yang and Gaoyang Liu
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020313 - 20 Jan 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2463
Abstract
Due to the intrinsic complexity, there has been no widely accepted mechanics-based estimation model of the shear performance of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP)-reinforced concrete beams. Capitalizing on a large amount of previous experimental data, data-driven machine learning (ML) models could be potentially suitable for [...] Read more.
Due to the intrinsic complexity, there has been no widely accepted mechanics-based estimation model of the shear performance of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP)-reinforced concrete beams. Capitalizing on a large amount of previous experimental data, data-driven machine learning (ML) models could be potentially suitable for addressing this problem. In this paper, four existing shear design provisions are reviewed and four typical ML models are analyzed. The accuracy of codified methods and ML models are compared and analyzed based on our established extensive database of FRP-reinforced concrete beams with rectangular cross sections. A series of artificially selected features considering the shear-carrying mechanisms of FRP-reinforced beams are incorporated into the proposed ML models to show their influence on the model validity. Bayesian optimization is utilized to automatically tune the hyperparameters of different ML models. Compared to the most satisfying codified predictions from CSA S806, the best ML model, XGBoost, can provide more accurate and consistent predictions for the database, with R2 enhanced by 15% and the MAE and RMSE reduced by 59% and 52%, respectively. With the selected features based on domain knowledge, the performance of ML models is further enhanced, shown by the most important features being the added ones. With outstanding performance on a large database and singular test, the ML approaches have great potential in guiding the shear design of FRP-reinforced concrete. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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23 pages, 5373 KiB  
Article
Seven Centuries of Church Architectural Evolution and Its Influence on Indoor Acoustics: The Case of the Dome of Conegliano in Italy
by Federica Bettarello, Luciano Caniato and Marco Caniato
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020299 - 19 Jan 2023
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3698
Abstract
Sacred constructions like churches are built both for holy and architectural purposes. They are influenced by the design fashions, city history and the government. When a church, or more generally a religious building, is constructed, it is rarely torn down. Instead, these kinds [...] Read more.
Sacred constructions like churches are built both for holy and architectural purposes. They are influenced by the design fashions, city history and the government. When a church, or more generally a religious building, is constructed, it is rarely torn down. Instead, these kinds of edifices are refurbished, expanded and modified according to the architectural trend of a specific period. The indoor activities of the church have changed over time, especially after the Second Vatican Council. Thus, it can be interesting to study the past modifications of churches and their features and uses. The aim of this paper is to explore the influence of a building’s history on the architectural change over time and more specifically, the subsequent influence on the indoor acoustic field. Additionally, this study aims to show how a precise and scientific reconstruction of a church’s history, using ancient documents, can provide researchers with a valuable method of investigation. Furthermore, this study aims to analyze the indoor acoustics of these holy buildings over time and elucidate whether these were considered or not for the purposes of the contemporary sacred celebrations. Therefore, in this paper, the Dome of Conegliano (Italy) is the focus of the present study. Detailed historical research was performed by means of reviewing ancient documents to faithfully reconstruct the Dome’s history. Furthermore, acoustic measurements were executed to characterize its shape in our times. Using these results, the ancient configuration of the dome was reconstructed virtually and compared to the contemporary one. Interestingly, the results show that seven centuries of history did influence the church’s architecture and consequently its indoor acoustics. The source–receiver distance has been shown to be an influential parameter, determining that the church is acoustically more suitable for listening to music rather than voice. Clearly, the Dome of Conegliano’s indoor acoustics were not modified or improved over time to fulfill their potential use, but the internal shape was modified according to the architectural fashion and to fulfill other requests as well as the structural requirements of the owners. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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21 pages, 1155 KiB  
Article
Developing Tools to Enable the UK Construction Industry to Adopt the Active Building Concept for Net Zero Carbon Buildings
by Joanna Clarke, John R. Littlewood and George Karani
Buildings 2023, 13(2), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020304 - 19 Jan 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4634
Abstract
The research project discussed in this paper is driven by the United Kingdom’s (UK’s) need to reduce operational energy and carbon by promoting the adoption of the Active Building (AB) concept for UK building projects. The AB concept offers a practical solution to [...] Read more.
The research project discussed in this paper is driven by the United Kingdom’s (UK’s) need to reduce operational energy and carbon by promoting the adoption of the Active Building (AB) concept for UK building projects. The AB concept offers a practical solution to reducing the operational energy use and carbon emissions of buildings by using emerging technologies applied to architectural design; thus, helping the UK meet its decarbonisation targets and, consequently, helping to combat the global problem of climate change. The aim of the project was to design and implement an AB Protocol with an AB Toolkit, to provide a knowledge base and sustainable architectural design guidance to aid the design of ABs. The AB Toolkit was tested, evaluated, and refined by engaging with architectural designers in the UK through focus groups (FGs) that combined data collection with knowledge dissemination—a method which provided a contribution to the continuous professional development (CPD) of architectural designers in the UK, while aiding the research project. The FG data proved the original hypothesis that a whole host of measures are needed to support the adoption of the AB concept (as outlined in the AB Protocol), but that some design guidance was needed initially to enable the development of other supporting measures. Therefore, the main output of this research project was the development of a structured approach to enable architectural designers and other built-environment professionals to adopt the AB concept for the delivery of net zero operational energy buildings, supporting the aims of the SPECIFIC Innovation and Knowledge Centre, Swansea University, and the Active Building Centre (ABC). The method of data collection developed, and the structured approach to enabling the adoption of a new concept outlined, could be beneficial to other researchers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital and Intelligent Approaches for Sustainable Architectural Design)
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18 pages, 3109 KiB  
Article
Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of Viscoelastic Damper by Applying Fractional Derivative Method and Internal Variable Theory
by Yeshou Xu, Qi He, Ying-Qing Guo, Xing-Huai Huang, Yao-Rong Dong, Zhong-Wei Hu and Jinkoo Kim
Buildings 2023, 13(1), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010239 - 14 Jan 2023
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3411
Abstract
Viscoelastic dampers are conventional passive vibration control devices with excellent energy dissipation performance. The fractional derivative has a simple form and high accuracy in the modelling of viscoelastic materials/dampers. The internal variables reflect the internal state evolution of materials, and are often used [...] Read more.
Viscoelastic dampers are conventional passive vibration control devices with excellent energy dissipation performance. The fractional derivative has a simple form and high accuracy in the modelling of viscoelastic materials/dampers. The internal variables reflect the internal state evolution of materials, and are often used to analyze the deformation and thermal process of materials. In the present work, the mechanical properties of a plate-shear-type viscoelastic damper at room temperature are tested under sinusoidal displacement excitations. The impacts of frequency and displacement amplitude on the dynamic properties of the viscoelastic damper in a wide frequency domain (0.1–25 Hz) are investigated. The higher-order fractional derivative model and the temperature–frequency equivalent principle are employed to characterize the frequency and temperature influence, and the internal variable theory considering the internal/microscale structure evolutions is introduced to capture the displacement affection. The higher-order fractional derivative model modified with the internal variable theory and temperature–frequency equivalent principle (ITHF) is accurate enough in describing the dynamic behaviors of viscoelastic dampers with varying frequencies and displacement amplitudes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Composite Materials for Structure Strengthening and Resilience Improving)
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24 pages, 7798 KiB  
Article
Conceptual Architectural Design at Scale: A Case Study of Community Participation Using Crowdsourcing
by Jonathan Dortheimer, Stephen Yang, Qian Yang and Aaron Sprecher
Buildings 2023, 13(1), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010222 - 13 Jan 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6817
Abstract
Architectural design decisions are primarily made through an interaction between an architect and a client during the conceptual design phase. However, in larger-scale public architecture projects, the client is frequently represented by a community that embraces numerous stakeholders. The scale, social diversity, and [...] Read more.
Architectural design decisions are primarily made through an interaction between an architect and a client during the conceptual design phase. However, in larger-scale public architecture projects, the client is frequently represented by a community that embraces numerous stakeholders. The scale, social diversity, and political layers of such collective clients make their interaction with architects challenging. A solution to address this challenge is using new information technologies that automate design interactions on an urban scale through crowdsourcing and artificial intelligence technologies. However, since such technologies have not yet been applied and tested in field conditions, it remains unknown how communities interact with such systems and whether useful concept designs can be produced in this way. To fill this gap in the literature, this paper reports the results of a case study architecture project where a novel crowdsourcing system was used to automate interactions with a community. The results of both quantitative and qualitative analyses revealed the effectiveness of our approach, which resulted in high-level stakeholder satisfaction and yielded conceptual designs that better reflect stakeholders’ preferences. Along with identifying opportunities for using advanced technologies to automate design interactions in the concept design phase, we also highlight the challenges of such technologies, thus warranting future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural Design Supported by Information Technology)
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18 pages, 10770 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Mortar from Casa Barbot (Portugal), a Case Study from the Beginning of the 20th Century
by Hamid Maljaee, António Santos Silva and Ana Velosa
Buildings 2023, 13(1), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010232 - 13 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2175
Abstract
The popularity of natural cement (Roman cement) in buildings from the late 19th and the beginning of the 20th century and the high diversity of characteristics of natural cement demand research of mortar and binders used in the buildings of this period in [...] Read more.
The popularity of natural cement (Roman cement) in buildings from the late 19th and the beginning of the 20th century and the high diversity of characteristics of natural cement demand research of mortar and binders used in the buildings of this period in Portugal. Understanding the type of binder used in the historic buildings will help the project/intervention team to make the best decisions in terms of the development of compatible mortars for historical conservation purposes. Casa Barbot is one of the Art Nouveau examples of the beginning of the 20th century in Portugal. The garden of this building is characterized by peculiar elements in terms of materials and architecture. Full characterization of the mortars employed in the construction of this building as well as identification of the used binder is the main objective of this study. The study comprises a wide range of laboratory characterization techniques such as X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), petrography, open porosity, density, water absorption by capillarity, and compressive strength. The results show the diversity of compositional characteristics in the mortars used in the decorative elements in the period garden of Casa Barbot. All mortars are composed of Portland cement with a mix of additives such as blast furnace slag, limestone filler, air lime, and the occasional presence of charcoal. The results raise doubt about the use of natural cement as stated in the historical documents. This study will broaden the scientific knowledge of the materials of that period in Portugal to provide a comprehensive plan for the preservation of historical buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: 'Building Materials and Repair & Renovation')
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14 pages, 5855 KiB  
Article
Bending Properties and Vibration Characteristics of Dowel-Laminated Timber Panels Made with Short Salvaged Timber Elements
by Lorenzo Giordano, Mohammad Derikvand and Gerhard Fink
Buildings 2023, 13(1), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010199 - 11 Jan 2023
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3802
Abstract
Salvaged timber elements often have length limitations, and therefore, their reuse in structural products normally would require additional processing and end-to-end joining. This increases the costs of reusing such materials, which makes them even less attractive to the timber sector. In the presented [...] Read more.
Salvaged timber elements often have length limitations, and therefore, their reuse in structural products normally would require additional processing and end-to-end joining. This increases the costs of reusing such materials, which makes them even less attractive to the timber sector. In the presented research, a new approach is proposed for reusing short, salvaged timber elements combined with new (full-scale) timber boards to fabricate dowel-laminated timber (DLT) panels without significant processing or end-to-end joining or gluing. In this approach, salvaged timber elements are pressed in the system in such a way that they can contribute to the bending performance of the DLT panels by resisting compression stress. In order to evaluate the effectiveness, several small-scale and large-scale DLT panels were fabricated. Salvaged plywood tenons were used as connectors. The bending stiffness of the small-scale DLT panels and the first eigenfrequency, damping ratio, bending properties, and failure modes of the large-scale DLT panels were evaluated. The results exhibited that by using the proposed approach, the short, salvaged timber elements can contribute substantially to the bending stiffness of the DLT panels without requiring end-to-end joining or gluing. On average, about a 40% increase in the bending stiffness could be achieved by pressing in the salvaged timber elements, which results in relatively similar stiffness properties compared to conventional DLT panels. One further characteristic is that the failure of the panels, and therefore the panel’s strength, is mainly governed by the quality of the full-scale timber boards instead of the salvaged ones. This can be beneficial for practical use as the qualitative assessment of the strength properties of salvaged timber becomes less critical. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Application and Performance of Timber in Construction)
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11 pages, 2582 KiB  
Perspective
Prospects for the Use of Textile-Reinforced Concrete in Buildings and Structures Maintenance
by Jeanette Orlowsky, Markus Beßling and Vitalii Kryzhanovskyi
Buildings 2023, 13(1), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010189 - 10 Jan 2023
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2722
Abstract
This paper discusses the state of the art in research on the use of textile-reinforced concretes in structural maintenance. Textile-reinforced concretes can be used in structural maintenance for various purposes, including the sealing and protection of the existing building structures, as well as [...] Read more.
This paper discusses the state of the art in research on the use of textile-reinforced concretes in structural maintenance. Textile-reinforced concretes can be used in structural maintenance for various purposes, including the sealing and protection of the existing building structures, as well as for the strengthening of structures. The first-mentioned aspects are explained in this paper on the basis of example applications. A special focus is placed on the maintenance of heritage-protected structures. The development, characterization, and testing of a textile-reinforced concrete system for a heritage-protected structure are presented. Examples of the application of textile-reinforced concrete for strengthening highway pavements and masonry are also given. In particular, the possibility of adapting the textile-reinforced concrete repair material to the needs of the individual building is one advantage of this composite material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Textile-Reinforced Concrete)
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16 pages, 1299 KiB  
Perspective
Challenges and Current Research Trends for Vernacular Architecture in a Global World: A Literature Review
by José María Fuentes Pardo
Buildings 2023, 13(1), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010162 - 9 Jan 2023
Cited by 42 | Viewed by 27399
Abstract
Vernacular architecture can be defined as a type of regional construction influenced by geography, available materials, climate, traditions, and culture that is produced by non-experts through knowledge transmitted and enriched from one generation to the next. In addition to their heritage value, traditional [...] Read more.
Vernacular architecture can be defined as a type of regional construction influenced by geography, available materials, climate, traditions, and culture that is produced by non-experts through knowledge transmitted and enriched from one generation to the next. In addition to their heritage value, traditional buildings are usually considered a model of sustainability in the use of available resources, with a minimal negative environmental impact, minimization of costs, and a reduction of energy demand. In the current context of the globalization of construction techniques and high requirements of comfortable dwellings, the preservation of vernacular architecture means a major challenge, given that this kind of architecture represents more than 75% of the world’s existing buildings. Based on a study of selected peer-reviewed literature indexed in the Web of Science for the period between 2000 and 2022, this paper qualitatively analyzes the current areas of research on vernacular architecture, with particular attention to the scope of the studies, traditional building materials and construction techniques, preservation problems and solutions, climate adaptation, and the reuse of abandoned vernacular buildings. In order to achieve the goal of preserving vernacular architecture in the coming centuries, research should continue in interdisciplinary teams by promoting fieldwork in under-studied regions and incorporating modern materials and solutions in old vernacular buildings to satisfy current comfort standards without excessively changing their essential features. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Vernacular Architecture)
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23 pages, 3330 KiB  
Perspective
Digital Technologies in Offsite and Prefabricated Construction: Theories and Applications
by Zhuo Cheng, Shengxian Tang, Hexu Liu and Zhen Lei
Buildings 2023, 13(1), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010163 - 9 Jan 2023
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 7776
Abstract
Due to its similarity to industrialized products, the offsite construction industry is seen as a focus for the transformation of Construction 4.0. Many digital technologies have been applied or have the potential to be applied to realize the integration of design, manufacturing, and [...] Read more.
Due to its similarity to industrialized products, the offsite construction industry is seen as a focus for the transformation of Construction 4.0. Many digital technologies have been applied or have the potential to be applied to realize the integration of design, manufacturing, and assembly. The main objective of this review was to identify the current stage of applying digital technologies in offsite construction. In this review, 171 related papers from the last 10 years (i.e., 2013–2022) were obtained by collecting and filtering them. They were classified and analyzed according to the digital twin concept, application areas, and specific application directions. The results indicated that there are apparent differences in the utilization and development level of different technologies in different years. Meanwhile, the introduction, current stages, and benefits of different digital technologies are also discussed. Finally, this review summarizes the current popular fields and speculates on future research directions by analyzing article publication trends, which sheds light on future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data-Driven and Intelligent Decision Support Systems in Digitized Construction)
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19 pages, 8742 KiB  
Article
Assessing Efficiency and Environmental Performance of a Nearly Zero-Energy University Building’s Energy System in Norway
by Fredrik Ege Abrahamsen, Sturla Grina Ruud and Alemayehu Gebremedhin
Buildings 2023, 13(1), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010169 - 9 Jan 2023
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3427
Abstract
Increasing awareness of climate issues in recent decades has led to new policies on buildings’ energy consumption and energy performance. The European Union (EU) directive 2010/31/EC, i.e., the energy performance of buildings directive (EPBD), is one of the measures initiated to achieve climate [...] Read more.
Increasing awareness of climate issues in recent decades has led to new policies on buildings’ energy consumption and energy performance. The European Union (EU) directive 2010/31/EC, i.e., the energy performance of buildings directive (EPBD), is one of the measures initiated to achieve climate and energy goals by reducing energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in the building sector. The EPBD required all new buildings to be nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEBs) by 2021. Nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEBs) are buildings with a very-high-energy performance and nearly zero or low-energy requirements covered to a very significant extent by energy from renewable sources produced on-site or nearby. The utilisation of solar photovoltaic (PV) panels is a common approach for achieving the nZEB standard. The carbon footprint of PV panels is often not discussed as a parameter. This paper aimed to analyse the environmental performance of an existing nearly zero-energy university building in a Norwegian use case scenario. This analysis is performed by assessing annual electricity and heat consumption from both energetic and environmental perspectives. The energy required for the building during the studied period is then used to analyse the environmental and energy performance of the building. When it comes to the environmental assessment, the commercial software SimaPro was used. The proposed revision EPBD and nZEB definition from 2021 suggests that nZEBs should also consider operational greenhouse gas emissions and life-cycle global warming potential from 2027. The life cycle assessment (LCA) of the building’s energy sources looks at the global warming potential (GWP) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and how they compare to Norwegian grid electricity. The results of the analysis highlights potential challenges to justifying the use of alternative energy sources to fulfil the criteria of nZEBs. When installing solar PV, it is important to consider the energy mix of the country where the solar PVs are produced. To solely consider the energy performance of the building, the installation of solar PV panels in countries with a high share of renewable energy may result in a reduced impact in terms of emission reduction from a life cycle perspective. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Building Energy and Environment)
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33 pages, 11735 KiB  
Article
Seismic Performance Assessment of Low-Rise Unreinforced and Confined Brick Masonry School Buildings Using the Applied Element Method
by Rohit Kumar Adhikari, Ahsana Parammal Vatteri and Dina D’Ayala
Buildings 2023, 13(1), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010159 - 8 Jan 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4742
Abstract
Masonry buildings are generally vulnerable to seismic action, as evidenced extensively in past earthquakes. In order to improve their seismic performance, several modifications have been introduced, such as reinforcing or confining the masonry. This paper presents a seismic analysis and fragility assessment procedure [...] Read more.
Masonry buildings are generally vulnerable to seismic action, as evidenced extensively in past earthquakes. In order to improve their seismic performance, several modifications have been introduced, such as reinforcing or confining the masonry. This paper presents a seismic analysis and fragility assessment procedure for non-engineered masonry building typologies, employing the applied element method (AEM). Compared to buildings with stiff diaphragms, the conventional pushover-based procedure is challenging for the seismic assessment of masonry buildings with flexible diaphragms, due to the lack of a global box-like behaviour. This study first presents a novel and validated method for nonlinear pushover analysis, independent of the type of diaphragm action on the building, by applying incremental ground acceleration and by considering suitable engineering demand parameters for the assessment of lateral capacity. Based on the failure mechanisms, a seismic performance assessment and fragility evaluation approach is then proposed, for reliable accounting of both the in-plane and out-of-plane failure modes. Finally, the proposed methodology is applied to a number of unreinforced and confined masonry school buildings with different seismic detailing levels, as often found in the Himalayan belt and beyond. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Modeling Strategies for Seismic Assessment of Unreinforced, Reinforced, and Confined Masonry Structures)
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23 pages, 5814 KiB  
Article
Timber Buildings Deconstruction as a Design Solution toward Near Zero CO2e Emissions
by Giacomo Di Ruocco, Roberta Melella and Laura Sabatano
Buildings 2023, 13(1), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010157 - 7 Jan 2023
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3368
Abstract
The overall reduction in the environmental impacts of the construction industry is a complex process that requires methodological and applicative studies on the evaluation of the sustainability of the life cycle, related to both individual product and of the building system as a [...] Read more.
The overall reduction in the environmental impacts of the construction industry is a complex process that requires methodological and applicative studies on the evaluation of the sustainability of the life cycle, related to both individual product and of the building system as a whole. In this context, with reference to the end-of-life phase of the building, the management of the disassembly and selective demolition plan of the building, allowing the reuse or recycling of the materials as well as of the building components and prefabricated elements used is fundamental. This research aimed to develop a methodology, applied to timber building systems, to mitigate CO2e emissions during the decommissioning and disposal of the building. The quantitative model developed considers the rates of the CO2e emissions involved in C (end-of-life) and D (benefits and loads beyond the system boundary) phases of building sustainability assessment. The model was applied to two wooden buildings: one with an XLAM structure and another one with a framed structure. In both cases, from the perspective of reusing the wood components for a subsequent life cycle, C and D phases of the process achieved an overall negative CO2e emission rate thanks to the offsetting from the carbon storage property of wood. This research has thus demonstrated the possibility of making the wood construction process circular through a zero-emission approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Low-Carbon Buildings and Urban Energy Systems)
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20 pages, 4681 KiB  
Review
Research Status and Prospects for the Utilization of Lead–Zinc Tailings as Building Materials
by Rui Li, Ziyi Yin and Hang Lin
Buildings 2023, 13(1), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13010150 - 6 Jan 2023
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4637
Abstract
Lead–zinc tailings are the typical solid wastes in mines with high yield and low utilization rates in some countries at present. They are mainly stockpiled in tailings reservoirs, occupying massive land resources and threatening the health of the environment. One of the advantages [...] Read more.
Lead–zinc tailings are the typical solid wastes in mines with high yield and low utilization rates in some countries at present. They are mainly stockpiled in tailings reservoirs, occupying massive land resources and threatening the health of the environment. One of the advantages of building material production in sustainability is the ability to utilize large amounts of industrial solid wastes, and the use of lead–zinc tailings in building materials is an effective way to meet the dual needs of environmental protection and economic development. This paper reviews the progress of utilizing lead–zinc tailings as building materials and mainly summarizes the status of lead–zinc tailings in cement, geopolymer, concrete, building brick, and foam ceramic. According to previous research, lead–zinc tailings contain large amounts of silica–alumina oxide, which can be used in the production of cement clinker. The addition of lead–zinc tailings to the sintered material can reduce the sintering temperature. The active components contained in lead–zinc tailings can be used in concrete instead of cement or in the preparation of geopolymers. Meanwhile, lead–zinc tailings can also be used as a fine aggregate. However, there are few studies on the durability of building materials with lead–zinc tailings. Additionally, most of the research results of building materials are in the laboratory stage, which are difficult to be promoted. In view of these problems, corresponding suggestions and prospects are given in the end in order to provide a reference for the research on the utilization of lead–zinc tailings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic New Trends in Rock Materials Mechanics and Engineering Geology)
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