Overheating Risk Analysis in Long-Term Care Homes—Development of Overheating Limit Criteria
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1. Representative Building Models
2.1.1. Building Geometry
2.1.2. Building Construction
2.1.3. Internal Casual Heat Gains
2.1.4. Building HVAC System
2.1.5. Building Thermal Zoning
2.2. Airflow Network Model
- Under the free running mode, resident bedrooms and offices w naturally ventilated subject to occupant behavior for the opening of operable windows and internal doors. From the site visits of the monitored building, the opening factor of the resident bedroom windows is restricted to 10%. Furthermore, due to the resident-free movement in the common spaces of the building, internal doors of bedrooms leading to the common corridor spaces are assumed to be opened on average by up to 50% (note that opening by more than 25% does not induce any significant changes in indoor temperature). The windows and internal doors of bedrooms and offices are opened if the indoor temperature exceeds the outdoor temperature and occupants start to feel thermal discomfort; otherwise, they are closed. Occupant behavior and thermal discomfort perception to open windows or doors may vary from one occupant to another. However, in this study, the average perception of thermal discomfort from all occupants was used and, therefore, two set point temperatures (for older and young adults) to open windows/doors were applied to all bedrooms and offices. Older (age > 65 years) people usually prefer warmer temperatures to obtain the same comfort level as young (average age) people [38,39]. According to the new comfort model for older people by Laouadi [40], average older people (having a metabolic rate of 20% lower than young adults) in a sedentary position and wearing typical summer clothing (0.5 clo.) in still air (air velocity < 0.1 m/s) with a relative humidity of 45%, the indoor temperature for which older people start to feel thermal discomfort (PMV = 0.5) is 28.8 °C. This is very close to 29 °C, as reported in the field study in [25]. However, the set point for office occupants (young adults) was fixed at 26 °C. If air-conditioning was used in bedrooms and offices, all their windows and internal doors were assumed closed.
- Windows of stairwells, food preparation areas, and lounges were non-operable.
- Internal doors of stairwells and elevators were always closed to comply with the building fire code.
- The air leakage data through the external and internal closed doors were taken as average values from the published study [41].
- Whole building air leakage data were converted to exterior envelope surface leakage data assuming a uniform surface leakage distribution.
- Leakage through the external building surfaces (walls, roofs, exterior doors, and nonoperable windows), which were treated as crack leakages with mass flow coefficients calculated based on the typical whole building air leakage rate (Table 1);
- Leakage through the external operable windows (treated automatically in EnergyPlus).
- Leakage through horizontal openings connecting hollow thermal zones, such as stairwells and elevator shafts (treated automatically).
- Leakage through the internal doors connecting building spaces of bedrooms, offices, food areas, stairwells, elevators, and corridors. The leakage data of these components were taken from the databases in [41].
- Exhaust fans in bedrooms and food areas were linked to the airflow network.
2.3. Calibration of Building Models
2.3.1. Field-Monitored Data
2.3.2. Energy Use Intensity Data
- The service hot water (SHW) energy load was not accounted for in the model prediction but was calculated based on the typical SHW loads of NECB 2017 (500 W/person for bedrooms). Based on the NECB 2017 SHW loads and usage schedule, the calculated annual energy use of SHW was 218,804 kWh;
- The seasonal boiler efficiency for SHW was fixed at 60% for old construction and 75% for new construction [45];
- Natural gas was used for space heating. The electrical energy used for heating in the simulation model was therefore converted to gas furnace heating, assuming a furnace efficiency of 80% for old construction and 90% for new construction;
- For the annual cooling energy use of the building, the COP coefficient was fixed at 2.5 for old construction and 3 for new and retrofit construction;
- The energy use for the kitchen (cooking), exterior lighting, hair salons, exercise rooms, etc., of real buildings, were not accounted for in the model predicted EUI. These diverse energy uses may constitute a significant portion of the total building energy use. The predicted EUI is therefore expected to be significantly lower than that of real similar buildings.
2.4. Procedure to Evaluate Overheating Risk
2.4.1. Identification of Overheating Events
2.4.2. Procedure to Develop Overheating Limit Criteria
3. Results
3.1. Overheating Limit Criteria
3.2. Inter-Comparison of Overheating Criteria
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Construction | Old (1980) with Partial Retrofit | New (2017) |
---|---|---|
Air infiltration rate [32] ACH@75Pa (liters/s/m2) | 4.31 (4.35) | 2.16 (2.17) |
Basement floor | Insulated slab (U-factor = 0.331 W/m2 K): 100 mm foam Insulation (exterior); 100 mm concrete slab; 70 mm screed; 30 mm timber flooring (interior) | |
Walls | Concrete block (U-factor = 0.557 W/m2 K) [33,34]: 100 mm brick veneer (exterior); 25 mm air space; 38 mm EPS insulation; 100 mm concrete block; 13 mm gypsum board (interior) | Steel stud (EPS insulation thickness varies with location; Table 2) [30]:100 mm brick veneer (exterior); 25 mm air space; EPS insulation; 13 mm OBS; 150 mm batt steel stud; 13 mm gypsum board (interior) |
Roofs | Concrete deck (XPS insulation thickness varies with location; Table 2): 1 mm membrane (exterior); XPS insulation; 150 mm concrete slab; 13 mm gypsum board (interior) | |
Windows (WWR = 14.13%) | Double clear glass with aluminum frame (COG U-factor = 2.7 W/ m2 K) | Double clear low-E glass with argon gas fill and aluminum frame (COG U-factor = 1.33 W/ m2 K) |
Exterior doors | Oak; U-factor = 3 W/m2 K | |
Solar shading | Internal vertical blinds with manual control applied only to bedrooms and offices |
Space | Schedule * | Occupancy Density (m2/Person) | Lighting Power Density (W/m2) | Equipment Power Density (W/m2) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bedrooms | J | 25 | 6.7 | 2.5 |
Offices | B | 20 | 10 | 7.5 |
Lounge | B | 10 | 8.4 | 1 |
Food areas | B | 20 | 11.4 | 10 |
Corridor | B | 100 | 7.1 | 0 |
Stairwell | B | 200 | 6.3 | 0 |
Elevators | B | 0 | 7.3 | 0 |
Mechanical room | Always-ON | 0 | 4.6 | 1 |
Error | R521 | R531 | R535 | Room Average |
---|---|---|---|---|
RMSE-T (°C) | 1.7 | 0.9 | 1.0 | 1.0 |
RMSE-RH (%) | 12 | 7 | 7 | 8 |
MBE-T (%) | −3 | 2 | −2 | −1 |
MBE-RH (%) | 20 | 7 | 12 | 13 |
Construction | H + C + L (kWh/m2) | Total (kWh/m2) | EUI (GJ/m2) | Benchmark EUI (GJ/m2) |
---|---|---|---|---|
New | 80 | 149 | 0.54 | 0.74 (>2010) [47] |
Old | 160 | 247 | 0.89 | 1.3 [47]; 1.04 [48]; 1.01 to 1.95 [49] |
Reference Young Person + | SETd (°C) ++ | SETn (°C) |
---|---|---|
Wake: 1 met and 0.5 clo Sleep: 0.7 met and 1.64 clo | 26.8 (May) 28 (June to September) | 32 |
Rehydration Rate (%) | Dehydration Rate (without Rehydration) (%) | Dehydration Rate (with Rehydration) (%) | Maximum Core Temperature (°C) |
---|---|---|---|
80 | 2 | 10 | 37.6 |
Period | Montreal | Ottawa | Toronto | Calgary | Vancouver |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Historical | 2010 | 2010 | 2006 | 2007 | 1989 |
Future | 2047 | 2054 | 2060 | 2052 | 2052 |
Time (h) | 1–7 | 7–8 | 8–9 | 9–12 | 12–13 | 13–17 | 17–19 | 19–22 | 22–24 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Space | bedroom | bedroom | lounge | bedroom | lounge | bedroom | lounge | bedroom | bedroom |
Activity | sleep | daytime | breakfast | daytime | lunch | daytime | dinner | daytime | sleep |
Criterion | Proposed (Old/New) | TM52 | BC | PHI | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Measure | DUR (d) | SETH (°C⋅h) | HE (%) | WDH (°C⋅h) | ΔTmax (°C) | HE (h) | HE (%) | |||||||
Ref | 2 | 76 | 33 | 4196 | 29 | 98 | 43 | 124 | 4.2 | 9.2 | 1558 | 3672 | 29 | 42 |
ES | 1 | 14 | 9 | 371 | 4 | 100 | 18 | 86 | 2.1 | 6.3 | 534 | 3583 | 20 | 41 |
VO | 1 | 6 | 21 | 69 | 23 | 99 | 32 | 59 | 3.7 | 5.5 | 1393 | 3672 | 28 | 42 |
CONC | 1 | 1 | 7 | 11 | 12 | 88 | 28 | 51 | 3.4 | 4.2 | 823 | 3394 | 24 | 41 |
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Laouadi, A.; Ji, L.; Shu, C.; Wang, L.; Lacasse, M.A. Overheating Risk Analysis in Long-Term Care Homes—Development of Overheating Limit Criteria. Buildings 2023, 13, 390. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020390
Laouadi A, Ji L, Shu C, Wang L, Lacasse MA. Overheating Risk Analysis in Long-Term Care Homes—Development of Overheating Limit Criteria. Buildings. 2023; 13(2):390. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020390
Chicago/Turabian StyleLaouadi, Abdelaziz, Lili Ji, Chang Shu, Liangzhu (Leon) Wang, and Michael A. Lacasse. 2023. "Overheating Risk Analysis in Long-Term Care Homes—Development of Overheating Limit Criteria" Buildings 13, no. 2: 390. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020390