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Volume 15
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Buildings, Volume 15, Issue 16 (August-2 2025) – 171 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): A hybrid foundation system was developed for a 75 m high-rise building located near the Main River in Frankfurt, adjacent to a historic quay wall, bridge abutments, and a busy roundabout. The site’s complex soil profile and sensitive surroundings required a solution that minimized ground deformation and construction impact. Using advanced numerical modeling, the design integrates a raft with deep bored piles to balance load distribution and reduce settlement. Compared to conventional deep foundations that require 60 m long piles, the hybrid system achieves similar performance with 40–45 m piles, offering a more sustainable and cost-efficient alternative. The approach ensures structural safety while preserving nearby infrastructure and heritage elements. View this paper
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21 pages, 6779 KB  
Article
Reinforcement Learning-Enabled Adaptive Control for Climate-Responsive Kinetic Building Facades
by Zhuorui Li, Jinzhao Tian, Guanzhou Ji, Tiffany Cheng, Vivian Loftness and Xu Han
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2977; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162977 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 208
Abstract
As people spend most of their time indoors, the quality of the indoor lighting environment plays a crucial role in occupant health, mood, and productivity. While modern glazed curtain walls improve daylighting potential, they also heighten the risks of glare and associated solar [...] Read more.
As people spend most of their time indoors, the quality of the indoor lighting environment plays a crucial role in occupant health, mood, and productivity. While modern glazed curtain walls improve daylighting potential, they also heighten the risks of glare and associated solar heat gains that may result in occupant discomfort and overheating. To continuously ensure visual comfort while providing shading, kinetic responsive facades controlled by sensors and actuators can change the angles of the elements. Conventional control methods for shading devices mainly involve the unified control of each element. However, as each element of the kinetic responsive facade can be controlled independently, the number of potential control actions increases exponentially with the number of facade elements and possible angles. Traditional rule-based methods are challenging for handling this multi-objective high-dimensional control problem. This paper introduces a novel self-learning, real-time reinforcement learning (RL) controller that can interact with the environment to find a globally optimal control solution for each element in kinetic responsive facades, thereby meeting visual quality and shading goals. The configuration and workflow of the proposed RL controller are introduced and tested vertically, diagonally, and radially folding responsive facades. The results demonstrate that the proposed RL controller effectively maintains horizontal and vertical illuminance, with 72.92% of test points in occupied spaces falling within the defined comfort range. Additionally, it keeps the daylight glare probability (DGP) below 0.35, a level generally considered imperceptible. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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20 pages, 877 KB  
Article
Performance Evaluation System for Design Phase of High-Rise Building Projects: Development and Validation Through Expert Feedback and Simulation
by Rodrigo Vergara, Tito Castillo and Rodrigo F. Herrera
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2976; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162976 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 268
Abstract
This study aims to develop a performance evaluation system specifically for the design phase of high-rise building projects within the architecture, engineering, and construction industry, where performance is often only measured during construction. The research process included three stages: identification of 21 key [...] Read more.
This study aims to develop a performance evaluation system specifically for the design phase of high-rise building projects within the architecture, engineering, and construction industry, where performance is often only measured during construction. The research process included three stages: identification of 21 key performance indicators through a literature review and expert validation; development of standardized indicator sheets detailing calculation protocols and data collection procedures; and creation of a functional dashboard-based evaluation system using Excel. The system was validated through expert review and tested with a simulated project generated using an AI-based language model. The evaluation system proved functional, accessible, and effective in detecting performance issues across five core categories: planning, cost, time, quality, and people. The results from the simulated application highlighted strengths in quality and stakeholder collaboration but also revealed significant gaps in cost and time performance. This study addresses a gap in the existing literature by focusing on performance evaluation during the design phase of construction projects, a stage often underrepresented in performance studies. The resulting system offers a structured, practical tool adaptable to real-world projects. The validation relied on a limited number of expert participants and a simulated project. Future research should recommend broader international validation and real-world application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data Analytics Applications for Architecture and Construction)
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27 pages, 6244 KB  
Article
Reliability of Non-Destructive Testing for Appraising the Deterioration State of ISR-Affected Concrete Sleepers
by Rennan Medeiros, Maria Eduarda Guedes, Leandro Sanchez and Antonio Carlos dos Santos
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2975; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162975 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 267
Abstract
Concrete sleepers are essential components of railroad infrastructure, yet their service life has been reduced by one-third due to deterioration caused by internal swelling reactions (ISR), leading a major Brazilian railroad to replace millions of sleepers within a decade. This study investigates the [...] Read more.
Concrete sleepers are essential components of railroad infrastructure, yet their service life has been reduced by one-third due to deterioration caused by internal swelling reactions (ISR), leading a major Brazilian railroad to replace millions of sleepers within a decade. This study investigates the reliability of various non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques to estimate damage levels in concrete sleepers. The methods evaluated include surface hardness testing, stress wave propagation, electromagnetic wave propagation using ground-penetrating radar (GPR), electrical resistivity, and resonant frequency. These techniques were applied to assess sleepers diagnosed as affected by alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and delayed ettringite formation (DEF) at different deterioration degrees. Although findings indicate that most NDT methods are limited and unreliable for quantifying ISR-induced damage, resonant frequency testing combined with energy dissipation analysis provided the highest accuracy across all damage stages and was able to capture microstructural changes before significant expansion occurred. These results support the use of vibration-based screening tools to enhance early detection and guide condition assessment of railroad infrastructure, helping to reduce the premature replacement of ISR-affected concrete sleepers. Full article
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28 pages, 6289 KB  
Article
Utilising High-Ambient-Temperature Curing in the Development of Low-Calcium Geopolymers
by Cemal Karaaslan, Şeyda Şek and Canan Turan
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2974; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162974 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 297
Abstract
Geopolymers are typically cured either at ambient temperature (~25 °C) or subjected to short-term heat curing before being stored under ambient conditions until testing. However, in hot-arid regions, the daily ambient temperature may exceed 45 °C during summer months. Therefore, such conditions should [...] Read more.
Geopolymers are typically cured either at ambient temperature (~25 °C) or subjected to short-term heat curing before being stored under ambient conditions until testing. However, in hot-arid regions, the daily ambient temperature may exceed 45 °C during summer months. Therefore, such conditions should also be considered as high ambient curing, and their influence on low-calcium geopolymer performance needs to be investigated. In this study, pumice- and fly ash-based geopolymer mortars were produced to evaluate the effects of different curing regimes. In the pumice-based mixtures, 10 wt% of pumice was replaced with metakaolin to enrich the alumina content. Three curing conditions were applied: ambient curing, high ambient curing, and heat curing. Setting times of geopolymers were determined based on each curing regime. Physical properties, including density, water absorption, and sorption coefficient, were assessed. Compressive strength development was evaluated over 90 days. In addition, durability performance was assessed through water resistance, freeze–thaw durability, and resistance against sulphuric and hydrochloric acid. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction confirmed that geopolymerisation reactions continued significantly up to 90 days under high ambient curing, while mercury intrusion porosimetry showed a reduction in porosity. These findings explain the continuous increase in compressive strength. Pumice-based geopolymers cured under this condition exhibited significantly better long-term strength than those cured under other regimes. High ambient-cured fly ash-based geopolymers, a 3-day strength of 40.3 MPa was achieved, eliminating the need for heat curing. Thus, high ambient curing enables the in situ use of these geopolymers and offers a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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29 pages, 8438 KB  
Article
Development and Application of a Street Furniture Design Evaluation Framework: Empirical Evidence from the Yangzhou Ecological Science and Technology New Town
by Xiaobin Li, Jizhou Chen, Hao Feng, Robert Brown and Rong Zhu
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2973; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162973 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 322
Abstract
With the advancement of refined urban governance and the construction of high-quality public spaces, street furniture design and usage face multiple challenges, including insufficient public participation and a neglect of actual user experience. These issues highlight the urgent need to establish a scientifically [...] Read more.
With the advancement of refined urban governance and the construction of high-quality public spaces, street furniture design and usage face multiple challenges, including insufficient public participation and a neglect of actual user experience. These issues highlight the urgent need to establish a scientifically grounded user evaluation framework to inform design practices. This study focuses on Yangzhou Ecological Science and Technology New Town and, drawing on field investigation, grounded theory, and the Delphi method, develops a street furniture design evaluation framework encompassing three core dimensions: planning and configuration, environmental coordination, and operational management. Building on this framework, the Analytic Hierarchy Process and Fuzzy Comprehensive Evaluation method are employed to conduct a holistic assessment of the street furniture and to identify critical design deficiencies. The results demonstrate that the proposed framework effectively identifies the strengths and weaknesses of street furniture and provides robust support for formulating targeted optimization strategies. The results reveal significant variations in the perceived importance of design factors among different user groups. Residents primarily emphasize practicality and convenience in daily use. Tourists value aesthetic expression and cultural resonance, whereas government officials focus on construction standardization and maintenance efficiency. In terms of satisfaction, all three groups reported relatively low scores, with the ranking as follows: “planning and configuration” > “management and operations” > “environmental coordination.” Based on these findings, the study proposes targeted design guidelines for future practice. The evaluation framework has been adopted by local authorities, incorporated into official street furniture design guidelines, and implemented in pilot projects—demonstrating its practical applicability and value. This research contributes to the theoretical advancement of street furniture design and provides empirical and methodological support for applications in other emerging urban areas and new town developments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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25 pages, 1099 KB  
Article
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design for Existing Buildings Version 4.1 (LEED-EB v4.1) Gold-Certified Office Space Projects in European and Mediterranean Countries: A Pairwise Comparative Analysis
by Svetlana Pushkar
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2972; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162972 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 138
Abstract
There is a gap in the research on LEED-certified projects that has arisen from combining the “old” LEED system and “new” LEED version in green building practice. This study is focused on gold-certified office projects under LEED for Existing Buildings version 4.1 (LEED-EB [...] Read more.
There is a gap in the research on LEED-certified projects that has arisen from combining the “old” LEED system and “new” LEED version in green building practice. This study is focused on gold-certified office projects under LEED for Existing Buildings version 4.1 (LEED-EB v4.1). Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney and Cliff’s δ tests were used to conduct a pairwise comparison of six countries (Sweden, Ireland, Germany, Spain, Italy, and Israel) in terms of five performance indicators (transportation, water, energy, waste, and indoor environmental quality). The results show that Sweden and Germany outperformed Italy (p = 0.002 and 0.018, respectively) in transportation performance. Ireland outperformed Italy and Israel (p = 0.015 and 0.032, respectively), and Germany outperformed Italy and Israel (p = 0.003 and 0.009, respectively) in water performance. Germany outperformed Sweden, Ireland, and Israel (p < 0.001, respectively) and Sweden, Spain, and Italy outperformed Israel (p < 0.001, p = 0.008, and p = 0.009, respectively) in energy performance. Italy outperformed Sweden, Ireland, Germany, and Israel (0.001 < p ≤ 0.013) and Spain outperformed Germany and Israel (p = 0.015 and p < 0.001, respectively) in waste performance. Israel outperformed Sweden, Germany, and Italy (p < 0.001, p < 0.001, and p = 0.006, respectively) and Spain, Ireland, and Italy outperformed Sweden (p < 0.001, p = 0.002, and p = 0.004, respectively) in indoor environmental quality performance. The findings of this study show that each of the six selected countries has an individual LEED-EB v4.1 certification strategy. This study contributes new knowledge that can support LEED professionals in developing LEED certification strategies for each country. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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22 pages, 3484 KB  
Article
Study on Mechanical Properties of Coarse-Fine Polypropylene Fiber Blended Concrete
by Pengcheng Li, Mingyao Huang, Yingying Shang, Yanwen Kuang, Gang Xiong and Xinyi Tang
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2971; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162971 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 276
Abstract
Polypropylene fiber, as a micro-scale reinforcement material, has been widely recognized for its ability to effectively inhibit crack propagation during the service life of concrete, thereby enhancing both its crack resistance and durability. This study presents an experimental investigation of the mechanical properties [...] Read more.
Polypropylene fiber, as a micro-scale reinforcement material, has been widely recognized for its ability to effectively inhibit crack propagation during the service life of concrete, thereby enhancing both its crack resistance and durability. This study presents an experimental investigation of the mechanical properties of polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete specimens. The primary objective of this study was to assess the influence of varying fiber lengths and volumetric fiber contents on the load-bearing behavior of concrete. Seven sets of concrete specimens with different polypropylene fiber parameters (dosage and length) were prepared and subjected to a series of tests, including compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and axial compressive stress–strain behavior. Specifically, coarse polypropylene fibers with two lengths (30 mm and 50 mm) and three dosages (0.5%, 1%, and 1.5%) were investigated. Experimental results facilitated the identification of the optimal fiber dosage and length at which the mechanical properties of the concrete specimens were maximized. Subsequently, a constitutive model for polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete was established. The analysis elucidated the relationships between the parameters within the constitutive model, axial compressive strength of the concrete, and characteristic fiber parameters. The derived formulations provide a theoretical foundation for subsequent finite element analyses of polypropylene-fiber-reinforced concrete. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber-Reinforced Polymers and Fiber-Reinforced Concrete in Civil Engineering—2nd Edition)
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23 pages, 3781 KB  
Article
Evaluating Urban Visual Attractiveness Perception Using Multimodal Large Language Model and Street View Images
by Qianyu Zhou, Jiaxin Zhang and Zehong Zhu
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2970; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162970 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 261
Abstract
Visual attractiveness perception—an individual’s capacity to recognise and evaluate the visual appeal of urban scene safety—has direct implications for well-being, economic vitality, and social cohesion. However, most empirical studies rely on single-source metrics or algorithm-centric pipelines that under-represent human perception. Addressing this gap, [...] Read more.
Visual attractiveness perception—an individual’s capacity to recognise and evaluate the visual appeal of urban scene safety—has direct implications for well-being, economic vitality, and social cohesion. However, most empirical studies rely on single-source metrics or algorithm-centric pipelines that under-represent human perception. Addressing this gap, we introduce a fully reproducible, multimodal framework that measures and models this domain-specific facet of human intelligence by coupling Generative Pre-trained Transformer 4o (GPT-4o) with 1000 Street View images. The pipeline first elicits pairwise aesthetic judgements from GPT-4o, converts them into a latent attractiveness scale via Thurstone’s law of comparative judgement, and then validates the scale against 1.17 M crowdsourced ratings from MIT’s Place Pulse 2.0 benchmark (Spearman ρ = 0.76, p < 0.001). Compared with a Siamese CNN baseline (ρ = 0.60), GPT-4o yields both higher criterion validity and an 88% reduction in inference time, underscoring its superior capacity to approximate human evaluative reasoning. In this study, we introduce a standardised and reproducible streetscape evaluation pipeline using GPT-4o. We then combine the resulting attractiveness scores with network-based accessibility modelling to generate a “aesthetic–accessibility map” of urban central districts in Chongqing, China. Cluster analysis reveals four statistically distinct street types—Iconic Core, Liveable Rings, Transit-Rich but Bland, and Peripheral Low-Appeal—providing actionable insights for landscape design, urban governance, and tourism planning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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12 pages, 3397 KB  
Article
Creep Differences Between Alkali-Activated Fly Ash–Slag and Cement-Based Materials and Prediction Models
by Dunwen Huang, Lipeng Xia, Qiaoming Yuan, Youbao Zou, Hui Peng and Dunzhi Huang
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2969; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162969 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 186
Abstract
Alkali-activated fly ash and slag binders are regarded as environmentally friendly building materials. However, the creep properties of the alkali-activated materials differ from ordinary Portland cement-based materials. Currently, predicting the creep properties of alkali-activated materials is difficult. This study tested the creep properties [...] Read more.
Alkali-activated fly ash and slag binders are regarded as environmentally friendly building materials. However, the creep properties of the alkali-activated materials differ from ordinary Portland cement-based materials. Currently, predicting the creep properties of alkali-activated materials is difficult. This study tested the creep properties of alkali-activated materials with various strengths and loading ages, exploring the similarities and differences in the creep properties between alkali-activated and cement-based materials. The result shows that the creep development of alkali-activated materials still conforms to the law of the hyperbolic power function commonly used to describe that of cement-based materials. Nevertheless, the proportion of the basic creep increases to about 70% of the drying creep in alkali-activated materials at 90 days. By modifying the parameters related to the relative humidity in the model of CEB-FIP MC2010, the creep behavior of alkali-activated fly ash and slag concrete could be well predicted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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22 pages, 2683 KB  
Article
Cognitive Style and Visual Attention in Multimodal Museum Exhibitions: An Eye-Tracking Study on Visitor Experience
by Wenjia Shi, Mengcai Zhou and Kenta Ono
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2968; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162968 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 276
Abstract
Exhibition design in museum environments serves as a vital mechanism for enhancing cultural engagement, enriching visitor experience, and promoting heritage preservation. Despite the growing number of museums, improvements in exhibition quality remain limited. In this context, understanding exhibition visual content becomes fundamental to [...] Read more.
Exhibition design in museum environments serves as a vital mechanism for enhancing cultural engagement, enriching visitor experience, and promoting heritage preservation. Despite the growing number of museums, improvements in exhibition quality remain limited. In this context, understanding exhibition visual content becomes fundamental to shaping visitor experiences in cultural heritage settings, as it directly influences how individuals perceive, interpret, and engage with displayed information. However, due to individual differences in cognitive processing, standardized visualization strategies may not effectively support all users, potentially resulting in unequal levels of knowledge acquisition and engagement. This study presents a quasi-experimental eye-tracking investigation examining how visualizer–verbalizer (V–V) cognitive styles influence content comprehension in a historical museum context. Participants were classified as visualizers or verbalizers via standardized questionnaires and explored six artifacts displayed through varying information modalities while their eye movements—including fixation durations and transition patterns—were recorded to assess visual processing behavior. The results revealed that participants’ comprehension performance was strongly associated with their visual attention patterns, which differed systematically between visualizers and verbalizers. These differences reflect distinct visual exploration strategies, with cognitive style influencing how individuals allocate attention and process multimodal exhibition content. Eye movement data indicated that visualizers engaged in broader cross-modal integration, whereas verbalizers exhibited more linear, text-oriented strategies. The findings provide empirical evidence for the role of cognitive style in shaping visual behavior and interpretive outcomes in museum environments, underscoring the need for cognitively adaptive exhibition design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human-Centric Architectural Design: Neuroarchitecture as a New Tool to Shape Futureproof Inclusive Buildings)
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16 pages, 6038 KB  
Article
Revealing Nonlinear and Spatial Interaction Effects of Built Environment on Ride-Hailing Demand in Nanjing, China
by Yaoxia Ge, Zhenyu Xu, Chaoying Yin and Xiaoquan Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2967; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162967 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 188
Abstract
Numerous machine learning models are viewed as an important means for evaluating the built environment (BE) features and travel behavior. However, most of them ignore the interaction effects of the BE and geographic locations. To strengthen their spatial interpretability, the study combines the [...] Read more.
Numerous machine learning models are viewed as an important means for evaluating the built environment (BE) features and travel behavior. However, most of them ignore the interaction effects of the BE and geographic locations. To strengthen their spatial interpretability, the study combines the random forest and GeoShapley method to scrutinize the nonlinear and spatial interaction effects of the BE features on ride-hailing demand using multi-source data from Nanjing, China. The results indicate that the land use mixture, the interaction between the distance to city center and geographic locations, and geographic locations are the most essential factors influencing ride-hailing demand. All BE features exhibit nonlinear effects on ride-hailing demand. Moreover, Among the BE features, distance to city center, land use mixture, and distance to metro stop demonstrate significant interaction effects with geographic locations. The findings indicate the necessity of incorporating geospatial analysis into the relationships and offer implications for implementing location-specific strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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23 pages, 14404 KB  
Article
Early-Age Properties and Reaction of Hydrophobic Portland Cement and Alkali-Activated Fly Ash–Slag Pastes with Alkyl Silanes
by Rongfeng Gao, Jiaxi Mao, Shengqian Ruan, Wenlin Tu, Yansong Wang and Dongming Yan
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2966; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162966 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 320
Abstract
Cementitious materials are susceptible to water ingress due to their hydrophilicity and porous microstructure, which can cause premature destruction and compromise long-term durability. Integral hydrophobic modification using alkyl silanes is an effective strategy for enhancing water resistance, while the influence of different silanes [...] Read more.
Cementitious materials are susceptible to water ingress due to their hydrophilicity and porous microstructure, which can cause premature destruction and compromise long-term durability. Integral hydrophobic modification using alkyl silanes is an effective strategy for enhancing water resistance, while the influence of different silanes on early-age properties (within the first 7 d) of various binder systems remains unclear. This study investigates the rheology, flowability, setting behavior, reaction kinetics, compressive strength, and hydrophobicity of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and alkali-activated fly ash–slag (AAFS) pastes incorporating alkyl silanes of varying alkyl chain lengths, i.e., methyl-(C1TMS), butyl-(C4TMS), octyl-(C8TMS), and dodecyl-trimethoxysilane (C12TMS). In OPC, C1TMS reduced yield stress and plastic viscosity by 33.6% and 21.0%, respectively, and improved flowability by 27.6%, whereas C4TMS, C8TMS, and C12TMS showed the opposite effects. In contrast, the effect of alkyl silanes on rheology and flowability of AAFS was less pronounced. Silanes delayed setting of OPC and AAFS by 5.6–164.4%, with shorter alkyl chains causing greater retardation. C1TMS and C4TMS inhibited early-age heat release and decreased the 1-day compressive strength by 14.8–35.7% in OPC and 82.0–84.5% in AAFS, whereas longer-chain silanes had comparatively minor effects. The hydrophobic performance in both binder systems was strongly correlated with alkyl chain length. C8TMS exhibited the best hydrophobicity in OPC, achieving a water contact angle of 145° and a 75.7% reduction in water sorptivity, while C4TMS demonstrated the highest hydrophobicity in AAFS. This study provides fundamental guidance for the rational selection of alkyl silanes in OPC and AAFS systems, offering insights into the design of multifunctional water-resistant cementitious composites for marine structures, building facades, and other applications with waterproofing requirements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Concrete Materials in Construction)
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21 pages, 1143 KB  
Review
A Review of Robotic Applications in the Management of Structural Health Monitoring in the Saudi Arabian Construction Sector
by Yazeed Hamdan Alazmi, Mohammad Al-Zu'bi, Mazen J. Al-Kheetan and Musab Rabi
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2965; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162965 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 311
Abstract
The integration of robotics into Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is rapidly reshaping how infrastructure is assessed and maintained. This review critically examines the current landscape of robotic technologies applied in SHM, with a specific focus on their implementation within the Saudi Arabian construction [...] Read more.
The integration of robotics into Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is rapidly reshaping how infrastructure is assessed and maintained. This review critically examines the current landscape of robotic technologies applied in SHM, with a specific focus on their implementation within the Saudi Arabian construction sector. It explores recent advancements in robotic platforms, such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), wall-climbing robots, and AI-driven inspection systems, and assesses their roles in damage detection, vibration monitoring, and real-time diagnostics. In addition to outlining technological capabilities, this paper identifies major adoption challenges related to system readiness, regulatory gaps, workforce limitations, and environmental constraints. Drawing on comparative experiences in the healthcare, energy, and legal domains, this review extracts cross-sectoral insights that offer practical guidance for accelerating robotic integration in SHM. This paper concludes by outlining research gaps and actionable recommendations to support scholars, policymakers, and industry professionals in advancing robotics-based monitoring in complex infrastructure environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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27 pages, 13332 KB  
Article
Effects of Colour Temperature in Classroom Lighting on Primary School Students’ Cognitive Outcomes: A Multidimensional Approach for Architectural and Environmental Design
by Bo Gao, Yao Fu, Jian Gao and Weijun Gao
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2964; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162964 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 407
Abstract
Primary school students, as the main users of classrooms, are directly affected by the lighting environment, which not only affects their visual comfort but also their cognitive performance. This study investigated the effects of different correlated colour temperature (CCT) levels in classroom lighting [...] Read more.
Primary school students, as the main users of classrooms, are directly affected by the lighting environment, which not only affects their visual comfort but also their cognitive performance. This study investigated the effects of different correlated colour temperature (CCT) levels in classroom lighting on the cognitive performance of primary school students based on a multidimensional evaluation combining physiological signals (EEG and EDA) and subjective assessment. In this study, 53 subjects aged 10–13 years old from a primary school in Anshan City were used in a controlled experiment under five CCT conditions (3000 K, 4000 K, 5000 K, 6000 K, and 7000 K) at a constant illumination level of 500 lx. EEG and skin conductance (SC) signals were collected and subjective perceptions of visual comfort and fatigue were assessed while cognitive tasks were carried out. The results showed that students performed best cognitively at a colour temperature of 4000 K, with the lowest EEG absolute power (AP) (p < 0.01) and highest comfort (p < 0.05). Females were more sensitive to colour temperature changes and showed better cognitive performance in cooler colour temperature conditions, while male students performed better in warmer light conditions (p < 0.01). The above findings suggest that optimising the CCT of classroom lighting enhances students’ cognitive functioning and comfort, providing empirical support for lighting design guidelines in educational environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lighting Design for the Built Environment)
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24 pages, 3510 KB  
Article
Experimental Study on the Pullout Behavior of Helical Piles in Geogrid-Reinforced Dense Shahriyar Sand
by Mehdi Ebadi-Jamkhaneh, Mohammad Ali Arjomand, Mohsen Bagheri, Ali Asgari, Pouya Nouhi Hefzabad, Sahar Salahi and Yashar Mostafaei
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2963; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162963 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 328
Abstract
This study investigates the effectiveness of combining helical piles (HPs) with geogrid reinforcement compared to conventional piles in improving pullout performance in dense sand, addressing a key challenge in reinforced foundation design. A comprehensive experimental program was conducted to evaluate the pullout behavior [...] Read more.
This study investigates the effectiveness of combining helical piles (HPs) with geogrid reinforcement compared to conventional piles in improving pullout performance in dense sand, addressing a key challenge in reinforced foundation design. A comprehensive experimental program was conducted to evaluate the pullout behavior of HPs embedded in Shahriyar sand reinforced with geogrid layers. The research focused on quantifying the effects of critical parameters—pile configuration, helix pitch, and geogrid placement depth—on ultimate pullout capacity and displacement response to better understand hybrid reinforcement mechanisms. Pullout tests were performed using a Zwick/Roell Z150 universal testing machine with automated data acquisition via TestXpert11 V3.2 software. The experimental program assessed the following influences: (1) pile configurations—plain, single-helix, and double-helix; (2) helix pitch ratios of 1.00, 1.54, and 1.92 (pitch-to-shaft diameter); and (3) geogrid placement depths of 7.69, 11.54, and 15.38 (depth-to-shaft diameter) on pullout behavior. Results demonstrate that geogrid reinforcement substantially enhances pullout resistance, with single-helix HPs achieving up to a 518% increase over plain piles. Pullout resistance is highly sensitive to geogrid spacing, with optimal performance at a non-dimensional distance of 0.47 from the pile–soil interface. Additionally, double-blade HPs with geogrid placed at 0.35 exhibit a 62% reduction in displacement ratio, underscoring the role of geogrid in improving pile stiffness and load-bearing capacity. These findings provide new insights into the synergistic effects of helical pile geometry and geogrid placement for designing efficient reinforced granular foundations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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39 pages, 35445 KB  
Article
A GIS-Based Common Data Environment for Integrated Preventive Conservation of Built Heritage Systems
by Francisco M. Hidalgo-Sánchez, Ignacio Ruiz-Moreno, Jacinto Canivell, Cristina Soriano-Cuesta and Martin Kada
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2962; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162962 - 21 Aug 2025
Viewed by 363
Abstract
Preventive conservation (PC) of built heritage has proved to be one of the most efficient and sustainable approaches to ensure its long-term preservation. Nevertheless, the management of all the areas involved in a PC project is complex, often resulting in poor interaction between [...] Read more.
Preventive conservation (PC) of built heritage has proved to be one of the most efficient and sustainable approaches to ensure its long-term preservation. Nevertheless, the management of all the areas involved in a PC project is complex, often resulting in poor interaction between them. This research proposes a GIS-based methodology for integrating data from different PC areas into a centralised digital model, establishing a Common Data Environment (CDE) to optimise PC strategies for heritage systems in complex contexts. Applying this method to the pavilions of the 1929 Ibero-American Exhibition in Seville (Spain), the study addresses five key PC areas: active follow-up, damage detection and assessment, risk analysis, maintenance, and dissemination and valorisation. The approach involved designing a robust relational database structure—using PostgreSQL—tailored for heritage management, defining several data standardisation criteria, and testing semi-automated procedures for generating multi-scale 2D and 3D GIS (LOD2 and LOD4) entities using remote sensing data sources. The proposed spatial database has been designed to function seamlessly with major GIS platforms (QGIS and ArcGIS Pro), demonstrating successful integration and interoperability for data management, analysis, and decision-making. Geographic web services derived from the database content were created and uploaded to a WebGIS platform. While limitations exist, this research demonstrates that simplified GIS models are sufficient for managing PC data across various working scales, offering a resource-efficient alternative compared to more demanding existing methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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31 pages, 14651 KB  
Article
Temperature–Load Stress Analysis of Ultra-Long Pool Structures Based on Distributed Fiber Optic Sensing and Finite Element Analysis
by Yongxing Li, Xinyang Han, Dajian Zhang, Jianrong Li, Pengyong Miao and Wenrui Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2961; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162961 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 334
Abstract
Ultra-long pool structures used in mine water treatment projects are typical large-volume concrete structures that are highly susceptible to cracking due to the combined effects of cement hydration heat, seasonal temperature variations, and internal water pressure. Such cracking can compromise the durability and [...] Read more.
Ultra-long pool structures used in mine water treatment projects are typical large-volume concrete structures that are highly susceptible to cracking due to the combined effects of cement hydration heat, seasonal temperature variations, and internal water pressure. Such cracking can compromise the durability and long-term service performance of the structure. In this study, distributed fiber optic sensing and finite element analysis were conducted to observe the response of ultra-long pool structures under thermal–load effects. System comparison shows that the average error between the monitored peak thermal strain values and the corresponding simulated values is within 9%. Parametric analysis using the validated simulation model indicates that the hydration protocol with temperatures of 15 °C (casting), 55 °C (peak), and 15 °C (stable), a temperature drop of −20 °C, and loading conditions in sub-pools 3+6 and sub-pools 1+3+5 are the most unfavorable scenarios for inducing tensile stress. When a temperature drop of −20 °C is combined with loading conditions in sub-pools 3+6 or sub-pools 1+3+5, the tensile stress in the pool structure increases by 30% compared to the stress induced by loading alone. This indicates that during the service life of the pool structure, extreme temperature variations combined with mechanical loading may result in localized cracking. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of ultra-long pool behavior during construction and service phases, supporting effective maintenance and long-term durability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Performance Composite Structures: Numerical Simulation, Experimental and Theoretical Studies)
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28 pages, 7306 KB  
Article
Development and Implementation of a System for Electrical Engineering BIM Detailed Design in Construction Projects
by Yan Yan, Chaonan Wang, Fan Zhang, Lei Wu, Jingyi Zang, Tianqi Liu, Shu Tang and Zihao Ye
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2960; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162960 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 211
Abstract
Electrical engineering design in construction projects often faces challenges such as inefficient model connectivity, prolonged drawing reviews, and complex cable layout optimization, especially when high-precision Building Information Modeling (BIM) models are required. These issues hinder efficiency and accuracy in electrical system design. Recent [...] Read more.
Electrical engineering design in construction projects often faces challenges such as inefficient model connectivity, prolonged drawing reviews, and complex cable layout optimization, especially when high-precision Building Information Modeling (BIM) models are required. These issues hinder efficiency and accuracy in electrical system design. Recent studies emphasize the need for more efficient workflows in BIM-based electrical engineering design. Traditional tools rely on manual inputs and high-precision models, causing inefficiencies in time and resources. Previous research highlights the importance of automating processes like cable routing and system validation, but few address intelligent optimization or automation integration in BIM systems. This study develops a comprehensive system for BIM-based electrical engineering design. The proposed Revit plugin generates optimized results without the need for high-precision models. Key stages are detailed, including rapid model connection, streamlined drawing review, and advanced cable optimization. Validation in real-world projects shows that the system improves design and construction efficiency, enhances cable installation quality, and achieves substantial cost savings. The system delivers dual benefits of increased productivity and superior quality in electrical construction projects, marking a significant advancement in BIM-based electrical engineering design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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23 pages, 5187 KB  
Article
Bond–Slip Properties and Acoustic Emission Characterization Between Steel Rebar and Manufactured Sand Concrete
by Lei Han, Hua Yang, Qifan Wu and Yubo Jiao
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2959; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162959 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 295
Abstract
Natural sand (NS) is facing the problem of resource scarcity, while manufactured sand (MS) has become a favorable alternative resource due to its wide range of sources, superior performance, as well as economic and environmental protection. This study adopted MS to replace NS [...] Read more.
Natural sand (NS) is facing the problem of resource scarcity, while manufactured sand (MS) has become a favorable alternative resource due to its wide range of sources, superior performance, as well as economic and environmental protection. This study adopted MS to replace NS to prepare manufactured sand concrete (MSC). The water–cement ratio, replacement rate of MS, and stone powder content were systematically investigated for the damage evolution of rebar during bond–slip with MSC. Seven groups of specimens were tested using the center pull-out test to analyze the effects of different factors on the bond–slip characteristics (bond stress–slip curve, bond fracture energy, peak stress, and peak slip). Acoustic emission (AE) monitoring was also adopted to synchronously characterize the slip damage process of reinforced MSC. The results indicate that the water–cement ratio and replacement ratio of MS present significant influences on the bond strength of reinforced MSC, in which the smaller the water–cement ratio is, the stronger the bond strength of reinforced concrete. Further, the larger the replacement rate of MS is, the stronger the bond strength of reinforced concrete. The higher the stone powder content, the higher the bond strength, but the effect is small compared to the two variables mentioned above. In terms of AE, count and energy remain at low values in the first and middle stages, followed by larger values, proving that cracks were beginning to develop within the specimen, and then a very large signal and then splitting occurred. The information entropy is relatively stable in the first and middle stages of the test, then fluctuates with the generation of cracks, and finally fluctuates violently and then the specimen splits. The AE parameters are more active with an increasing water–cement ratio, while they are smoother with increases in the replacement rate of MS and stone powder content. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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26 pages, 9590 KB  
Article
Multi-Objective Optimization of a Folding Photovoltaic-Integrated Light Shelf Using Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm III for Enhanced Daylighting and Energy Savings in Office Buildings
by Tanin Cheraghzad, Zahra Zamani, Mohammad Hakimazari, Masoud Norouzi and Alireza Karimi
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2958; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162958 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 292
Abstract
This study developed a novel folding light shelf system that integrates reflectors, photovoltaic (PV) modules, and adaptive louvers that adjust based on solar altitude, aiming to improve daylight distribution, minimize glare, and reduce energy consumption in office buildings. The research employed an advanced [...] Read more.
This study developed a novel folding light shelf system that integrates reflectors, photovoltaic (PV) modules, and adaptive louvers that adjust based on solar altitude, aiming to improve daylight distribution, minimize glare, and reduce energy consumption in office buildings. The research employed an advanced optimization approach, utilizing Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm III (NSGA-III) and Latin Hypercube Sampling, a highly effective method suitable for managing complex multi-objective scenarios involving numerous variables, to efficiently identify high-performance configurations with increased precision. Key design variables across all three components of the system included angle, width, distance, and the number of folds in the light shelf, along with the number of louvers. The proposed method successfully integrates PV technology into light shelves without compromising their functionality, enabling both daylight control and energy generation. The optimization results demonstrate that the system achieved up to a 15% improvement in useful daylight illuminance (UDI) and a 16% reduction in cooling energy consumption. Furthermore, the PV modules generated 509.5 kWh/year, ensuring improved efficiency and sustainability in building performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Building Lighting and Integrated Lighting Design Toward High Comfort and Low Carbon)
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18 pages, 1328 KB  
Article
The Magnitude of Stress in the Prop Depending on Its Manual Tightening
by Milan Švolík, Peter Makýš, Patrik Šťastný, Ján Hlina and Marek Ďubek
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2957; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162957 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 150
Abstract
Ensuring the stability of monolithic concrete slabs during construction represents a crucial safety challenge in monolithic reinforced concrete buildings. Theoretical models and structural analyses often assume ideal conditions of supporting props. However, significant deviations occur in practice due to variations in technical condition [...] Read more.
Ensuring the stability of monolithic concrete slabs during construction represents a crucial safety challenge in monolithic reinforced concrete buildings. Theoretical models and structural analyses often assume ideal conditions of supporting props. However, significant deviations occur in practice due to variations in technical condition and installation methods. This study investigates the magnitude of prestressing forces generated in adjustable telescopic steel props depending on manual tightening and hammer blows. Experimental measurements were conducted on different types of props compliant with EN 1065, including both new and worn specimens, to simulate real on-site conditions. The influence of worker body weight was also analyzed. The results confirmed that the technical condition of the prop is the decisive factor affecting the level of prestress. Props in poor condition achieved substantially lower and inconsistent prestressing forces, while new props subjected to five hammer blows reached maximum values up to 13.16 kN. This difference can significantly influence static calculations for slab construction. Contrary to expectations, the influence of worker body weight was not statistically significant; instead, the dominant role was played by installation technique and the accuracy of hammer blows. The findings contribute to the optimization of safety guidelines and the improvement of calculation models for temporary support systems in monolithic construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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17 pages, 1156 KB  
Article
Cost and Incentive Analysis of Green Building Label Upgrades in Taiwan’s Residential Sector: A Case Study of Silver to Gold EEWH Certification
by Yen-An Chen, Fang-I Su and Chen-Yi Sun
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2956; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162956 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 339
Abstract
In response to the global push for sustainable development, green building certification systems have become a key policy instrument for reducing carbon emissions in the construction sector. In Taiwan, the EEWH (Ecology, Energy Saving, Waste Reduction, and Health) system serves as the primary [...] Read more.
In response to the global push for sustainable development, green building certification systems have become a key policy instrument for reducing carbon emissions in the construction sector. In Taiwan, the EEWH (Ecology, Energy Saving, Waste Reduction, and Health) system serves as the primary framework for evaluating building sustainability. However, while government incentives such as floor area ratio (FAR) bonuses aim to encourage adoption, private sector participation remains limited, especially in the residential sector. This study investigates the cost implications and incentive benefits of upgrading green building certification from the Silver level to the Gold level under the EEWH system, using eight collective housing projects in the Taipei metropolitan area as case studies. Through a detailed analysis of certification components, upgrade strategies, and construction cost estimates, this research quantifies the additional costs required for each sustainability indicator and evaluates the alignment between upgrade investments and incentive rewards. The findings reveal that the average cost increase associated with the Silver-to-Gold upgrade ranges between 1% and 3% of total construction costs, with certain design strategies offering high cost-effectiveness. Moreover, the study examines whether the current FAR bonus policy provides adequate motivation for developers to pursue higher certification levels. The results provide valuable insights for policymakers seeking to optimize incentive structures and for developers considering sustainable building investments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Sustainable and Cost-Effective Practices in Building Design and Construction)
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26 pages, 9783 KB  
Article
Assessing the Impact of the Indoor Light Environment of Office Facilities on Multidimensional Human Responses
by Ki Rim Kim, Kyung Sun Lee and Hyesung Cho
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2955; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162955 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 232
Abstract
This study investigates the effects of adjustable indoor light variables (illuminance and correlated color temperature [CCT]) typically found in office environments on human physiological, psychological, and cognitive responses. An experiment involving 72 participants was conducted, producing 360 data points. Each participant was exposed [...] Read more.
This study investigates the effects of adjustable indoor light variables (illuminance and correlated color temperature [CCT]) typically found in office environments on human physiological, psychological, and cognitive responses. An experiment involving 72 participants was conducted, producing 360 data points. Each participant was exposed to 5 of 18 light environment conditions, which combined different levels of illuminance and CCT. Human responses were measured through skin conductivity, heart rate variability (SDNN, RMSSD, LF/HF ratio), preference, visual comfort, fatigue, work speed, and work accuracy. Correlation and multiple regression analyses were performed to evaluate both the direct effects and interrelationships among the variables. The results showed that psychological responses were most sensitive to light conditions. Illuminance significantly influenced visual comfort and fatigue, while both illuminance and CCT affected preference. Although physiological responses and work performance showed no direct statistical significance with light conditions, they were significantly correlated with psychological responses. These findings suggest that psychological responses may serve as mediators between light environments and other human reactions. Therefore, a more integrated evaluation framework is needed for light design. This study emphasizes the importance of considering psychological well-being in indoor light and provides practical implications for advancing human-centric light design in smart office environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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22 pages, 16124 KB  
Article
Study on the Vibration Effects of Brick–Concrete Structures Induced by Blasting in Open-Pit Mines
by Peng Yan, Jie Tian, Yunpeng Zhang and Liangpeng Hao
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2954; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162954 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 318
Abstract
Ensuring the dynamic safety of buildings near open-pit mines during blasting is a critical concern for the normal conduct of mining operations. This study investigates the effects of blasting vibrations on brick–concrete structures by using deep-hole blasting tests conducted at the mine site, [...] Read more.
Ensuring the dynamic safety of buildings near open-pit mines during blasting is a critical concern for the normal conduct of mining operations. This study investigates the effects of blasting vibrations on brick–concrete structures by using deep-hole blasting tests conducted at the mine site, employing blasting vibration monitoring and numerical simulation techniques. The peak particle velocity and energy distribution characteristics of blasting waves in structural columns and brick walls were analyzed. Furthermore, a three-dimensional numerical model was developed to analyze the response characteristics of buildings to blasting vibrations. Considering the impact of a building’s natural frequency on blasting vibrations, harmonic response was utilized to identify the natural frequencies of different components. The relationship between these frequencies and a building’s natural frequency is discussed. Dangerous frequencies and components were identified. The findings of this study can serve as a theoretical foundation for understanding the damage mechanisms of buildings under blasting waves and for controlling the impact of blasting vibration effects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamic Response of Structures)
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19 pages, 5458 KB  
Article
From Vacancy to Vitality: NIMBY Effects, Life Satisfaction, and Scenario-Based Design in China’s Repurposed Residential Spaces
by Yuqiao Wu, Shan Wang and Baoxin Zhai
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2953; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162953 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 318
Abstract
With the ongoing advancement of urbanization in China, a disparity has arisen between population demands and the allocation of community resources, resulting in a persistent increase in residential vacancy rates. The integration of service facilities into vacant residential spaces has enabled functional housing [...] Read more.
With the ongoing advancement of urbanization in China, a disparity has arisen between population demands and the allocation of community resources, resulting in a persistent increase in residential vacancy rates. The integration of service facilities into vacant residential spaces has enabled functional housing transformations. This study analyzes three typical types of communities in Xi’an to examine these transformations, identifying distinct types and patterns across five scenarios, which include social, health, leisure, cultural, and educational contexts. Through structured questionnaires and in-depth interviews, we collected data on residents’ life satisfaction and NIMBY (not in my backyard) perceptions. Applying a NIMBY index algorithm, we quantified characteristics and identified root causes. The results demonstrated that leisure scenarios most significantly affected satisfaction, while social scenarios showed the highest NIMBY index. Using an ordered logistic regression model, we determined key NIMBY factors influencing satisfaction across scenarios, revealing their differential impact mechanisms. Drawing on the findings, we investigated coordination mechanisms between the transformations of residential spaces and the needs of residents. Based on this analysis, the research objective was to explore how vacant housing can integrate service facilities while mitigating NIMBY effects and meeting resident needs. Proposed strategies include hierarchical facility allocation, NIMBY mitigation measures, and spatial planning optimization, ultimately adapting to diverse lifestyles and housing demands. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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22 pages, 2131 KB  
Review
Research Progress on CO2 Transcritical Cycle Technology for Building Heating and Cooling Applications
by Weixiu Shi, Haiyu Chang, Junwei Zhou, Bai Mu, Shuang Quan and Lisheng Pan
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2952; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162952 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 346
Abstract
This review focuses on the advancements of CO2 transcritical cycle technology in building indoor environmental regulation, particularly in combined heating and cooling applications. The paper highlights the energy efficiency and environmental benefits of CO2 as a natural refrigerant, which has zero [...] Read more.
This review focuses on the advancements of CO2 transcritical cycle technology in building indoor environmental regulation, particularly in combined heating and cooling applications. The paper highlights the energy efficiency and environmental benefits of CO2 as a natural refrigerant, which has zero ozone depletion potential (ODP) and very low global warming potential (GWP). It provides a comprehensive overview of recent optimization strategies, including distributed compression, the integration of ejectors and expanders, and the design improvements of key components such as gas coolers, compressors, and throttling valves. Through optimization strategies such as dual-system cycles, this technology can achieve a COP improvement of 15.3–46.96% in heating scenarios; meanwhile, with the help of distributed compression technology, its cooling capacity can be enhanced by up to 26.5%. The review also examines various operating conditions such as discharge pressure and subcooling, which significantly affect system performance. The paper concludes by identifying the current challenges in the application of CO2 systems, such as high initial costs and system stability under extreme conditions, and suggests future research directions to overcome these limitations and improve the practical application of CO2 transcritical cycles in the building industry. Overall, it is concluded that the development of expander-compressors holds great potential for achieving better performance and represents a promising direction for future advancements in this field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development of Indoor Environment Comfort)
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21 pages, 21776 KB  
Article
Seismic Safety Analysis of Nuclear Power Plant Pumping Stations Using the Compact Viscous-Spring Boundary via Maximum Initial Time-Step Method
by Xunqiang Yin, Min Zhao, Weilong Yang, Junkai Zhang and Jianbo Li
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2951; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162951 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 203
Abstract
Pumping station structures are widely employed to supply circulating cooling water systems in nuclear power plants (NPPs) throughout China. Investigating their seismic performance under complex heterogeneous site conditions and load scenarios is paramount to meeting nuclear safety design requirements. This study proposes and [...] Read more.
Pumping station structures are widely employed to supply circulating cooling water systems in nuclear power plants (NPPs) throughout China. Investigating their seismic performance under complex heterogeneous site conditions and load scenarios is paramount to meeting nuclear safety design requirements. This study proposes and implements a novel, efficient, and accurate viscous-spring boundary methodology within the ANSYS 19.1 finite element software to assess the seismic safety of NPP pumping station structures. The Maximum Initial Time-step (MIT) method, based on Newmark’s integration scheme, is employed for nonlinear analysis under coupled static–dynamic excitation. To account for radiation damping in the infinite foundation, a Compact Viscous-Spring (CVs) element is developed. This element aggregates stiffness and damping contributions to interface nodes defined at the outer border of the soil domain. Implementation leverages of ANSYS User Programmable Features (UPFs), and a comprehensive static–dynamic coupled analysis toolkit is developed using APDL scripting and the GUI. Validation via two examples confirms the method’s accuracy and computational efficiency. Finally, a case study applies the technique to an NPP pumping station under actual complex Chinese site conditions. The results demonstrate the method’s capability to provide objective seismic response and stability indices, enabling a more reliable assessment of seismic safety during a Safety Shutdown Earthquake (SSE). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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16 pages, 8596 KB  
Article
Comparison of Various Methods for Determining Dynamic Behavior of Voided Floor Slabs
by Daniel Beutelhauser, Michal Venglar and Norbert Jendzelovsky
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2950; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162950 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 224
Abstract
Floor slabs are essential load-bearing components in buildings, and their dynamic behavior plays a crucial role in their serviceability limit state. In residential or office buildings, understanding the dynamic behavior of slabs is vital for ensuring the well-being and comfort of occupants. In [...] Read more.
Floor slabs are essential load-bearing components in buildings, and their dynamic behavior plays a crucial role in their serviceability limit state. In residential or office buildings, understanding the dynamic behavior of slabs is vital for ensuring the well-being and comfort of occupants. In buildings like medical facilities or laboratories, which contain sensitive equipment, it is equally important to assess dynamic behavior to prevent vibration-induced damage to machinery. Therefore, it is imperative that the dynamic properties of floor slabs are evaluated and considered in the design stage. As there are various viable methods to calculate these properties, this paper will focus on the most widely used methods and compare the effectiveness of their results in representing the real-world dynamic behavior of a voided floor slab via a case study. As the results presented in this paper prove, simplified calculation methods are capable of providing accurate results while being time and resource-saving. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Constructions in Europe: Current Issues and Future Challenges)
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23 pages, 12718 KB  
Article
Insights into Gamma-Ray Spectrometry of Building Stones in the North Temple of the Great Ball Court, Archaeological Zone of Chichen Itza, Mexico
by Alejandro Méndez-Gaona, Vsevolod Yutsis, Rubén Alfonso López-Doncel, Claudia Araceli García-Solís and Alfredo Aguillón-Robles
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2949; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162949 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 278
Abstract
Non-destructive tests are especially useful for the assessment of building stones and their deterioration in built cultural heritage. Gamma-ray spectrometry is a non-destructive test that has not been applied extensively in these types of constructions. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to [...] Read more.
Non-destructive tests are especially useful for the assessment of building stones and their deterioration in built cultural heritage. Gamma-ray spectrometry is a non-destructive test that has not been applied extensively in these types of constructions. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to show the results of gamma-ray spectrometry for limestone characterization and deterioration assessment. This study was conducted in the North Temple of the Archaeological Zone of Chichen Itza and several outcrops in the area. Gamma-ray spectrometry data were corrected for attenuation caused by the moisture content in rocks to calculate the real radioelements concentrations using linear regression, with interpretation based on their mobility resulting from chemical weathering processes. The results obtained with gamma-ray spectrometry were corroborated by laboratory analyses, demonstrating that stones from the North Temple are more weathered than rocks from the outcrops, and that some limestones have clasts derived from terrigenous sources, causing them to show slightly higher radiation, which can be distinguished easily with gamma-ray spectrometry, even when lithology cannot be recognized in plain sight. Gamma-ray spectrometry proved to be useful for limestone characterization, and data obtained can be correlated with parameters from other analyses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Research on Cultural Heritage)
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17 pages, 5836 KB  
Article
Mechanical Performance of Square Box-Type Core Mold Hollow Floor Slabs Based on Field Tests and Numerical Simulation
by Ziguang Zhang, Fengyu Chen, Wenjun Yu, Jie Sheng, Lin Wei and Ankang Hu
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2948; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162948 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 215
Abstract
This study investigates the mechanical performance and failure mechanisms of large-span, cast-in situ hollow-core floor slabs with square-box core molds under vertical loading. A combination of in situ tests and refined numerical simulations was used to investigate the slab’s behavior. An 8 m [...] Read more.
This study investigates the mechanical performance and failure mechanisms of large-span, cast-in situ hollow-core floor slabs with square-box core molds under vertical loading. A combination of in situ tests and refined numerical simulations was used to investigate the slab’s behavior. An 8 m × 8 m hollow slab from the Xinluzhou Industrial Park in Hefei, China, was subjected to five-stage cyclic loading up to 9.0 kN/m2 using a distributed water tank system. Real-time strain monitoring showed that the slab remained within the elastic range, exhibiting a linear strain-load relationship and bidirectional bending stiffness, with less than 5% deviation between the X and Y directions. Finite element analysis, incorporating a concrete plastic damage model and a bilinear steel model, replicated the experimental stress distribution, with errors of less than 6.9% for reinforcement and 8.8% for concrete. The simulation predicted an ultimate load-bearing capacity of 27.2 kN/m2, with initial failure indicated by diagonal cracks at the column capital edges, followed by flexural cracks at the slab mid-span. These findings clarify the bidirectional bending behavior and stress redistribution, characterized by “banded gradient” and “island-shaped” stress zones. This study provides valuable insights and design optimization strategies to improve the structural performance and safety of hollow-core floor slabs in high-rise buildings. Full article
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