Agriculture

25 pages, 4221 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tray-Rotating Microwave Vacuum Drying of Scutellaria baicalensis Slices: Multivariate Links Between Bioactive Retention, Color, and Sensory Quality

by Zewen Zhu, Guojun Ma, Xiaopeng Huang, Fangxin Wan, Xiaoping Yang, Pan Wang, Ying Liu, Changsheng Kang, Yuqing Zheng and Zepeng Zang

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2347; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222347 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

To improve the drying efficiency and quality of Scutellaria baicalensis (S. baicalensis) for both medicinal and beverage purposes, this study examined the effects of temperature, vacuum degree, and rotation speed during rotary microwave vacuum drying. The study focused on drying kinetics, [...] Read more.

To improve the drying efficiency and quality of Scutellaria baicalensis (S. baicalensis) for both medicinal and beverage purposes, this study examined the effects of temperature, vacuum degree, and rotation speed during rotary microwave vacuum drying. The study focused on drying kinetics, physicochemical properties, and sensory quality of the Scutellaria slices. Multivariate analyses, including hierarchical cluster and correlation network analyses, were used to explore the relationship between parameters and quality. Results showed that the method significantly reduced drying time and improved moisture migration. It also preserved active components like baicalin, wogonoside, total phenolics, and polysaccharides, with high antioxidant activity maintained. Temperature was the key factor. The best balance was achieved with 50 °C, −75 kPa, and 4.2 rad/s, resulting in high drying efficiency, a sensory acceptability score of 8.8, turbidity of 12.4 NTU, and strong antioxidant capacity. Cluster analysis distinguished microwave-vacuum-dried samples from those dried by traditional methods (natural air-drying and hot-air drying). Correlation network analysis revealed positive links between sensory acceptance, active components, and liquor clarity. This optimized parameter set is recommended for producing high-quality Scutellaria ingredients for consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Product Quality and Safety)

27 pages, 13622 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Learning Improves Planting Year Estimation of Macadamia Orchards in Australia

by Andrew Clark, James Brinkhoff, Andrew Robson and Craig Shephard

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2346; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222346 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

Deep learning reduced macadamia planting year error at a national scale, achieving a pixel-level Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 1.2 years and outperforming a vegetation index threshold baseline (MAE 1.6 years) and tree-based models—Random Forest (RF; MAE 3.02 years) and Gradient Boosted Trees [...] Read more.

Deep learning reduced macadamia planting year error at a national scale, achieving a pixel-level Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 1.2 years and outperforming a vegetation index threshold baseline (MAE 1.6 years) and tree-based models—Random Forest (RF; MAE 3.02 years) and Gradient Boosted Trees (GBT; MAE 2.9 years). Using Digital Earth Australia Landsat annual geomedians (1988–2023) and block-level, industry-supplied planting year data, models were trained and evaluated at the pixel level under a strict Leave-One-Region-Out cross-validation (LOROCV) protocol; a secondary block-level random split (80/10/10) is reported only to illustrate the more optimistic setting, where shared regional conditions yield lower errors (0.6–0.7 years). Predictions reconstruct planting year retrospectively from the full historical record rather than providing real-time forecasts. The final model was then applied to all Australian Tree Crop Map (ATCM) macadamia orchard polygons to produce wall-to-wall planting year estimates. The approach enables fine-grained mapping of planting patterns to support yield forecasting, resource allocation, and industry planning. Results indicate that sequence-based deep models capture informative temporal dynamics beyond thresholding and conventional machine learning baselines, while remaining constrained by regional and temporal data sparsity. The framework is scalable and transferable, offering a pathway to planting year mapping for other perennial crops and to more resilient, data-driven agricultural decision-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Crop Protection)

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24 pages, 991 KB

Open AccessReview

Biochar for Soil Fertility and Climate Mitigation: Review on Feedstocks, Pyrolysis Conditions, Functional Properties, and Applications with Emerging AI Integration

by Florian Marin, Oana Maria Tanislav, Marius Constantinescu, Antoaneta Roman, Felicia Bucura, Simona Oancea and Anca Maria Zaharioiu

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2345; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222345 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

Soil degradation, declining fertility, and rising greenhouse gas emissions highlight the urgent need for sustainable soil management strategies. Among them, biochar has gained recognition as a multifunctional material capable of enhancing soil fertility, sequestering carbon, and valorizing biomass residues within circular economy frameworks. [...] Read more.

Soil degradation, declining fertility, and rising greenhouse gas emissions highlight the urgent need for sustainable soil management strategies. Among them, biochar has gained recognition as a multifunctional material capable of enhancing soil fertility, sequestering carbon, and valorizing biomass residues within circular economy frameworks. This review synthesizes evidence from 186 peer-reviewed studies to evaluate how feedstock diversity, pyrolysis temperature, and elemental composition shape the agronomic and environmental performance of biochar. Crop residues dominated the literature (17.6%), while wood, manures, sewage sludge, and industrial by-products provided more targeted functionalities. Pyrolysis temperature emerged as the primary performance driver: 300–400 °C biochars improved pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), water retention, and crop yield, whereas 450–550 °C biochars favored stability, nutrient concentration, and long-term carbon sequestration. Elemental composition averaged 60.7 wt.% C, 2.1 wt.% N, and 27.5 wt.% O, underscoring trade-offs between nutrient supply and structural persistence. Greenhouse gas (GHG) outcomes were context-dependent, with consistent Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) reductions in loam and clay soils but variable CH₄ responses in paddy systems. An emerging trend, present in 10.6% of studies, is the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) to improve predictive accuracy, adsorption modeling, and life-cycle assessment. Collectively, the evidence confirms that biochar cannot be universally optimized but must be tailored to specific objectives, ranging from soil fertility enhancement to climate mitigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biochar-Based Fertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture: Feedstocks, Production, and Effects on the Soil-Plant System)

23 pages, 11640 KB

Open AccessArticle

Justification of the Design and Operating Parameters of the Improved Disc Grain Crusher

by Illia Bilous, Algirdas Jasinskas, Volodymyr Dudin, Savelii Kukharets, Elchyn Aliiev, Rolandas Domeika, Simona Paulikienė and Tomas Ūksas

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2344; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222344 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

The study examines the influence of key structural and technological parameters of a disc crusher with impact plates—the distance between liners, installation angle, and linear movement speed—on the crushing process of maize, wheat, and barley grains. Numerical modeling using the Discrete Element Method [...] Read more.

The study examines the influence of key structural and technological parameters of a disc crusher with impact plates—the distance between liners, installation angle, and linear movement speed—on the crushing process of maize, wheat, and barley grains. Numerical modeling using the Discrete Element Method (DEM) in Simcenter STAR-CCM+ revealed patterns of variation in breaking force during impact cutting. An integral efficiency criterion was proposed to minimize the breaking force while maximizing productivity and reducing energy consumption. Rational process parameters were determined for each crop, considering their physico-mechanical properties: liner distance l = 1.68–1.79 mm, installation angle β = 21.8–25.3°, particle velocity V = 4.72–5.86 m/s, disc speed n = 1503–1865 rpm, and clearance δ = 0.68–0.79 mm. Experimental studies yielded models describing specific energy consumption, dust-like fraction, and crushing degree depending on the liner angle, number, and rotation speed. Optimization showed that energy consumption was lowest for wheat (3.63 kWh/t) and highest for barley (6.76 kWh/t). The dust fraction was greatest for maize (5.13%) and lowest for barley (1.34%). Optimal grinding regimes were found at n = 1500–1764 rpm, β = 15.9–17.7°, and z = 9 plates. The results confirm the efficiency of adapting crusher parameters to grain properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Use and Valorization of Agro-Residues and Invasive Plants for Sustainable Energy and Soil Health in Farming Systems)

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25 pages, 2936 KB

Open AccessArticle

Territorial Disparities, Structural Imbalances, and Economic Implications in the Potato Crop System in Romania

by Paula Stoicea, Irina-Adriana Chiurciu and Elena Cofas

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2343; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222343 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

At the European level, potato cultivation is highly polarized. In Western Europe (Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark), yields are high, agricultural technology is advanced, and production systems ensure stability and competitiveness. In contrast, in Eastern and Southern Europe (including Romania, Poland, Italy, [...] Read more.

At the European level, potato cultivation is highly polarized. In Western Europe (Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark), yields are high, agricultural technology is advanced, and production systems ensure stability and competitiveness. In contrast, in Eastern and Southern Europe (including Romania, Poland, Italy, and Spain), yields are considerably lower due to the use of outdated agricultural practices, a low degree of mechanization, and increased exposure to adverse climatic factors. In Romania, potato cultivation is marked by significant territorial disparities and structural imbalances, influenced by land fragmentation, agro-pedoclimatic variability, and the lack of capital necessary for investments in modern technologies and irrigation systems. This study analyzes these regional disparities in relation to the country’s real agricultural potential and quantifies the economic impact of its failure to realize it. The methodology applied is based on descriptive statistical analysis of data at the county and regional level for the period 2003–2024, including minimum, maximum, average, and standard deviations of yields. These were integrated into a production function that correlates cultivated areas with average prices, highlighting major intra-regional differences and significant economic consequences at the national level. The results indicate a double crisis: a drastic reduction in the areas cultivated with potatoes (from 196,000 ha in 2017 to 76,000 ha in 2024) and consistently low yields (12,000–18,000 kg/ha), which led to the collapse of total production (from 3.1 million tons in 2017 to under 1 million tons in 2024). As a result, Romania registers a productivity three to four times lower than the reference Western European countries. Moreover, Romania has moved from being a net exporter to a net importer of potatoes, with the food self-sufficiency indicator decreasing from 100.3% in 2017 to 48.1% in 2023. Although domestic production could theoretically cover consumption needs, structural problems regarding yields, the sharp reduction in cultivated areas, and distribution deficiencies have seriously affected the balance of the domestic market. While per capita consumption has remained relatively constant, the decline in production has led, after 2021, to an increasing dependence on imports. These trends highlight the need for urgent structural reforms, technological modernization, and targeted agricultural policies to increase productivity and restore food security in the Romanian potato crop system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies for Resilient and Sustainable Agri-Food Systems—2nd Edition)

26 pages, 3809 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Aggregate-Mediated Restoration of Degraded Black Soil via Biochar and Straw Additions: Emphasizing Microbial Community Interactions and Functions

by Shaojie Wang, Siyang Liu, Yingqi Wen, Wenjun Hao, Yiyi Zhao and Shasha Luo

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2342; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222342 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

The synergistic application of biochar and straw could improve soil properties and influence soil microbial community. However, its impacts on microbial community interactions and functions within various aggregate fractions remain unclear. We conducted a three-year field trial in black soil in northeastern China, [...] Read more.

The synergistic application of biochar and straw could improve soil properties and influence soil microbial community. However, its impacts on microbial community interactions and functions within various aggregate fractions remain unclear. We conducted a three-year field trial in black soil in northeastern China, under the restoration measures of biochar application (BR, 30 t ha⁻¹ once), straw return (SR, 5 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹), and the combination of BR and SR (BS, BR at 30 t ha⁻¹ once and SR at 5 t ha⁻¹ year⁻¹). Utilizing high-throughput sequencing, we assessed the influence of different straw-returning methods on the structure and function of microbial communities in the mega-aggregates (ME, >2 mm), macroaggregates (MA, 0.25–2 mm), and microaggregates (MI, <0.25 mm). Relative to the control (CK), the BR, SR and BS treatments significantly decreased the bacterial Shannon index, mainly dependent on ME (p < 0.05). Conversely, compared with the CK and SR treatments, both BR and BS treatments notably reduced the fungal Shannon index, largely influenced by MI (p < 0.05). Moreover, the BS treatment significantly increased the relative abundance (RA) of Mortierellomycota (p < 0.05) compared to the CK, BR and SR treatments. Meanwhile, the SR and BS treatments substantially reduced the RA of Nitrospirae (p < 0.05) in comparison to the CK and BR treatments. Furthermore, compared with the CK, the BR and SR treatments enhanced microbial network connectivity, while the BS treatment diminished it, especially in ME and MI. Concurrently, the keystone of co-occurrence networks shifted from Phycisphaeraceae, Blastocatellaceae, and Glomeraceae in the CK treatment to uncultured_bacterium_c_JG37-AG-4 and DA111 in the BS treatment. Additionally, BR and SR exhibited synergistic effects on most microbial community functions (e.g., enhanced chitinolysis and carbon fixation but reduced nitrogen-cycling functions), but they also possessed distinct differential functions. In short, the combined application of biochar and straw adversely impacted soil microbial community diversity and stability, especially in ME and MI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)

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28 pages, 2633 KB

Open AccessArticle

Facilitating Farmers’ Monitoring Access to the Hemolymph of Codling Moth Larvae Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus, 1758) for Informed Decision-Making and Control Strategies in Apple Orchards

by Paschalis Giannoulis and Helen Kalorizou

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2341; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222341 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

The codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.) represents a substantial threat to the apple tree industry, with its cellular content being agronomically vital as it serves as the final immunological and toxicological barrier of the pest. Key hemocyte types identified in the hemolymph include [...] Read more.

The codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.) represents a substantial threat to the apple tree industry, with its cellular content being agronomically vital as it serves as the final immunological and toxicological barrier of the pest. Key hemocyte types identified in the hemolymph include plasmatocytes, granulocytes, spherulocytes, and oenocytoids. Hemolymph samples were in vitro suspended in various salt buffers (physiological saline, phosphate saline buffer (PBS) and Galleria mellonella anticoagulant buffer) to determine the most suitable one for agricultural monitoring purposes. The pH influenced the total hemocyte counts and the type of cells that adhered to the slides. PBS (pH 6.5) was found to be optimal for such studies due to its high levels of cellular attachment, cell viability, absence of melanization, and cellular degeneration effects. The supplementation of 5% CaCl₂ to PBS did not enhance the functional utility of the buffer. The in vivo bacterial challenge of larval hemolymph with 4 × 10⁸ sp/mL Bacillus subtilis provided complete clearance from the microbial invader within 30 min. Hemocytes released antimicrobial lysozyme as part of their innate immune responses. Hemocytic examination of larvae as an agricultural practice is strongly recommended for baseline insecticide resistance avoidance and predictive efficiency of integrated pest management in the apple farm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Protection, Diseases, Pests and Weeds)

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17 pages, 2336 KB

Open AccessArticle

EU27–Africa Agro-Food Product Trade: Exporting or Importing?

by Oksana Kiforenko and Małgorzata Bułkowska

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2340; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222340 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

Africa has always been among the top geopolitical priorities for the EU due to the continent’s close geographical proximity and long-standing economic ties. The agro-food trade between the EU27 and Africa is extremely important for both subjects and not only in terms of [...] Read more.

Africa has always been among the top geopolitical priorities for the EU due to the continent’s close geographical proximity and long-standing economic ties. The agro-food trade between the EU27 and Africa is extremely important for both subjects and not only in terms of food security, as it is also a useful tool to secure a long-term partnership between the two continents, making them true and reliable allies ready to give support to each other, especially in the current unstable global situation. The analyzed data were taken from the official publications of the Eurostat (ESTAT). The time frame under analysis is 23 time periods—from 2002 to 2024 inclusive. Such methods and tools of scientific research as textual and tabular methods, empirical, statistical and comparative analyses, as well as the logical method, comprising deductive and inductive reasoning, time series analysis, modelling and forecasting, methods of time series data decomposition, etc. were used while conducting the research presented in the given article. The results for the time series analysis, modelling and forecasting assume the projections for the next four time periods for the EU27 to Africa agro-exports to be around their last observed value, slightly fluctuating or increasing with a delicateslope. The EU27 from Africa agro imports for the next four time periods are projected to increase, with a rather sharp slope. The research and its results can be of great help for public administrators, decision makers, academic community representatives, statisticians, and data analysts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Economics, Policies and Rural Management)

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14 pages, 1286 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cytokinin- and Auxin-Based Plant Growth Regulators Enhance Cell Expansion, Yield Performance, and Fruit Quality in ‘Maxi Gala’ Apple Fruits in Southern Brazil

by Sabrina Baldissera, Alex Felix Dias, Joel de Castro Ribeiro, Renaldo Borges de Andrade Júnior, Bruno Pirolli, Euvaldo de Sousa Costa Júnior, Poliana Francescatto, Polliana D’Angelo Rios, Daiana Petry Rufato, Amauri Bogo and Leo Rufato

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2339; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222339 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

Cytokinin- and Auxin-Based Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) are commonly employed to increase fruit size due to their ability to modulate cellular structure. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different PGR application protocols on histological parameters, yield components, and fruit quality in [...] Read more.

Cytokinin- and Auxin-Based Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) are commonly employed to increase fruit size due to their ability to modulate cellular structure. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different PGR application protocols on histological parameters, yield components, and fruit quality in ‘Maxi Gala’ apple. The experiments were carried out under humid subtropical conditions of southern Brazil across two growing seasons (2021/22 and 2022/23), allowing comparison of treatment performance under distinct climatic patterns. Data from common treatments were combined across years for integrated analysis. The PGRs used included 6-benzyladenine (BA) as a cytokinin source; naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) as an auxin source; and tryptophan, a precursor of auxin biosynthesis. PGRs were applied in various combinations and concentrations between 10 days after dormancy break (BBCH 01) and fruit diameters of 25–27 mm (BBCH 74), following a randomized block design with four replicates of twelve trees each. The multivariate analysis of treatments was performed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Additionally, an analysis of variance was performed for flesh firmness loss, with means compared using Tukey’s test (p < 0.05). PGRs significantly influenced only the histological parameters of the fruit flesh tissues. BA and tryptophan had the greatest effects on cell size and cell number in the fruit flesh, respectively, both reducing intercellular spaces. Tryptophan was associated with a higher number of smaller cells, whereas NAA promoted larger cell sizes. The combination of BA and NAA, as well as a single application of BA at petal fall, resulted in the highest yield performances and increased the proportion of large fruits. Furthermore, BA enhanced the percentage of red skin coloration and improved flesh firmness during storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Systems and Management)

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20 pages, 15574 KB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal Encoding Strategies for YOLO-Based Detection of Honeybee Trophallaxis Behavior in Precision Livestock Systems

by Gabriela Vdoviak and Tomyslav Sledevič

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2338; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222338 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

Trophallaxis, a fundamental social behavior observed among honeybees, involves the redistribution of food and chemical signals. The automation of its detection under field-realistic conditions poses a significant challenge due to the presence of crowding, occlusions, and brief, fine-scale motions. In this study, we [...] Read more.

Trophallaxis, a fundamental social behavior observed among honeybees, involves the redistribution of food and chemical signals. The automation of its detection under field-realistic conditions poses a significant challenge due to the presence of crowding, occlusions, and brief, fine-scale motions. In this study, we propose a markerless, deep learning-based approach that injects short- and mid-range temporal features into single-frame You Only Look Once (YOLO) detectors via temporal-to-RGB encodings. A new dataset for trophallaxis detection, captured under diverse illumination and density conditions, has been released. On an NVIDIA RTX 4080 graphics processing unit (GPU), temporal-to-RGB inputs consistently outperformed RGB-only baselines across YOLO families. The YOLOv8m model improved from 84.7% mean average precision (mAP50) with RGB inputs to 91.9% with stacked-grayscale encoding and to 95.5% with temporally encoded motion and averaging over a 1 s window (TEMA-1s). Similar improvements were observed for larger models, with best mAP50 values approaching 94–95%. On an NVIDIA Jetson AGX Orin embedded platform, TensorRT-optimized YOLO models sustained real-time throughput, reaching 30 frames per second (fps) for small and 23–25 fps for medium models with temporal-to-RGB inputs. The results showed that the TEMA-1s encoded YOLOv8m model has achieved the highest mAP50 of 95.5% with real-time inference on both workstation and edge hardware. These findings indicate that temporal-to-RGB encodings provide an accurate and computationally efficient solution for markerless trophallaxis detection in field-realistic conditions. This approach can be further extended to multi-behavior recognition or integration of additional sensing modalities in precision beekeeping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Precision Livestock Farming and Artificial Intelligence for Sustainable Livestock Systems)

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19 pages, 6213 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Image-Based Method for Measuring Spray Pattern Distribution in a Mechanical Patternator

by Mustafa Çomaklı and Bahadır Sayıncı

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2337; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222337 - 11 Nov 2025

Abstract

The uniform distribution of pesticides via spraying is of crucial importance in achieving effective and environmentally sustainable crop protection. Conventional assessment techniques such as sensor-based patternators and electronic monitoring systems are often expensive, complex to calibrate, and limited in adaptability to different nozzle [...] Read more.

The uniform distribution of pesticides via spraying is of crucial importance in achieving effective and environmentally sustainable crop protection. Conventional assessment techniques such as sensor-based patternators and electronic monitoring systems are often expensive, complex to calibrate, and limited in adaptability to different nozzle geometries or operating conditions. The present study introduces and validates a low-cost, image-based method as an alternative to the traditional volumetric approach for evaluating spray pattern uniformity in mechanical patternators. Spray tests were conducted under controlled laboratory conditions in order to minimize environmental variability and ensure repeatability. The present study compared two complementary methods—volumetric measurement and image analysis—to evaluate their agreement and accuracy in determining spray deposition profiles. The findings, which included correlation and multivariate tests, indicated a robust linear relationship between the two approaches (r = 0.990–0.999), with deviations falling below ±3% and no statistically significant multivariate differences (p = 0.067). The image-based approach effectively captured both central and edge regions of the spray pattern, demonstrating precision comparable to volumetric readings. The findings confirm that image analysis provides an accurate, reliable, and repeatable means of assessing spray uniformity without reliance on costly sensor technologies. The proposed method offers a practical and scalable alternative for laboratory calibration, nozzle classification, and research applications focused on optimizing agricultural spraying performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)

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36 pages, 8474 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Metabolomic and Transcriptomic Profiles Provide Insights into the Molecular Mechanisms in Modulating Female Flower of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.)

by Lilan Lu, Yuan Zhang, Zhiguo Dong, Weibo Yang and Ruoyun Yu

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2336; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222336 - 10 Nov 2025

Abstract

Coconut yield and quality are significantly affected by multiple female inflorescences (MFF), which disrupt flower differentiation balance. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms, we compared MFF with normal female inflorescences (NFF) using phenotypic, morphological, physiological, and multi-omics approaches. The results revealed that MFF exhibited [...] Read more.

Coconut yield and quality are significantly affected by multiple female inflorescences (MFF), which disrupt flower differentiation balance. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms, we compared MFF with normal female inflorescences (NFF) using phenotypic, morphological, physiological, and multi-omics approaches. The results revealed that MFF exhibited altered flower structures. MFF showed elevated iron (Fe), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), zinc (Zn), proline (Pro), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), abscisic acid (ABA), and jasmonic acid (JA), but reduced molybdenum (Mo), soluble sugar (SS), soluble protein (SP), superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), indole acetic acid (IAA), zeatin riboside (ZR), and gibberellic acid (GA). We detected 445 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) mainly enriched in ABA, ETH, BR, and JA pathways in MFF compared to NFF. We identified 144 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) primarily in lipids and lipid-like molecules, phenylpropanoids and polyketides, as well as organic acids and derivatives in the comparison of MFF and NFF. Integrated analysis linked these to key pathways, e.g., “carbon metabolism”, “carbon fixation in photosynthetic organisms”, “phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan biosynthesis”, “glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism”, “glycolysis/gluconeogenesis”, “pentose and glucuronate interconversions”, “flavonoid biosynthesis”, “flavone and flavonol biosynthesis”, “pyruvate metabolism”, and “citrate cycle (TCA cycle)”. Based on our results. the bHLH137, BHLH062, MYB (CSA), ERF118, and MADS2 genes may drive MFF formation. This study provides a framework for understanding coconut flower differentiation and improving yield. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Genetics, Genomics and Breeding)

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20 pages, 6571 KB

Open AccessArticle

Accurate Inversion of Rice LAI Using UAV-Based Hyperspectral Data: Integrating Days After Transplanting and Meteorological Factors

by Nan Wang, Shilong Li, Xin Qi, Meihan Liu, Jiayi Yang, Jiulin Zhou, Lihong Yu, Fenghua Yu, Chunling Chen and Yonghuan Wang

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2335; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222335 - 10 Nov 2025

Abstract

The leaf area index (LAI) is a key physiological parameter characterizing rice canopy structure and growth status. To face the limits of traditional destructive sampling, which is time-consuming, labor-intensive, and difficult to achieve large-scale dynamic detection, this study proposes a precise UAV-based hyperspectral [...] Read more.

The leaf area index (LAI) is a key physiological parameter characterizing rice canopy structure and growth status. To face the limits of traditional destructive sampling, which is time-consuming, labor-intensive, and difficult to achieve large-scale dynamic detection, this study proposes a precise UAV-based hyperspectral inversion method for rice LAI using the fusion of Days After Transplantation and Meteorological Factors data (DATaMF). The study framework consisted of three key components: spectral preprocessing (smoothing-R_SG, resampling-R_RS, first derivative transformation-R_FD), spectral feature selection (SPA, CARS, Relief-F), and the construction and assessment of LAI inversion models (RF, ELM, XGBoost) that integrated DATaMF. The results show that (1) the three-level data preprocessing procedure—comprising R_SG, R_RS, and R_FD—coupled with the feature subset selected by the CARS method, demonstrates strong performance in LAI inversion; (2) the incorporation of DATaMF significantly improves rice LAI estimation, leading to improved model accuracy and robustness; and (3) the optimal LAI inversion model is achieved with the RF-based CARS-R_FD-DATaMF approach, yielding test set R², RMSE, and RPD values of 0.8015, 0.5745, and 2.2857, respectively. In conclusion, the hyperspectral LAI inversion method developed in this study, which integrates DATaMF, significantly enhances the model’s accuracy and stability under small-sample conditions. This approach provides reliable technical support for efficient, precise, and dynamic monitoring of rice growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue How Optical Sensors and Deep Learning Enhance the Production Management in Smart Agriculture)

23 pages, 10587 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Specialized Cultivation Evolution on Ecosystem Services in Anxi Tea Gardens

by Yongqiang Ma, Tiejun Wen, Yujie Liao, Sunbowen Zhang and Shuisheng Fan

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2334; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222334 - 10 Nov 2025

Abstract

The specialization of tea gardens represents a significant pathway to enhancing the international competitiveness of agriculture. However, it may also disrupt the supply–demand balance of ecosystem services. This study addresses this gap by focusing on the specialized tea zone of Anxi as a [...] Read more.

The specialization of tea gardens represents a significant pathway to enhancing the international competitiveness of agriculture. However, it may also disrupt the supply–demand balance of ecosystem services. This study addresses this gap by focusing on the specialized tea zone of Anxi as a case study. Using the InVEST model, we quantitatively assessed four key ecosystem services between 1990 and 2020: carbon storage, habitat quality, water yield, and soil conservation. The findings reveal that tea gardens perform relatively well in terms of carbon storage and habitat quality. However, their capacity for water conservation is limited, and soil conservation is highly susceptible to human disturbance. Dynamic transitions between tea gardens and forests have exerted considerable influence on changes in ecosystem services, with policies and practices aimed at converting tea plantations back to forest demonstrating a positive role in ecological restoration. Finally, guided by the principles of nature-based solutions, this study proposes targeted strategies to provide scientific support and practical references for sustainable development in specialized agricultural regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Ecosystem, Environment and Climate Change in Agriculture)

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29 pages, 401 KB

Open AccessArticle

Macronutrient Status in Grapevine Leaves and Soil in Response to Fertilizers and Biostimulants

by Jerzy Lisek and Wioletta Popińska

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2333; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222333 - 10 Nov 2025

Abstract

A field study was conducted on the plants of two grapevine cultivars, ‘Solaris’ and ‘Regent’, grafted onto an SO 4 rootstock (V. berlandieri × V. riparia) and characterized by strong growth and yield. The effect of twelve treatments on the concentration [...] Read more.

A field study was conducted on the plants of two grapevine cultivars, ‘Solaris’ and ‘Regent’, grafted onto an SO 4 rootstock (V. berlandieri × V. riparia) and characterized by strong growth and yield. The effect of twelve treatments on the concentration of macroelements in leaf blades in the véraison phase, as well as selected soil parameters, was assessed in the sixth, seventh and eighth year of their application. The following treatments were tested: control (no fertilization), NPK (mineral fertilization 70 kg N/ha; 40 kg P/ha; 120 kg K/ha), mycorrhizal substrate (AMF—arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi), NPK + AMF, manure before planting, NPK + manure before planting, BioIlsa, NPK + BioIlsa, BF-Ecomix, NPK + BF-Ecomix, Ausma, NPK + Ausma. The aim of the study was to assess the nutritional status of the two cultivars after long-term use of mineral fertilizers, organic fertilizers, biofertilizers and biostimulants under Polish conditions in soil with a low organic matter (SOM) content prone to acidification. AMF, organic fertilizers and biostimulants were not a sufficient alternative to mineral fertilizers, especially with regard to N supply. BF-Ecomix treatment increased the content of Mg in the soil and the soil pH value. Regular use of NPK fertilization increased the concentration of leaf N and K, but did not improve the nutritional status of plants with P, despite doubling its content in the soil compared to control. NPK fertilizers worsened the availability and accumulation of Mg and caused soil acidification, but resulted in a slight increase in total soil N and SOM. No significant differences were noted in the mineral status of both cultivars under the same fertilization treatments but liming improved the leaf Ca status in ‘Solaris’. Fertilization of grapevines, which have started to be cultivated in Poland due to the warming climate, requires further study. Mineral fertilization should not be routine, but rather constantly readjusted, taking into account the soil fertility and mineral status of plants, in order to use the nutrients more effectively and avoid their unfavorable effects on plants and soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Viticulture)

12 pages, 2004 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Productivity of Jambu (Acmella oleracea) with Effluent from Tambaqui Culture: An Integrated Aquaculture—Agriculture Approach for the Amazon

by Glauber David Almeida Palheta, Andreza Mayra Baena Souza de Jesus, Larissa Matos Lima, Sávio Lucas de Matos Guerreiro, Nuno Filipe Alves Correia de Melo, Ronald Kennedy Luz, Fábio Carneiro Sterzelecki and Jessivaldo Rodrigues Galvão

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2332; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222332 - 9 Nov 2025

Abstract

The global demand for sustainable food systems requires innovative strategies that reconcile productivity with environmental stewardship, particularly in biodiversity-rich regions such as the Amazon. This study evaluated the cultivation of Acmella oleracea (jambu) using effluent from Colossoma macropomum (tambaqui) aquaculture as a partial [...] Read more.

The global demand for sustainable food systems requires innovative strategies that reconcile productivity with environmental stewardship, particularly in biodiversity-rich regions such as the Amazon. This study evaluated the cultivation of Acmella oleracea (jambu) using effluent from Colossoma macropomum (tambaqui) aquaculture as a partial substitute for chemical fertilizer. Five treatments were tested under greenhouse conditions: 100% fertilizer, 75% fertilizer, 50% fertilizer, 25% chemical, and 0% fertilizer. Significant treatment effects were observed for leaf number, plant height, stem diameter, and shoot biomass, while root biomass showed no differences. Treatments with 100%, 75%, and 50% fertilizer exhibited statistically similar performance across several growth parameters, indicating that up to 50% of the chemical fertilizer can be replaced by aquaculture effluent without significant yield reduction. Treatments with 50% fertilizer and 0% fertilizer showed reduced growth and higher tissue accumulation of nitrate and ammonium, reflecting nutritional imbalances. In parallel, tambaqui showed 100% survival and satisfactory growth, confirming the stability of the integrated system. These results highlight that, although exclusive use of effluent is insufficient to match chemical fertilizer, partial substitution represents a viable strategy to reduce input costs and recycle nutrients, reinforcing the bioeconomic potential of aqua-culture–agriculture integration in the Amazon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)

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13 pages, 856 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Feed Form on Tenebrio molitor L. Adults and Young Larvae Performance

by Ferdinando Baldacchino, Flutura Lamaj and Fjolla Avdylaj

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2331; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222331 - 9 Nov 2025

Abstract

Competitive industrial farming of Tenebrio molitor L. requires strategies aimed at reducing production costs and improving overall efficiency. Among variable costs, feed is one of the most significant components. Previous research has mainly focused on the nutritional composition of diets, the use of [...] Read more.

Competitive industrial farming of Tenebrio molitor L. requires strategies aimed at reducing production costs and improving overall efficiency. Among variable costs, feed is one of the most significant components. Previous research has mainly focused on the nutritional composition of diets, the use of agri-food by-products, and the optimization of multicomponent formulations, sometimes administered in pelleted form during bioassays. However, knowledge about the influence of the administration form is scarce. This study investigated the effects of different feed forms—finely ground (<0.5 mm), coarsely ground (0.5–2 mm), and assembled (pellets, cookies, and crumbles)—on both adult and larval performance. Three feeds (wheat bran, brewer’s spent grain, and chicken feed) were tested to assess adult productivity and larval growth. The results showed non-significant differences in adult survival between feed forms, whereas finely ground feed significantly increased adult productivity and the survival of newborn larvae. Furthermore, larvae in the growing phase (40–60 days old) were able to effectively utilize assembled feeds, with no significant differences in larval weight compared to those reared on ground diets. These findings suggest that pelleted formulations for T. molitor farming should include a fraction of finely ground material to support early larval stages, thereby optimizing survival and development. Moreover, the different influence of feed form provides useful information for planning evaluation trials of multicomponent assembled diets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Protection, Diseases, Pests and Weeds)

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22 pages, 13446 KB

Open AccessArticle

The YOLO-OBB-Based Approach for Citrus Fruit Stem Pose Estimation and Robot Picking

by Lei Ye, Junjun Ma, Yuanhua Lv, Zhipeng Guo, Zhihao Lai, Chuhong Ou, Jin Li and Fengyun Wu

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2330; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222330 - 9 Nov 2025

Abstract

Precise localization of the fruit stem picking point is crucial for robots to achieve efficient harvesting operations. However, in unstructured orchard environments, citrus fruit stems are easily obscured by branches and leaves and affected by factors such as overlapping fruits. This leads to [...] Read more.

Precise localization of the fruit stem picking point is crucial for robots to achieve efficient harvesting operations. However, in unstructured orchard environments, citrus fruit stems are easily obscured by branches and leaves and affected by factors such as overlapping fruits. This leads to poor picking localization accuracy for robots, impacting their autonomous picking efficiency. Therefore, this paper proposes a method for estimating the posture of citrus fruit stems and performing picking operations under environmental occlusion, based on the YOLO-OBB algorithm. First, the YOLOv5s algorithm detects the ROI of citrus, combined with depth information to obtain their 3D point clouds. Second, the OBB algorithm constructs oriented point cloud bounding boxes to determine stem orientation and picking point locations. Finally, through hand–eye pose transformation of the robotic arm, the end-effector is controlled to achieve precise picking operations. Experimental results indicate that the average picking success rate of the YOLO-OBB algorithm reaches 82%, representing a 50% improvement over approaches without fruit stem estimation. This conclusively shows that the proposed algorithm provides precise fruit stem pose estimation, effectively enhancing robotic picking success rates under constrained fruit stem detection conditions. It offers crucial technical support for autonomous robotic harvesting operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Intelligent Agriculture: Perception Technologies and Agricultural Equipment for Crop Production Processes)

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21 pages, 2797 KB

Open AccessArticle

Seed 3D Phenotyping Across Multiple Crops Using 3D Gaussian Splatting

by Jun Gao, Chao Zhu, Junguo Hu, Fei Deng, Zhaoxin Xu and Xiaomin Wang

Agriculture 2025, 15(22), 2329; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15222329 - 8 Nov 2025

Abstract

This study introduces a versatile seed 3D reconstruction method that is applicable to multiple crops—including maize, wheat, and rice—and designed to overcome the inefficiency and subjectivity of manual measurements and the high costs of laser-based phenotyping. A panoramic video of the seed is [...] Read more.

This study introduces a versatile seed 3D reconstruction method that is applicable to multiple crops—including maize, wheat, and rice—and designed to overcome the inefficiency and subjectivity of manual measurements and the high costs of laser-based phenotyping. A panoramic video of the seed is captured and processed through frame sampling to extract multi-view images. Structure-from-Motion (SFM) is employed for sparse reconstruction and camera pose estimation, while 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS) is utilized for high-fidelity dense reconstruction, generating detailed point cloud models. The subsequent point cloud preprocessing, filtering, and segmentation enable the extraction of key phenotypic parameters, including length, width, height, surface area, and volume. The experimental evaluations demonstrated a high measurement accuracy, with coefficients of determination (R²) for length, width, and height reaching 0.9361, 0.8889, and 0.946, respectively. Moreover, the reconstructed models exhibit superior image quality, with peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) values consistently ranging from 35 to 37 dB, underscoring the robustness of 3DGS in preserving fine structural details. Compared to conventional multi-view stereo (MVS) techniques, the proposed method can achieve significantly improved reconstruction accuracy and visual fidelity. The key outcomes of this study confirm that the 3DGS-based pipeline provides a highly accurate, efficient, and scalable solution for digital phenotyping, establishing a robust foundation for its application across diverse crop species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Artificial Intelligence and Digital Agriculture)

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