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Electrospun Polybenzimidazole Membranes: Fabrication and Fine-Tuning Through Physical and Statistical Approaches
Sustainable Substitution of Petroleum-Based Processing Oils with Soybean-Derived Alternatives in Styrene–Butadiene Rubber: Effects on Processing Behavior and Mechanical Properties
Nanoparticle Formulation Generated from DDGS and Its Anthraquinone Synthesis Elicitation in Rubia tinctorum Hairy Roots
Waste Coffee Silver Skin as a Natural Filler in PLA-Based Filaments for Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) Printing

Journal Description

Polymers

Polymers is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of polymer science published semimonthly online by MDPI. Belgian Polymer Group (BPG), European Colloid & Interface Society (ECIS), National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM) and North American Thermal Analysis Society (NATAS) are affiliated with Polymers and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, PubMed, PMC, FSTA, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Polymer Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (General Chemistry )
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 14 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in MDPI journals, in appreciation of the work.
Testimonials: See what our authors and editors say about Polymers.
Journal Cluster of Polymer and Macromolecular Science: Polymers, Gels, Polysaccharides, Textiles, Macromol, Microplastics and Adhesives.

Impact Factor: 4.9 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 5.2 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4360

Latest Articles

14 pages, 1295 KB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of Odor Compounds in Lignocellulose-Based Panels Using DHS-GC/MS Combined with Odor Activity Value Analysis

by Lina Tang, Qian Chen, Liming Zhu, Xiaorui Liu, Xianwu Zou, Yuejin Fu and Bo Liu

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2421; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172421 (registering DOI) - 6 Sep 2025

Wood, as the oldest natural polymer composite material on Earth, holds significant importance in the era of carbon neutrality and serves as an irreplaceable core material in the furniture and construction industries. As a primary raw material for furniture, wood-based lignocellulosic boards have [...] Read more.

Wood, as the oldest natural polymer composite material on Earth, holds significant importance in the era of carbon neutrality and serves as an irreplaceable core material in the furniture and construction industries. As a primary raw material for furniture, wood-based lignocellulosic boards have drawn increasing consumer attention due to their odor characteristics. In order to achieve the determination of odor compounds in lignocellulose-based panels, this study established a method combining dynamic headspace sampling (DHS), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), and odor activity value (OAV) analysis. To address the wide concentration range of odor compounds in lignocellulose-based panels, a three-level standard curve was established to meet the detection of odor substances in common lignocellulose-based panels. The favorable conditions for each factor were as follows: sheet-shaped samples, TENAX-TA adsorbent, 20 mL headspace vials, and a split ratio of 25:1. The method demonstrated good linearity within the range of 0.002–15 mg/m³, with recovery rates ranging from 94.74% to 103.44%. The method was applied to analyze commercially available particleboard, fiberboard, and plywood. A total of 33 odor components were detected. The results indicated that aldehyde contributed significantly to the odor of particleboard, acids were the main contributors to the odor of fiberboard, and terpenes dominated the odor of plywood. The established method is suitable for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of odor compounds in lignocellulose-based panels and provides reliable technical support for tracing, identifying, and controlling odors in these materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Supramolecular Polymeric Materials, 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 21787 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Bio-Based Infill Materials on the Fire Resistance of Panelised Timber Wall Assemblies—A Pilot Study

by Ľudmila Tereňová, Zuzana Vidholdová and Ľubomír Valigurský

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2420; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172420 (registering DOI) - 6 Sep 2025

In the pursuit of low-impact and renewable construction materials, various by-products from agriculture, forestry, and the wood processing industry are being explored as potential bio-based infill materials for wall assemblies. This study presents an experimental assessment of the fire performance of timber wall [...] Read more.

In the pursuit of low-impact and renewable construction materials, various by-products from agriculture, forestry, and the wood processing industry are being explored as potential bio-based infill materials for wall assemblies. This study presents an experimental assessment of the fire performance of timber wall systems composed of block units filled with different lignocellulosic materials, subjected to radiative heat exposure. These assemblies are representative of external walls in contemporary timber-framed buildings. Two configurations were examined: one with sawdust infill and the other with wood pellet infill. Both samples were exposed to radiant heat from the interior side for 60 min, simulating conditions of a fully developed compartment fire. The applied heat flux was 20 kW·m⁻², delivered by a calibrated radiant panel. The results indicate that even minor design variations—particularly the choice of infill material—can significantly influence the thermal response, degradation kinetics of wood-based components, and the overall fire resistance of the wall assembly. The sawdust-filled system exhibited superior performance, achieving an estimated fire resistance rating of 60 min (60 REI). It showed reduced internal thermal degradation compared to the pellet-filled variant, which experienced greater charring depth due to internal voids between pellets, although it maintained structural integrity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Bio-Based and Circular Polymers and Composites)

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4 pages, 158 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Recent Advances and Future Directions in Thermal, Electrical, and Mechanical Properties of Polymer Composites

by Gabriel Pinto, Victoria Alcázar and Marina P. Arrieta

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2419; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172419 (registering DOI) - 6 Sep 2025

Polymer composites continue to redefine the boundaries of what materials can achieve [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Thermal, Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Polymer Composites)

20 pages, 2070 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effect of Water Regeneration and Integration on Technical Indicators of PVC Manufacturing Using Process System Engineering

by Eduardo Andrés Aguilar-Vásquez, Segundo Rojas-Flores and Ángel Darío González-Delgado

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2418; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172418 (registering DOI) - 6 Sep 2025

The suspension polymerization process of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) production involves significant freshwater consumption alongside substantial wastewater emissions. Mass integration strategies have been used to address this problem, but only through direct recycling approaches. Therefore, in this study, a regeneration approach was applied to [...] Read more.

The suspension polymerization process of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) production involves significant freshwater consumption alongside substantial wastewater emissions. Mass integration strategies have been used to address this problem, but only through direct recycling approaches. Therefore, in this study, a regeneration approach was applied to integrate a PVC suspension process to improve water management. The reuse network was evaluated through a water–energy–product (WEP) technical analysis after being simulated in AspenPlus software v.14. The mass integration allowed for a 61% reduction in freshwater consumption and an 83% reduction in wastewater. However, 258.6 t/day of residual wastewater still remained after regeneration. The WEP analysis found that the process was efficient in handling raw materials and process products due to the high yield and recovery of unreacted materials. Similarly, the integration significantly benefitted the process performance as water usage indicators improved substantially, with freshwater consumption of 83%, a wastewater production rate of 63%, and freshwater water costs of $267,322 per year (from $694,080 before integration). In terms of energy performance, the results were regular. The processes showed high energy consumption (below 50%), with indicators related to the use of natural gas, electricity, and energy costs being affected by the regeneration. However, the limited heat integration provided minor energy savings (11 MJ/h). Finally, this work gives an interesting insight into water conservation and the circular economy, since the study used the latest systems in regeneration of effluents for plastic plants (emerging technologies), showcasing important benefits and trade-offs of these strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable and Functional Polymers for Food Packaging)

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22 pages, 2811 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Bending Behaviour of GFRP Laminates Repaired with Stainless-Steel Wire Mesh

by Hamza Taş and Hasan Yavuz Ünal

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2417; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172417 - 5 Sep 2025

This study experimentally investigates the use of stainless-steel woven wire mesh (SSWWM) as a patch material for repairing damaged glass fibre-reinforced (GFR) composite laminates. The effects of several factors on the three-point bending (3PB) behaviour of the parent laminate were examined, including the [...] Read more.

This study experimentally investigates the use of stainless-steel woven wire mesh (SSWWM) as a patch material for repairing damaged glass fibre-reinforced (GFR) composite laminates. The effects of several factors on the three-point bending (3PB) behaviour of the parent laminate were examined, including the repair method (the plugging of open hole and the external patch repair), the mesh count of the SSWWM, and the number of SSWWM layers. According to the findings, all parameters considered in this study play a pivotal role in 3PB behaviour. Employing SSWWM as a patch material can recover 66.02–129.2% of the undamaged 3PB failure load, depending on the repair method, mesh count of the SSWWM, and number of SSWWM layers. Overall, decreasing the mesh count and increasing the number of SSWWM layers and applying an external patch repair method yield better results in terms of failure load and patch efficiency. This can be attributed to the increased wire diameter, improved bending rigidity, and better load distribution over a wider area. The SSWWM bridges the damaged zone, ensuring effective load transfer between the patch and parent laminate while preventing crack propagation. Utilising SSWWM as a patch material provides a quick, reliable solution for damage scenarios in engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)

25 pages, 8643 KB

Open AccessArticle

2D to 3D Modification of Chang–Chang Criterion Considering Multiaxial Coupling Effects in Fiber and Inter-Fiber Directions for Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Composites

by Yingchi Chen, Junhua Guo and Wantao Guo

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2416; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172416 - 5 Sep 2025

Fiber-reinforced composites are widely used in aerospace and other fields due to their excellent specific strength, specific stiffness, and corrosion resistance, and further study of their failure criteria is essential to improve the accuracy and reliability of failure behavior prediction under complex loads. [...] Read more.

Fiber-reinforced composites are widely used in aerospace and other fields due to their excellent specific strength, specific stiffness, and corrosion resistance, and further study of their failure criteria is essential to improve the accuracy and reliability of failure behavior prediction under complex loads. There are still some limitations in the current composite failure criterion research, mainly reflected in the lack of promotion of three-dimensional stress state, lack of sufficient consideration of multi-modal coupling effects, and the applicability of the criteria under multiaxial stress and complex loading conditions, which limit the wider application of composites in the leading-edge fields to a certain degree. In this work, a generalized Mohr failure envelope function approach is adopted to obtain the stress on the failure surface as a power series form of independent variable, and the unknown coefficients are determined according to the damage conditions, to extend the Chang–Chang criterion to the three-dimensional stress state, and to consider the coupling effect between the fiber and matrix failure modes. The modified Chang–Chang criterion significantly enhances the failure prediction accuracy of composite materials under complex stress states, especially in the range of multi-axial loading and small off-axis angles, which provides a more reliable theoretical basis and practical guidance for the safe design and performance optimization of composite structures in aerospace and other engineering fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)

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16 pages, 16095 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanistic Insights into the Non-Monotonic Flame Retardancy of CPVC/ABS Composite

by Long Zhang, Lewen Liu, Shengwen Zou, Peng Qin, Zhengzhu Zhu, Shaoyun Guo and Qining Ke

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2415; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172415 - 5 Sep 2025

The chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC)/acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) composite represents an important class of engineering thermoplastics, offering a strong balance of flame retardancy, chemical resistance, mechanical properties, processability, and cost efficiency. Despite its widespread application, the flame-retardant mechanism in the CPVC/ABS system remains poorly understood. [...] Read more.

The chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC)/acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) composite represents an important class of engineering thermoplastics, offering a strong balance of flame retardancy, chemical resistance, mechanical properties, processability, and cost efficiency. Despite its widespread application, the flame-retardant mechanism in the CPVC/ABS system remains poorly understood. This work systematically investigated the non-monotonic flame-retardant behavior of CPVC/ABS composites through comprehensive characterization. The combustion performance, as determined by limiting oxygen index (LOI), UL-94 vertical burning tests, and cone calorimeter tests (CCTs), showed an unexpected pattern of flame retardancy initially improving then decreasing with reduced ABS content, which contradicted conventional expectations. The optimal composition at a CPVC/ABS ratio of 2:3 demonstrated good performance, achieving a UL-94 5VA rating and 47.3% reduction in total heat release (THR) relative to CPVC. A more stable and compact structure was observed from the morphology analysis of the residual char, and the thermogravimetric analysis further revealed a synergistic effect in carbonization behavior. The above flame-retardant mechanism could be interpreted by the combined effects of accelerated char formation during the early decomposition stage and significantly enhanced char crosslinking degree. These findings provided fundamental insights for designing high-performance flame-retardant polymer composites and facilitating their industrial implementation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)

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15 pages, 8341 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design, Synthesis, and Characterization of a Novel Tetra-Block Copolymer for High-Performance Self-Healing Batteries

by Işık İpek Avcı Yayla, Omer Suat Taskin and Neslihan Yuca

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2414; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172414 - 5 Sep 2025

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become the dominant energy storage technology due to their versatility and superior performance across diverse applications. Silicon (Si) stands out as a particularly promising high-capacity anode material for next-generation LIBs, offering a theoretical capacity nearly ten times greater than [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become the dominant energy storage technology due to their versatility and superior performance across diverse applications. Silicon (Si) stands out as a particularly promising high-capacity anode material for next-generation LIBs, offering a theoretical capacity nearly ten times greater than conventional graphite anodes. However, its practical implementation faces a critical challenge: the material undergoes a ~300% volume expansion during lithiation/delithiation, which causes severe mechanical stress, electrode pulverization, and rapid capacity decay. In addressing these limitations, advanced polymer binders serve as essential components for preserving the structural integrity of Si-based anodes. Notably, self-healing polymeric binders have emerged as a groundbreaking solution, capable of autonomously repairing cycle-induced damage and significantly enhancing electrode durability. The evaluation of self-healing performance is generally based on mechanical characterization methods while morphological observations by scanning electron microscopy provide direct evidence of crack closure; for electrochemically active materials, electrochemical techniques including GCD, EIS, and CV are employed to monitor recovery of functionality. In this study, a novel self-healing copolymer (PHX-23) was synthesized for Si anodes using a combination of octadecyl acrylate (ODA), methacrylic acid (MA), 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA), and polyethylene glycol methyl ether methacrylate (PEGMA). The copolymer was thoroughly characterized using NMR, FTIR, TGA, SEM, and EDX to confirm its chemical structure, thermal stability, and morphology. Electrochemical evaluation revealed that the PHX-23 binder markedly improves cycling stability, sustaining a reversible capacity of 427 mAh g⁻¹ after 1000 cycles at 1C. During long-term cycling, the Coulombic efficiency of the PHX-23 polymer is 99.7%, and similar functional binders in the literature have shown similar results at lower C-rates. Comparative analysis with conventional binders (e.g., PVDF and CMC/SBR) demonstrated PHX-23’s exceptional performance, exhibiting higher capacity retention and improved rate capability. These results position PHX-23 as a transformative binder for silicon anodes in next-generation lithium-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Polymers and Composites in Multifunctional Systems)

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19 pages, 3126 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Enhancement of Lightweight PLA Parts Printed by FFF Using Taguchi–GRA Method

by Oğuz Tunçel and Çağlar Kahya

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2413; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172413 - 5 Sep 2025

Lightweight PLA (LW-PLA) filaments enable material-saving designs in fused filament fabrication (FFF), yet optimizing their mechanical performance remains challenging due to temperature-sensitive foaming behavior. This study aims to enhance the structural strength and material efficiency of LW-PLA parts using a multi-objective statistical approach. [...] Read more.

Lightweight PLA (LW-PLA) filaments enable material-saving designs in fused filament fabrication (FFF), yet optimizing their mechanical performance remains challenging due to temperature-sensitive foaming behavior. This study aims to enhance the structural strength and material efficiency of LW-PLA parts using a multi-objective statistical approach. Four key process parameters—infill density (Id), material flow rate (Mf), wall line count (Wlc), and infill pattern (Ip)—were systematically varied using a Taguchi L₁₆ orthogonal array. Tensile strength (Ts), flexural strength (Fs), and material consumption (Mc) were selected as the critical response metrics. Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) was used to aggregate these responses into a single performance index, and ANOVA determined each factor’s contribution. The optimal combination of 60% infill density, 70% material flow, 4 wall lines, and line infill pattern yielded a 9.02% improvement in the overall performance index compared to the baseline, with corresponding Ts and Fs values of 13.58 MPa and 20.51 MPa. Mf and Wlc were the most influential parameters on mechanical behavior, while Id mainly affected Mc. These findings confirm that integrating Taguchi and GRA enables effective parameter tuning for LW-PLA, balancing strength and efficiency. This work contributes to the development of lightweight, high-performance parts suitable for functional applications such as UAVs and prototyping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multiscale and Multi-Physical Behavior of Polymers and Polymer Composites)

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30 pages, 12288 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of Four-Point Bending Test Results of GFRP and CFRP Composites Used in Wind Turbine Blades

by Senai Yalçinkaya, Mehmet Fatih Yoldaş and Dudu Mertgenç Yoldaş

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2412; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172412 - 5 Sep 2025

The depletion of fossil fuels and the rise of environmental concerns have increased the importance of renewable energy sources, positioning wind energy as a key alternative. Modern wind turbine blades are predominantly manufactured from composite materials due to their light weight, high strength, [...] Read more.

The depletion of fossil fuels and the rise of environmental concerns have increased the importance of renewable energy sources, positioning wind energy as a key alternative. Modern wind turbine blades are predominantly manufactured from composite materials due to their light weight, high strength, and resistance to corrosion. In offshore applications, approximately 95% of the composite content is glass fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP), while the remaining 5% is carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP). GFRP is favored for its low cost and fatigue resistance, whereas CFRP offers superior strength and stiffness but is limited by high production costs. This study investigates the durability of adhesively bonded GFRP and CFRP joints under marine exposure. Seven-layer GFRP and eight-layer CFRP laminates were produced using a 90° unidirectional twill weave and prepared in accordance with ASTM D5868-01. Specimens were immersed in natural Aegean Sea water (21 °C, salinity 3.3–3.7%) for 1, 2, and 3 months. Measurements revealed that GFRP absorbed significantly more moisture (1.02%, 2.97%, 3.78%) than CFRP (0.49%, 0.76%, 0.91%). Four-point bending tests conducted according to ASTM D790 showed reductions in Young’s modulus of up to 9.45% for GFRP and 3.48% for CFRP. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed that moisture-induced degradation was more severe in GFRP joints compared to CFRP. These findings highlight the critical role of environmental exposure in the mechanical performance of marine composite joints. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Manufacturing and Multifunctional Applications of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites)

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19 pages, 2463 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of an SA/XLG Composite Hydrogel Film for Customized Facial Mask Applications

by Su-Mei Huang, Xu-Ling Sun, Chia-Ching Li and Jiunn-Jer Hwang

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2410; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172410 - 5 Sep 2025

This study aims to address the poor extensibility, brittleness, and limited hydration stability of pure sodium alginate (SA) hydrogels, which hinder their use in flexible, skin-adherent applications such as facial masks, by developing bio-based composites incorporating five representative functional additives: xanthan gum, guar [...] Read more.

This study aims to address the poor extensibility, brittleness, and limited hydration stability of pure sodium alginate (SA) hydrogels, which hinder their use in flexible, skin-adherent applications such as facial masks, by developing bio-based composites incorporating five representative functional additives: xanthan gum, guar gum, hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), poly(ethylene glycol)-240/hexamethylene diisocyanate copolymer bis-decyl tetradeceth-20 ether (GT-700), and Laponite^® XLG. Composite hydrogels were prepared by blending 1.5 wt% SA with 0.3 wt% of each additive in aqueous humectant solution, followed by ionic crosslinking using 3% (w/w) CaCl₂ solution. Physicochemical characterization included rotational viscometry, uniaxial tensile testing, ATR-FTIR spectroscopy, swelling ratio analysis, and pH measurement. Among them, the SA/XLG composite exhibited the most favorable performance, showing the highest viscosity, shear-thickening behavior, and markedly enhanced extensibility with an elongation at break of 14.8% (compared to 2.5% for neat SA). It also demonstrated a mean swelling ratio of 0.24 g/g and complete dissolution in water within one year. ATR-FTIR confirmed distinct non-covalent interactions between SA and XLG without covalent modification. The hydrogel also demonstrated excellent conformability to complex 3D surfaces, consistent hydration retention under centrifugal stress (+23.6% mass gain), and complete biodegradability in aqueous environments. Although its moderately alkaline pH (8.96) may require buffering for dermatological compatibility, its mechanical resilience and environmental responsiveness support its application as a sustainable, single-use skin-contact material. Notably, the SA/XLG composite hydrogel demonstrated compatibility with personalized fabrication strategies integrating 3D scanning and additive manufacturing, wherein facial topography is digitized and transformed into anatomically matched molds—highlighting its potential for customized cosmetic and biomedical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stimuli-Responsive Polymers: Advances and Prospects)

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18 pages, 4085 KB

Open AccessArticle

Magneto-Tunable Surface Roughness and Hydrophobicity of Magnetoactive Elastomers Based on Polymer Networks with Different Architectures

by Sobit E. Kirgizov, Sergey A. Kostrov and Elena Yu. Kramarenko

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2411; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172411 - 4 Sep 2025

In this study, we present experimental investigations of the surface structure and water contact angles of magnetoactive elastomers (MAEs), which are controlled by an external magnetic field. Specifically, we examine how the polymer matrix architecture affects the surface roughness and wettability of MAEs [...] Read more.

In this study, we present experimental investigations of the surface structure and water contact angles of magnetoactive elastomers (MAEs), which are controlled by an external magnetic field. Specifically, we examine how the polymer matrix architecture affects the surface roughness and wettability of MAEs in various magnetic fields. We performed a comparative analysis on MAEs based on a linear polysiloxane network and on a matrix of the same chemical nature containing side-grafted chains. We synthesized a series of magnetoactive elastomers containing 75 wt.% carbonyl iron and varying amounts of a low-molecular-weight plasticizer. Although the magnetorheological effect is higher for traditional linear MAEs, we found that the magnetic response in surface properties is higher for novel MAEs with side-grafted chains. The largest increase in water contact angle was observed in the side-chain MAEs with the highest 60 wt.% plasticizer content: rising from 112° in a zero field to 168° in a 490 mT magnetic field. Water contact angles exhibit greater stability over time for side-chain MAEs, and this stability further increases in the presence of a magnetic field. Our results demonstrate that the architecture of the polymer matrix serves as an effective tool for designing smart, magnetically responsive surfaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)

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20 pages, 5466 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication of Zein Nanoparticle-Functionalized Wheat Gluten Amyloid Fibril/Methyl Cellulose Hybrid Membranes with Efficient Performance for Water-in-Oil Emulsion Separation

by You-Ren Lai, Jun-Ying Lin, Jou-Ting Hsu, Ta-Hsien Lin, Su-Chun How and Steven S.-S. Wang

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2409; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172409 - 4 Sep 2025

Considering the high stability of water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions, contamination from emulsified pollutants poses a long-term risk to the environment. In this study, hybrid membranes composed of wheat gluten amyloid fibrils (WGAFs) and zein nanoparticles (ZNPs) were prepared and used as a separator to [...] Read more.

Considering the high stability of water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions, contamination from emulsified pollutants poses a long-term risk to the environment. In this study, hybrid membranes composed of wheat gluten amyloid fibrils (WGAFs) and zein nanoparticles (ZNPs) were prepared and used as a separator to remove emulsified W/O droplets from the oily phase. ZNPs and WGAFs were synthesized through antisolvent method and fibrillation process. Next, a ZNP-functionalized wheat gluten AF/methyl cellulose (ZNP-WGAF/MC) hybrid membrane was fabricated, and its properties were investigated via various analytical techniques. Lastly, the separation efficiency of the ZNP-WGAF/MC hybrid membrane for various W/O emulsions was assessed using microscopy and light scattering. The formation of ZNPs or WGAFs was first verified via spectroscopic and microscopic methods. Our results indicated that the ZNP-WGAF/MC hybrid membranes were synthesized via chemical crosslinking coupled with the casting method. Furthermore, the incorporation of either WGAFs or ZNPs was found to improve the thermal stability and surface hydrophobicity of membranes. Finally, the separation efficiency of the ZNP-WGAF/MC hybrid membranes for various W/O emulsions was determined to be ~87–99%. This research demonstrates the potential of harnessing three-dimensional membranes composed of plant protein-based fibrils and nanoparticles to separate emulsified W/O mixtures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymer Membranes for Advanced Separation Technologies)

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30 pages, 26752 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances and Applications of Bionic Design and Functional Integration in Underwater Soft Grippers

by Chaoqun Xiang, Hongsen Sun, Teng Wu, Ye Chen, Yanjie Wang and Tao Zou

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2408; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172408 - 4 Sep 2025

This paper systematically reviews the research progress of underwater soft grasping devices in the field of bionic structure, function integration, and tactile sensing technology by drawing on the structural characteristics of marine organisms such as octopuses, jellyfish, and sea anemones (such as suction [...] Read more.

This paper systematically reviews the research progress of underwater soft grasping devices in the field of bionic structure, function integration, and tactile sensing technology by drawing on the structural characteristics of marine organisms such as octopuses, jellyfish, and sea anemones (such as suction cups, umbrella-like muscles, and stinging cells). This paper analyzes the inspiration for the design, the application of innovative materials, and the integration of sensing and driving from marine organisms, including a review of soft robotics technologies, such as shape memory alloys (SMA), ionic polymer metal composite materials (IPMCs), magnetic nanocomposite cilia, etc. The research results emphasize that bionic soft robots have the potential for transformation in completely changing underwater operations by providing enhanced flexibility, efficiency, and environmental adaptability. This work provides a bionic design paradigm and perception-driven integration method for underwater soft operation systems, thereby promoting equipment innovation in the fields of deep-sea exploration and ecological protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Soft Robotics with Polymers)

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20 pages, 5274 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigations of the Seam Opening Behavior of Peelable Seal Seams as a Function of the Seal Seam Formation

by Marc Götz, Fabian Kayatz and Marek Hauptmann

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2407; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172407 - 4 Sep 2025

In the process of heat contact sealing of thin, flexible polymer films, the choice of the film material, the layer structure, the sealing tools, and the process parameters influence the melt flow. A pronounced melt flow dynamic, which is to be expected in [...] Read more.

In the process of heat contact sealing of thin, flexible polymer films, the choice of the film material, the layer structure, the sealing tools, and the process parameters influence the melt flow. A pronounced melt flow dynamic, which is to be expected in industrial applications due to the high temperatures and pressures, favors the formation of sealing edges that negatively affect the user-friendliness when opening the packaging. In this study, the influence of seal seam formation on the opening behavior was systematically investigated by numerical simulation. A detailed model was developed that simulates the seam opening process, accounting for the composite structure, the detailed geometry of the seal seam, and the separation process. The numerical results of the force-offset behavior showed good agreement with experimental data. Parameter studies revealed that the thicker and more pronounced seal seams lead to higher tear-off forces, while thinner and less pronounced seams result in lower forces. These findings provide valuable insights into the interactions between seam formation and the mechanical behavior of flexible films, enabling the optimization of sealing processes for improved package performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers for Circular Packaging Materials)

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15 pages, 2442 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Characterization of Copper-Crosslinked Alginate–Hyaluronic Acid Aerogels as Potential Wound Dressing Materials with Enhanced Antibacterial Properties

by Tamara Athamneh, Mohammad A. A. Al-Najjar, Raghad Garafat, Alaa Mahmood Abuawad, Areen Alshweiat, Muna Barakat, Wael Fatehi Abu-Irmaileh, Adel Maher Hamdan, Tasneem Ali Odat, Razan Altarabeen, Yamen Bani Younes and Irina Smirnova

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2406; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172406 - 4 Sep 2025

The development of advanced wound dressing materials with enhanced antibacterial properties is critical for improving patient outcomes and reducing infection risks. This study introduces a novel bio-based aerogel composed of copper-crosslinked alginate and hyaluronic acid, synthesized using supercritical gel drying techniques. Alginate and [...] Read more.

The development of advanced wound dressing materials with enhanced antibacterial properties is critical for improving patient outcomes and reducing infection risks. This study introduces a novel bio-based aerogel composed of copper-crosslinked alginate and hyaluronic acid, synthesized using supercritical gel drying techniques. Alginate and hyaluronic acid polymers are widely used in the pharmaceutical and medical industries because of their nontoxicity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. This study aimed to create an aerogel that could be used as a potential wound dressing material by crosslinking hyaluronic acid and alginate with copper. The bio-based aerogel was prepared by ionic gelation and supercritical gel drying. The prepared materials were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), BET surface area analysis, and energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF). Moreover, the aerogel wound dressing properties were evaluated in terms of fluid uptake and antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli. The physicochemical characterization of the prepared aerogels revealed their unique structural and morphological features, which are influenced by copper ion concentration and crosslinking time. Regarding their wound dressing evaluation, both aerogel and hydrogel were found to have antibacterial properties when tested on S. aureus with inhibition zones of (36 mm, 23 mm) and E. coli (31.6 mm, 21 mm) for hydrogel and aerogel, respectively. Also, excellent fluid uptake was found to reach up to 743%. These findings underscore the potential of copper-crosslinked alginate–hyaluronic acid aerogels as innovative wound dressing materials that combine superior antibacterial efficacy with excellent fluid management, paving the way for improved wound healing solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)

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22 pages, 10983 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Freeze–Thaw Cycles (FTCs) on the Mechanical Behavior of Highway Clay Subgrade Soils Stabilized with Lime and Polypropylene Fibers

by Tayfun Şengül and Yaşar Vitoşoğlu

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2405; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172405 - 4 Sep 2025

High-plasticity soils pose significant problems in road infrastructure, adversely affecting structural safety due to their unfavorable engineering properties. Lime stabilization is one of the most widely used methods for improving such soils. However, lime addition may cause brittleness of these soils, resulting in [...] Read more.

High-plasticity soils pose significant problems in road infrastructure, adversely affecting structural safety due to their unfavorable engineering properties. Lime stabilization is one of the most widely used methods for improving such soils. However, lime addition may cause brittleness of these soils, resulting in a sudden loss of strength. To overcome this weakness, this study investigated using polypropylene fibers in combination with lime stabilization. Accordingly, the plasticity, compressibility, and strength properties of soil mixtures containing 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12% lime, along with mixtures prepared with a constant 0.5% polypropylene fiber content, were systematically evaluated in a laboratory environment. Additionally, the influence of freeze–thaw cycles (FTCs), which induce long-term strength degradation in highway subgrades, on these mixtures was investigated. The results indicated that lime addition reduced the plasticity index by up to 38% without causing a significant change in dry unit weight. It was also determined that FTCs could lead to a strength loss of up to 84% in natural soil, and this loss was substantially reduced by adding lime and fibers. These findings highlight that the lime-fiber combination represents an effective and sustainable method for increasing the performance of high-plasticity soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Fibers)

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16 pages, 2351 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Cu@Zr-MOFs-PAN Nanofiber Composites for Efficient Methylene Blue Adsorption in Wastewater Treatment

by Zibin Li, Lizhen Zhang and Guoyuan Yuan

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2404; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172404 - 3 Sep 2025

Methylene blue (MB) is a commonly used dye that generates a large amount of dye wastewater during its application. If discharged untreated, it poses a serious threat to water environments and human health. Therefore, the removal of methylene blue from dye wastewater is [...] Read more.

Methylene blue (MB) is a commonly used dye that generates a large amount of dye wastewater during its application. If discharged untreated, it poses a serious threat to water environments and human health. Therefore, the removal of methylene blue from dye wastewater is crucial. In this study, we used zirconium-based metal–organic frameworks (Zr-MOFs) as a precursor and doped them with copper ions to prepare the Cu@Zr-MOFs composite material. Subsequently, we fabricated Cu@Zr-MOFs-PAN nanofiber composites through electrospinning to address the challenge of separating Cu@Zr-MOFs from water. The results indicate that the introduction of copper ions significantly enhances the adsorption capacity of Zr-MOFs for MB, increasing the adsorption amount from 158.0 mg/g to 266.0 mg/g, representing a 68.3% improvement. Furthermore, the prepared Cu@Zr-MOFs-PAN nanofibers exhibited an MB adsorption capacity of 162.1 mg/g, further confirming the successful preparation of Cu@Zr-MOFs-PAN. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis shows that copper doping not only enhances the structural stability of the material but also increases the density of active sites for MB adsorption. This study not only provides an efficient material for the removal of MB from wastewater but also offers an important theoretical basis for the design of novel nanomaterials for environmental pollutant remediation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Fibers)

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23 pages, 3557 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Applying Hyperbranched PVAc Copolymer Emulsion for Ecological Sand-Fixing in the High Salt-Affected Sandy Land

by Meilan Li, Yayi Jin, Jiale Wan, Wei Gong, Keying Sun and Liangliang Chang

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2403; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172403 - 3 Sep 2025

This research seeks to reduce wind-blown sand hazards in saline deserts by introducing hyperbranched PVAc copolymer emulsion as a novel ecological sand-fixing material. The study began with the preparation of the emulsion, then evaluated its fundamental properties and the salt tolerance of latex [...] Read more.

This research seeks to reduce wind-blown sand hazards in saline deserts by introducing hyperbranched PVAc copolymer emulsion as a novel ecological sand-fixing material. The study began with the preparation of the emulsion, then evaluated its fundamental properties and the salt tolerance of latex films through FTIR, SEM, and mechanical strength assessments. The sand-fixing properties (compressive strength, anti-water erosion, anti-wind erosion, thermal aging, freeze–thaw stability, and water retention) were evaluated. In addition, their effects on increasing both the growth of microbes and plants in salty deserts have been evaluated by field experiments to understand their ecological effects. The experimental results showed that the hyperbranched PVAc copolymer emulsion has excellent salt resistance and can be used as an ecological sand-fixing material in salty deserts. The research findings demonstrate that the hyperbranched PVAc copolymer emulsion exhibits superior salt tolerance, rendering it an effective ecological sand-fixing material for saline deserts. Notable attributes encompass its capacity to significantly mitigate NaCl-induced aggregate damage to sand-fixing materials, thereby enhancing sand fixation performance; its robust thermal aging resistance, freeze–thaw stability, and salt tolerance, which enable it to withstand environmental temperature variations; and experimental assessments of sand-based plant and microbial growth confirming favorable ecological impacts. This study presents novel methodologies for designing ecological sand-fixing materials in saline deserts to combat desertification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymeric Materials for Harsh Environments: Innovations, Challenges and Applications)

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26 pages, 1896 KB

Open AccessReview

Use of Biomass-Derived Materials for Their Potential Addition to Car Bumpers: A Critical Review

by Cristiano Fragassa, Sofia Migani, Muhammad Awais, Orion Jucja, Zeeshan Mujtaba and Carlo Santulli

Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2402; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172402 - 3 Sep 2025

The large availability of biomass, which, for the sake of decarbonization, is not supposed to be disposed of by burning and energy recovery, has led to the increasing production of polymer composites containing biomass-derived materials. The automotive industry is a field which, due [...] Read more.

The large availability of biomass, which, for the sake of decarbonization, is not supposed to be disposed of by burning and energy recovery, has led to the increasing production of polymer composites containing biomass-derived materials. The automotive industry is a field which, due to large production volumes and the requirements for safety, has large economic and environmental value. Despite this, the introduction of lignocellulosic fiber composites and generally biopolymers into this sector has been slow and so far mostly limited to non-structural or semi-structural components. This review critically considers the difficulties associated with the production of bumpers with biomass-derived materials and reports on a variety of fibers and polymers that have been proposed and on the equally variable degree of success of these studies. We also report on the understanding that rethinking the bumper in terms of materials could be an effective way to introduce biomass-based materials into the whole automotive sector on a larger scale with increased benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)

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