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Additive Manufactuging of Polymer-Based Nanocomposites and Composites: Progress and Prospects

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2026 | Viewed by 18514

Special Issue Editors


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Institute for Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials, National Research Council of Italy, P.le Fermi, 1, 80055 Portici, NA, Italy
Interests: epoxy resin; mechanical properties; thermal properties; fiber reinforced polymers; cryogenic temperature; fracture toughness; hyperbranched polymers
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Guest Editor
Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials, National Research Council of Italy, 80055 Portici, Italy
Interests: advanced composites; mechanical and thermo-mechanical performance; nanocomposites; manufacturing processes; residual stresses; cure kinetics; thermal stability; impact; fracture tooughness
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

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Guest Editor
Department of Engineering, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Via Roma 29, 81031 Aversa, CE, Italy
Interests: composite materials; damage tolerance; delamination; fatigue; impact damage; crashworthiness; fuselages
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Traditional manufacturing techniques, such as Injection Molding, Resin Transfer Molding, Compression Molding, Pultrusion, etc., are commonly used to manufacture polymer-based composites and nanocomposites; however, these techniques require large apparatus and molds, thereby making them expensive. Moreover, the production of complex and customized parts is limited by these techniques. On the contrary, additive manufacturing (AM) techniques allow complex and custom parts to be produced with budget-friendly and small apparatus. AM, which is also referred to as 3D printing, can be described as a class of techniques based on blending materials (such as thermoplastic filaments, liquid resin, and powders) by either fusion, binding, or solidification in a layer-by-layer fashion using 3D CAD modeling. AM was first demonstrated in 1980 by Kodama, who published the paper “Three-Dimensional Data Display by Automatic Preparation of a Three-Dimensional Model”; since that year, the number of publications and patents related to 3D printing has grown exponentially. Different AM processes depend on the material preparation, layer generation technique, phase change phenomenon, material type, and application requirements. Over the last decade, the use of AM processes has grown remarkably in all industrial fields, from automotive and aerospace to the electronic, food, and medical industries.

Despite significant progress in AM, obtaining advanced polymer materials such as composites and nanocomposites, i.e., materials with improved mechanical and thermal properties or tailored functional properties (such as electrical conductivity and antimicrobial properties), remains challenging.

The aim of this Special Issue is to publish original articles, critical reviews, research notes, analyses, case studies, and short communications related to progress in the 3D printing of polymer-based composites and nanocomposites. Topics of interest for this Special Issue include, but are not limited to, the following:

  1. Three-dimensional printing processes: progress in innovative techniques for the 3D printing of polymer-based composites and nanocomposites.
  2. Nanocomposite and composite preparation processes: novel techniques to realize nanocomposites and impregnate reinforcement fibers suitable for 3D printing processes.
  3. Printed materials: the outcomes of using thermoset and thermoplastic nanocomposites or continuous and discontinuous fiber composites.
  4. Forming mechanism: the modeling and simulation of 3DP technologies for polymer composites and nanocomposites.
  5. Characterization: the study of printed materials in terms of microstructure and the properties derived from various printing parameters and reinforcement additions.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Aldobenedetto Zotti
Dr. Mauro Zarrelli
Prof. Dr. Aniello Riccio
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • additive manufacturing techniques
  • 3D-printed polymer-based fiber-reinforced composites
  • 3D-printed polymer-based nanocomposites
  • effect of printing manufacturing
  • nanocomposites and composites preparation processes

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 3127 KB  
Article
Stabilizing the Sealing Performance of EPDM by the Incorporation of a ZIF-8 Network
by Jiahui Chen, Qian Peng, Huadong Liu, Xingtao Xiao, Xiaotao Fu, Hanlin Wen, Zhicheng Huang, Fangqiang Wang and Xiaoliang Zeng
Polymers 2026, 18(7), 874; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18070874 - 2 Apr 2026
Viewed by 459
Abstract
Ethylene–propylene–diene monomer rubber (EPDM) is commonly used as a gas-tight sealing material in electrical equipment. Factors such as media exposure, thermal oxidative stress, and abrasion frequently cause deterioration of EPDM’s mechanical properties, significantly compromising the reliability of electrical equipment. Traditional activator ZnO provides [...] Read more.
Ethylene–propylene–diene monomer rubber (EPDM) is commonly used as a gas-tight sealing material in electrical equipment. Factors such as media exposure, thermal oxidative stress, and abrasion frequently cause deterioration of EPDM’s mechanical properties, significantly compromising the reliability of electrical equipment. Traditional activator ZnO provides limited enhancement to the properties of EPDM. The reaction between Zn2+ on the surface of zinc oxide interacts with the accelerator during curing of rubber, forming zinc chelates, which interact with sulfur to form zinc polysulfide complexes. But the release of zinc complexes has adverse effects on humans and ecosystems. To reduce ZnO usage and further improve the performance of EPDM in terms of mechanical properties and aging resistance, zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) is developed as a multifunctional additive in this work. Mechanical testing demonstrates that the incorporation of ZIF-8 enhances the mechanical performance and resistance to thermal oxidative aging of EPDM. Crosslink density testing, FTIR, and XPS show that ZIF-8 promotes the crosslinking reaction during rubber curing, resulting in improved mechanical performance for EPDM. Analysis of crosslinking density testing and SEM images shows that EPDM-ZIF-8 composite exhibits a slower increase in crosslinking density during thermal oxidative aging. TGA results indicate that ZIF-8 enhances the thermal stability of EPDM, which leads to improved aging resistance properties. This study provides new insights for the design and development of rubber composite materials, offering a reliable solution to the challenge of seal failure in electrical equipment. Full article
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21 pages, 5007 KB  
Article
Biowastes as Reinforcements for Sustainable PLA-Biobased Composites Designed for 3D Printing Applications: Structure–Rheology–Process–Properties Relationships
by Mohamed Ait Balla, Abderrahim Maazouz, Khalid Lamnawar and Fatima Ezzahra Arrakhiz
Polymers 2026, 18(1), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18010128 - 31 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 936
Abstract
This work focused on the development of eco-friendly bio-composites based on polylactic acid (PLA) and sugarcane bagasse (SCB) as a natural fiber from Moroccan vegetable waste. First, the fiber surface was treated with an alkaline solution to remove non-cellulosic components. Then, the composite [...] Read more.
This work focused on the development of eco-friendly bio-composites based on polylactic acid (PLA) and sugarcane bagasse (SCB) as a natural fiber from Moroccan vegetable waste. First, the fiber surface was treated with an alkaline solution to remove non-cellulosic components. Then, the composite materials with various amounts of treated sugarcane bagasse (TSCB) were fabricated using two routes, melt processing and solvent casting. The primary objective was to achieve high fiber dispersion/distribution and homogeneous bio-composites. The dispersion properties were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Subsequently, the thermal, mechanical, and melt shear rheological properties of the obtained PLA-based bio-composites were investigated. Through a comparative approach between the dispersion state of fillers with extrusion/injection molding and solvent casting method, the work aimed to identify the most suitable processing route for producing PLA-based composites with optimal dispersion, improved thermal stability, and mechanical reinforcement. The results support the potential of TSCB fibers as an effective bio-based additive for PLA filament production, paving the way for the development of eco-friendly and high-performance materials designed for 3D printing applications. Since the solvent-based route did not allow further improvement and presents clear limitations for large-scale or industrial implementation, the transition toward 3D printing became a natural progression in this work. Material extrusion offers several decisive advantages, notably the ability to preserve the original morphology of the fibers due to the moderate thermo-mechanical stresses involved, and the possibility of manufacturing complex geometries that cannot be obtained through conventional injection molding. Although some printing defects may occur during layer deposition, the mechanical properties obtained through 3D printing remain promising and demonstrate the relevance of this approach. Full article
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13 pages, 2363 KB  
Article
Preparation and Paclitaxel-Loading of Regenerated Chitin Nanoparticles
by Yanping Li, Dan Qiu, Xuechen Zhuang, Zhiduo Pei, Tao Li and Shanggui Deng
Polymers 2025, 17(22), 3036; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17223036 - 16 Nov 2025
Viewed by 2388
Abstract
This study aims to investigate biodegradable and biocompatible chitin as a natural carrier for loading the hydrophobic anti-cancer drug paclitaxel (PTX) for the first time, resulting in a new loading system of chitin nanoparticles–paclitaxel (ChNps–PTX). The well-dispersed chitin nanoparticles (ChNps) and ChNps–PTX were [...] Read more.
This study aims to investigate biodegradable and biocompatible chitin as a natural carrier for loading the hydrophobic anti-cancer drug paclitaxel (PTX) for the first time, resulting in a new loading system of chitin nanoparticles–paclitaxel (ChNps–PTX). The well-dispersed chitin nanoparticles (ChNps) and ChNps–PTX were prepared via a water-dripping regeneration method. The functional groups, crystal form, and the high degree of acetylation (DA = 96.03%) of ChNps did not change during regeneration, suggesting that ChNps retained the complete molecular structure of chitin. The average particle size of ChNps–PTX was approximately 93.11 nm, which was larger than that of ChNps (84.06 nm) because of loading PTX (the drug loading was approximately 8.01%). TEM and CLSM were employed to confirm PTX existence in ChNps–PTX, and the nano-strip PTX (30.52 ± 6.78 nm in length and 16.02 ± 2.77 nm in width) was found for the first time. Loading of PTX resulted in ChNps–PTX presenting a new characteristic peak at 1734 cm−1 in FT-IR spectra, a new peak at 2θ = 5.3° in XRD pattern, and a new exothermic peak (252 °C) in DSC curve. While ChNps–PTX showed a lower crystallinity (19.86%) compared with that of ChNps (24.11%) and chitin (36.77%), utilizing the chitin carrier and mild regeneration method to load PTX were highly beneficial for pharmaceutical fields. Full article
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11 pages, 1142 KB  
Article
Probing Photoluminescence in Perovskite-Based Polymer Nanocomposite Films
by Jack Francis Renaud, Ashlyn Schlabach, Meenakshi Narayan, Evan Davies, Morgan Gillis, Jack Gugino, Nisreen Nusair, Mark P. S. Krekeler and Mithun Bhowmick
Polymers 2025, 17(17), 2317; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17172317 - 27 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1062
Abstract
Polymer nanocomposites incorporating perovskite (PV) nanoparticles have recently emerged as highly promising materials for optoelectronic and photonic devices. In this work, steady-state and time-resolved photoluminescence (PL) were performed in PV-based polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) nanocomposite films. The steady-state PL measurements revealed linearly increasing emission as [...] Read more.
Polymer nanocomposites incorporating perovskite (PV) nanoparticles have recently emerged as highly promising materials for optoelectronic and photonic devices. In this work, steady-state and time-resolved photoluminescence (PL) were performed in PV-based polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) nanocomposite films. The steady-state PL measurements revealed linearly increasing emission as excitation intensities ramped up, followed by a saturation. The optical limiting was scalable through the PV concentrations and is likely due to creation of maximum number of electron–hole (e–h) pairs in the system. The presence of a PDMS altered the multi-exponential PL decay significantly, both in terms of underlying mechanism and the associated timescales. The introduction of PDMS changed a 3-component exponential decay of PV into a 2-component mechanism and reduced the total timescale of decay from 16 ns to ~6 ns. Full article
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23 pages, 1998 KB  
Article
Hybrid Experimental–Machine Learning Study on the Mechanical Behavior of Polymer Composite Structures Fabricated via FDM
by Osman Ulkir and Sezgin Ersoy
Polymers 2025, 17(15), 2012; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17152012 - 23 Jul 2025
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2065
Abstract
This study explores the mechanical behavior of polymer and composite specimens fabricated using fused deposition modeling (FDM), focusing on three material configurations: acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), carbon fiber-reinforced polyphthalamide (PPA/Cf), and a sandwich-structured composite. A systematic experimental plan was developed using the Box–Behnken [...] Read more.
This study explores the mechanical behavior of polymer and composite specimens fabricated using fused deposition modeling (FDM), focusing on three material configurations: acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), carbon fiber-reinforced polyphthalamide (PPA/Cf), and a sandwich-structured composite. A systematic experimental plan was developed using the Box–Behnken design (BBD) to investigate the effects of material type (MT), infill pattern (IP), and printing direction (PD) on tensile and flexural strength. Experimental results showed that the PPA/Cf material with a “Cross” IP printed “Flat” yielded the highest mechanical performance, achieving a tensile strength of 75.8 MPa and a flexural strength of 102.3 MPa. In contrast, the lowest values were observed in ABS parts with a “Grid” pattern and “Upright” orientation, recording 37.8 MPa tensile and 49.5 MPa flexural strength. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) results confirmed that all three factors significantly influenced both outputs (p < 0.001), with MT being the most dominant factor. Machine learning (ML) algorithms, Bayesian linear regression (BLR), and Gaussian process regression (GPR) were employed to predict mechanical performance. GPR achieved the best overall accuracy with R2 = 0.9935 and MAPE = 11.14% for tensile strength and R2 = 0.9925 and MAPE = 12.96% for flexural strength. Comparatively, the traditional BBD yielded slightly lower performance with MAPE = 13.02% and R2 = 0.9895 for tensile strength. Validation tests conducted on three unseen configurations clearly demonstrated the generalization capability of the models. Based on actual vs. predicted values, the GPR yielded the lowest average prediction errors, with MAPE values of 0.54% for tensile and 0.45% for flexural strength. In comparison, BLR achieved 0.79% and 0.60%, while BBD showed significantly higher errors at 1.76% and 1.32%, respectively. Full article
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15 pages, 1643 KB  
Article
Mechanical Properties of Fully Recyclable 3D-Printable Materials Used for Application in Patient-Specific Devices in Radiotherapy
by Antonio Jreije, Paulius Griškevičius, Neringa Keršienė, Jurgita Laurikaitienė, Rūta Nedzinskienė and Diana Adlienė
Polymers 2025, 17(14), 1946; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17141946 - 16 Jul 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1838
Abstract
The exponential growth of plastic production in the healthcare sector and the limited capacity of conventional recycling systems have created a global environmental challenge. Latest 3D printing technologies have the potential to solve this problem by enabling on-demand, localized manufacturing. This study aimed [...] Read more.
The exponential growth of plastic production in the healthcare sector and the limited capacity of conventional recycling systems have created a global environmental challenge. Latest 3D printing technologies have the potential to solve this problem by enabling on-demand, localized manufacturing. This study aimed to investigate the mechanical properties of 3D-printed ABS composites with Bi2O3 fillers after multiple recycling and irradiation cycles to assess their suitability for creating robust, reusable supporting devices for radiotherapy. Filaments of PLA, ABS, and ABS composites enriched with 5 wt% and 10 wt% Bi2O3 were extruded, repeatedly recycled through shredding and re-extrusion up to ten times and irradiated to 70 Gy using a 6 MeV photon beam to simulate clinical radiotherapy conditions. In contrast to PLA, ABS demonstrated better recyclability; however, after ten recycling cycles, its tensile strength declined from 25.1 MPa to 20.9 MPa, and its Young’s modulus decreased from 2503.5 MPa to 1410.4 MPa. Incorporation of 5 wt% Bi2O3 into ABS significantly improved recyclability and mechanical retention. After ten recycling rounds, an ABS composite containing 5 wt% Bi2O3 retained tensile strength of 22.2 MPa, modulus of 1553.9 MPa, and strain at break of 14.4%. In contrast, the composite enforced with 10 wt% Bi2O3 showed slightly lower performance, likely due to filler agglomeration. Under irradiation, the ABS–5 wt% Bi2O3 composite exhibited minimal additional degradation, maintaining mechanical integrity superior to other materials. These results indicate that ABS–5 wt% Bi2O3 is a promising, recyclable material for durable, patient-specific devices in radiotherapy, supporting sustainability in medical manufacturing. Full article
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17 pages, 6514 KB  
Article
Additive Manufacturing Meets Gear Mechanics: Understanding Abrasive Wear Evolution in FDM-Printed Gears
by Robert Ciobanu, George Arhip, Octavian Donțu, Ciprian Ion Rizescu and Bogdan Grămescu
Polymers 2025, 17(13), 1810; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17131810 - 29 Jun 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1346
Abstract
This paper presents an analysis of the abrasive wear influence on the tooth flank geometry of plastic gear wheels, emphasizing the contribution of tooth stiffness to the observed changes. The study examined gear wheels made from polylactic acid (PLA) with wall thicknesses of [...] Read more.
This paper presents an analysis of the abrasive wear influence on the tooth flank geometry of plastic gear wheels, emphasizing the contribution of tooth stiffness to the observed changes. The study examined gear wheels made from polylactic acid (PLA) with wall thicknesses of 0.6 mm, 1.0 mm and 2.4 mm, manufactured using FDM technology. A standard layer height of 0.2 mm was chosen as it offers a balance between good precision and reasonable printing times. The PLA gear wheels were tested for wear in a meshing configuration with a metallic reference gear. The results indicate that wear intensity increases as tooth stiffness decreases, suggesting an inverse proportionality between abrasive wear and tooth stiffness. In all tested cases, the tooth tip was more affected by abrasive wear compared to the rest of the profile. The analysis establishes that sliding velocity has the greatest influence on the abrasive wear characteristics of the evaluated gears. Based on experimental findings, a mathematical model was developed for simulating abrasive wear in plastic gears, with scalability across various manufacturing technologies. For PLA gears, both experimental and simulated data confirm that full tooth infill is essential for functional durability. Full article
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12 pages, 638 KB  
Communication
Selected Properties of a TPS/PA12 Composite Material Produced in a Two-Stage Method
by Ewa Tomaszewska-Ciosk, Ewa Zdybel, Małgorzata Kapelko-Żeberska and Beata Anwajler
Polymers 2025, 17(11), 1517; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17111517 - 29 May 2025
Viewed by 930
Abstract
The world economy is struggling with the increasing pollution of the natural environment with non-biodegradable synthetic polymers produced from petroleum products. This fact has prompted research on the use of natural renewable polymers. Starch is one of the polymers that has already been [...] Read more.
The world economy is struggling with the increasing pollution of the natural environment with non-biodegradable synthetic polymers produced from petroleum products. This fact has prompted research on the use of natural renewable polymers. Starch is one of the polymers that has already been used as an additive to synthetic polymers; however, its use is associated with a problem arising from the incompatibility of hydrophilic starch with hydrophobic synthetic polymers. For these reasons, other authors have not used more than 20% of the starch component in synthetic materials. In this work, a research hypothesis was put forward that the starch content can be increased in the polymer material. Pre-extrusion was used before the final material molding process. Pre-extrusion improved the phase dispersion of the synthetic polymer blended with starch. To produce the molds, the polyamide and starch blends were subjected to the processes of extrusion, milling, and pressing. The molded samples containing polyamide and starch were obtained with a starch component content of 50, 70, and 90%. The obtained homogeneous material was determined in terms of its water resistance and mechanical properties. The test results showed that increasing the starch content in the produced material, increased its susceptibility to water, and worsened its strength properties. However, these negative effects were not as large as expected, and in some cases were even statistically insignificant. The addition of 70% of the starch component allowed for the production of a composite material with satisfactory mechanical properties. Full article
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Review

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49 pages, 7983 KB  
Review
Polymer Composites in Additive Manufacturing: Current Technologies, Applications, and Emerging Trends
by Md Mahbubur Rahman, Safkat Islam, Mubasshira, Md Shaiful Islam, Raju Ahammad, Md Ashraful Islam, Md Abdul Hasib, Md Shohanur Rahman, Raza Moshwan, M. Monjurul Ehsan, Md Sanaul Rabbi, Md Moniruzzaman, Muhammad Altaf Nazir and Wei-Di Liu
Polymers 2026, 18(2), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18020192 - 10 Jan 2026
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2147
Abstract
Polymer composites have opened a novel innovation phase in additive manufacturing (AM), and now lightweight, high-strength, and geometrical advanced components with tailored functionalities can be produced. The present study introduces advances in polymer composite materials and their integration into AM processes, particularly in [...] Read more.
Polymer composites have opened a novel innovation phase in additive manufacturing (AM), and now lightweight, high-strength, and geometrical advanced components with tailored functionalities can be produced. The present study introduces advances in polymer composite materials and their integration into AM processes, particularly in rapidly growing industries such as aerospace, automotive, biomedical, and electronics. The embedding of cutting-edge reinforcement materials, such as nanoparticles, carbon fibers, and natural fibers, into polymer matrices enhances mechanical, thermal, electrical, and multifunctional properties. These material developments are combined with advanced fabrication techniques, including multi-material printing, in situ curing, and functionally graded manufacturing, which achieves accurate regulation of microstructures and properties. Furthermore, high-impact innovations such as smart polymer composites with self-healing or stimuli-responsive behaviors, the growing shift toward sustainable, bio-based composite alternatives, are driving progress. Despite significant advances, challenges remain in interfacial bonding, printability, process repeatability, and long-term durability. This review offers a comprehensive overview of current advancements and outlines future directions in polymer composite–based AM. Full article
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34 pages, 11753 KB  
Review
Fused Deposition Modeling of Polymer Composites: Development, Properties and Applications
by Aldobenedetto Zotti, Teresa Paduano, Francesco Napolitano, Simona Zuppolini, Mauro Zarrelli and Anna Borriello
Polymers 2025, 17(8), 1054; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17081054 - 14 Apr 2025
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4475
Abstract
This review summarizes recent research advancements in thermoplastic composites used in Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) processes. Since its development in 1988, FDM has emerged as one of the primary emerging technologies of Industry 4.0, receiving attention in fields such as industrial manufacturing, automotive, [...] Read more.
This review summarizes recent research advancements in thermoplastic composites used in Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) processes. Since its development in 1988, FDM has emerged as one of the primary emerging technologies of Industry 4.0, receiving attention in fields such as industrial manufacturing, automotive, aerospace, and others, particularly for rapid prototyping and customization. The intention is to make available a guideline for 3D printing researchers, analyzing the properties and performance characteristics of different polymers and polymeric composites. The review analysis covers various reinforcing agents, including particles/nanoparticles, short fibers, and long fibers, identifying critical parameters of the FDM process which affect printed part quality, integrity and final geometry. Major attention is devoted to the different techniques employed for composite filament fabrication, mostly for structural elements and parts. An extensive overview of various FDM composites and fiber-reinforced composites by polymer matrices such as PLA, ABS, and PEEK is presented, with their mechanical and thermal properties reported for specific applications. Current challenges and prospective future research directions are also outlined, mainly focusing on the enhancement of material performance and sustainability. Full article
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