Land | January 2026 - Browse Articles

29 pages, 8160 KB

Open AccessArticle

Accelerating Meteorological and Ecological Drought in Arid Coastal–Mountain System: A 72-Year Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Mount Elba Reserve Using Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index

by Hesham Badawy, Jasem Albanai and Ahmed Hassan

Land 2026, 15(1), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010202 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Dryland coastal–mountain systems stand at the frontline of climate change, where steep topographic gradients amplify the balance between resilience and collapse. Mount Elba—Egypt’s hyper-arid coastal–mountain reserve—embodies this fragile equilibrium, preserving a seventy-year climatic record across a landscape poised between sea and desert. Here, [...] Read more.

Dryland coastal–mountain systems stand at the frontline of climate change, where steep topographic gradients amplify the balance between resilience and collapse. Mount Elba—Egypt’s hyper-arid coastal–mountain reserve—embodies this fragile equilibrium, preserving a seventy-year climatic record across a landscape poised between sea and desert. Here, we present the first multi-decadal, spatio-temporal assessment (1950–2021) integrating the Standardized Precipitation–Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI-6) with satellite-derived vegetation responses (NDVI) along a ten-grid coastal–highland transect. Results reveal a pervasive drying trajectory of −0.42 SPEI units per decade, with vegetation–climate coherence (r ≈ 0.3, p < 0.05) intensifying inland, where orographic uplift magnifies hydroclimatic stress. The southern highlands emerge as an “internal drought belt,” while maritime humidity grants the coast partial refuge. These trends are not mere numerical abstractions; they trace the slow desiccation of ecosystems that once anchored biodiversity and pastoral livelihoods. A post-1990 regime shift marks the breakdown of wet-season recovery and the rise in persistent droughts, modulated by ENSO teleconnections—the first quantitative attribution of Pacific climate signals to Egypt’s coastal mountains. By coupling climatic diagnostics with ecological response, this study reframes drought as a living ecological process rather than a statistical anomaly, positioning Mount Elba as a sentinel landscape for resilience and adaptation in northeast Africa’s rapidly warming drylands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land–Climate Interactions)

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25 pages, 46441 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of the Spatio-Temporal Evolution Characteristics and Driving Factors of Ecosystem Service Supply and Demand in Typical Coal-Grain Overlapping Area, Eastern China

by Qian Niu, Di Zhu, Yinghong Wang, Zhongyi Ding and Guoqiang Qiu

Land 2026, 15(1), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010201 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Investigating the spatio-temporal differentiation patterns and driving factors of ecosystem services (ESs) supply and demand is of great significance for early warning of ecosystem imbalance risks and identifying regional natural resource supply–demand conflicts. This study takes the typical coal-grain overlapping area (CGOA) in [...] Read more.

Investigating the spatio-temporal differentiation patterns and driving factors of ecosystem services (ESs) supply and demand is of great significance for early warning of ecosystem imbalance risks and identifying regional natural resource supply–demand conflicts. This study takes the typical coal-grain overlapping area (CGOA) in Eastern China as the research object, dividing it into mining townships (MT) and non-mining townships (NMT) for comparative analysis. By integrating the InVEST model, ESs supply–demand ratio (ESDR) index, four-quadrant model, and the XGBoost-SHAP algorithm, the study systematically reveals the spatiotemporal differentiation characteristics and driving mechanisms of ESs supply and demand from 2000 to 2020. The results indicated that: (1) grain production (GP) service maintained a continuous supply–demand surplus, with the ESDR of NMT areas surpassing that of MT areas in 2020. The ESDR of water yield (WY) service was significantly influenced by interannual fluctuations in supply, showing deficits in multiple years. The decline in carbon sequestration (CS) service and sharp increase in carbon emissions led to a continuous decrease in the ESDR of CS service, with MT areas facing a higher risk of carbon deficit. (2) The spatial heterogeneity of ESs supply and demand was significant, with GP and CS services exhibiting a typical urban-rural dual spatial structure, and the overall region was dominated by the Type II ESs supply–demand matching (ESDM) pattern. The ESDR of WY service generally decreases from Southeast to Northwest across the region. with the Type IV ESDM pattern dominating in most years. (3) Human activities are the core driving force shaping the supply–demand patterns of ESs. Among these, land use intensity exhibits a nonlinear effect, high population density demonstrates an inhibitory effect, and MT areas are more significantly affected by coal mining subsidence. Natural environmental factors primarily drive WY service. The research findings can provide a scientific reference for the coordinated allocation of regional natural resources and the sustainable development of the human–land system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interactions and Transformations in Urban–Rural Land Use Systems and Their Nexus with Ecosystems)

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29 pages, 48004 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Method for Determining the Affected Areas of High-Alpine Mountain Trails

by Andrej Bašelj, Damijana Kastelec, Mojca Golobič, Žiga Malek and Žiga Kokalj

Land 2026, 15(1), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010200 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

High-mountain areas with sensitive ecosystems are experiencing a steady increase in visitation, with visitors progressively moving outside designated trails, generating pressures on the natural environment. In extensive areas with numerous access points, it is difficult to monitor visitors’ movement and resulting impacts. This [...] Read more.

High-mountain areas with sensitive ecosystems are experiencing a steady increase in visitation, with visitors progressively moving outside designated trails, generating pressures on the natural environment. In extensive areas with numerous access points, it is difficult to monitor visitors’ movement and resulting impacts. This article describes a method for combining various data sources and approaches to determine affected areas, including their locations and extent. The method combines (1) field-mapping, (2) remote-sensing data display analysis, and (3) processing of publicly available GNSS tracks from sports applications, using 46 test plots along a selected trail to Mount Triglav in Slovenia. Affected-area surfaces and their spatial overlap were compared across the three approaches. The usefulness of remote-sensing displays and GNSS tracks for determining and predicting affected areas was assessed by reference to field measurements. A linear regression model showed that the display-analysis approach can explain 52.7% of the variability in field-mapping approach, while GNSS tracks do not provide enough information nor the accuracy comparable to field surveys. This study can help other researchers and nature-protection managers in selecting most suitable data derived from non-traditional sources to improve delineation of hiking trails and estimation of potential pressures on fragile environments. Full article

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24 pages, 8109 KB

Open AccessArticle

Geodiversity of Skyros Island (Aegean Sea, Greece): Linking Geological Heritage, Cultural Landscapes, and Sustainable Development

by Evangelia Ioannidi Galani, Marianna Kati, Hara Drinia and Panagiotis Voudouris

Land 2026, 15(1), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010199 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Skyros Island, the largest island of the Sporades Complex (NW Aegean Sea, Greece), preserves a geologically diverse record spanning from the Upper Permian to the Quaternary, including crystalline and non-metamorphosed carbonate rocks, ophiolitic rocks and mélanges, medium-grade metamorphic units, rare Miocene volcanic rocks, [...] Read more.

Skyros Island, the largest island of the Sporades Complex (NW Aegean Sea, Greece), preserves a geologically diverse record spanning from the Upper Permian to the Quaternary, including crystalline and non-metamorphosed carbonate rocks, ophiolitic rocks and mélanges, medium-grade metamorphic units, rare Miocene volcanic rocks, and impressive fossil-bearing sediments and tufa deposits, together with historically significant quarry and mining landscapes. Through a comprehensive evaluation of the geological heritage of Skyros, this study proposes a transferable, results-based framework for geoconservation, geoeducation, and tourism space management within a geopark context. A systematic inventory of twenty (20) geosites, including six (6) flagship case studies, was established based on scientific value, dominant geodiversity type, risk of degradation, accessibility, educational and tourism potential. The assessment integrates the Scientific Value and Risk of Degradation criteria with complementary management and sustainability indicators. The results demonstrate consistently high scientific value across the selected geosites, with several reaching maximum or near-maximum scores due to their rarity, integrity, and reference character at a regional to international scale. Although some geosites exhibit elevated degradation risk, overall vulnerability is considered manageable through targeted conservation measures and spatially explicit visitor management. Based on the assessment results, a network of thematic georoutes was developed and evaluated using route-level indicators, including number of geosites, route length, educational potential, tourism suitability, accessibility, and contribution to responsible geotourism. The study demonstrates how integrated geosite and georoute assessment can support sustainable land management and confirms that Skyros Island meets key criteria for inclusion in the Hellenic Geoparks Network, providing a robust scientific basis for future UNESCO Global Geopark designation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geoparks as a Form of Tourism Space Management (Third Edition))

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25 pages, 13301 KB

Open AccessArticle

Historic Urban Landscapes at Risk: Global Monitoring and Assessment of Emerging Crises in UNESCO World Heritage Properties

by Ji Li, Fangyu Chen, Haopeng Li, Qixuan Dou, Fei Fu and Yaling Shi

Land 2026, 15(1), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010198 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Despite the growing recognition of heritage risk reduction, a comprehensive framework for multi-risk assessment remains notably absent within the context of historic urban landscapes (HULs) across diverse global contexts. This paper aims to fill this gap by developing an assessment framework to address [...] Read more.

Despite the growing recognition of heritage risk reduction, a comprehensive framework for multi-risk assessment remains notably absent within the context of historic urban landscapes (HULs) across diverse global contexts. This paper aims to fill this gap by developing an assessment framework to address multiple emerging risks in HUL management, considering climate-related, human-induced, and mixed hazards in UNESCO World Heritage properties. A four-step process is established—hazard identification, exposure categorisation, adaptation capacity-building, and vulnerability monitoring and evaluation. Using content analysis, this framework is applied to official reports from 33 World Heritage HUL cases across 33 countries. The results show that, although various hazards have been acknowledged by state parties, local governments prioritise human-induced or natural hazards more often than mixed hazards, leading to a shortage of comprehensive risk management plans and practical actions in most cases. Regarding heritage adaptation, the factors of capacity and governance are widely addressed, demonstrating the commitment of state parties to formulate strategies and solve problems. However, public participation and education practices remain insufficiently implemented, resulting in a relatively low degree of adaptation capacity-building. The proposed multi-risk assessment framework offers a crucial reference for global urban heritage management and risk reduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Adaptation and Recovery Strategies: Reimagining Governance in Urban Regions)

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18 pages, 2765 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Modeling Water and Salt Dynamics by HYDRUS 2D/3D Under Drip- and Surface-Irrigated Carrot in Arid Regions

by Warda Tlig, Dario Autovino, Fathia El Mokh, Kamel Nagaz and Massimo Iovino

Land 2026, 15(1), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010197 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Understanding the distribution of water and salt in the crop’s root zone and predicting future soil degradation requires specific monitoring to establish guidelines for irrigation management and system performance. Two field experiments were conducted in the arid region of Southern Tunisia to assess [...] Read more.

Understanding the distribution of water and salt in the crop’s root zone and predicting future soil degradation requires specific monitoring to establish guidelines for irrigation management and system performance. Two field experiments were conducted in the arid region of Southern Tunisia to assess soil water and salt dynamics under surface- and drip-irrigated carrots using HYDRUS 2D/3D simulations in the 2017–2018 and 2018–2019 crop seasons. The soil water contents and bulk soil electrical conductivities were measured at three distinct soil layers: 0–20 cm, 20–40 cm, and 40–60 cm, where TDR probes were located. Statistical indicators (nRMSE, IA, and PBIAS) suggest that HYDRUS 2D/3D is reliable in simulating field hydro-saline dynamics for irrigated carrots. The results obtained for the two crop seasons exhibit a strong correlation between the simulated and measured values for both soil water contents and electrical conductivities. The study also shows that HYDRUS 2D/3D allows more accurate simulations of soil water dynamics than soil salinity under these conditions. Overall, these results provide valuable insights for understanding the hydrological processes in arid regions and can help in improving the management of water resources in these areas. Full article

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19 pages, 4115 KB

Open AccessArticle

Urban Remote Sensing Ecological Quality Assessment Based on Hierarchical Principal Component Analysis and Water Factor Enhancement: A Case Study of Linyi City, Shandong Province, China

by Xiaocai Liu, Xianglong Liu, Xinqi Zheng, Xiaoyang Liu, Guangting Yu, Fei Jiang and Kun Liu

Land 2026, 15(1), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010196 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Rapid urbanization has significantly affected urban ecological environments, necessitating accurate and scientific quality assessments. In this study, we develop an enhanced remote sensing ecological index (WRSEI) for water network cities using Linyi City, China, as a case study. Key innovations include (1) introducing [...] Read more.

Rapid urbanization has significantly affected urban ecological environments, necessitating accurate and scientific quality assessments. In this study, we develop an enhanced remote sensing ecological index (WRSEI) for water network cities using Linyi City, China, as a case study. Key innovations include (1) introducing a water–vegetation index to better represent aquatic ecosystems; (2) incorporating nighttime light data to quantify the intensity of human activity; and (3) employing hierarchical PCA to rationally weight ecological endowment and stress indicators. The model’s effectiveness was rigorously validated using independent land use data. The results show that (1) the WRSEI accurately captures Linyi’s “water–city symbiosis” pattern, increasing the assessed ecological quality of water bodies by 15.78% compared to the conventional RSEI; (2) hierarchical PCA provides more ecologically reasonable indicator weights; and (3) from 2000 to 2020, ecological quality exhibited a pattern of “central degradation and peripheral improvement”, driven by urban expansion. This study establishes a validated technical framework for ecological assessment in water-rich cities, offering a scientific basis for sustainable urban management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GeoAI Application in Urban Land Use and Urban Climate)

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23 pages, 3353 KB

Open AccessArticle

“Clearer” or More “Blurred”? The Evolution of Urban–Rural Boundaries Since the Proposal of Urban–Rural Integrated Development: A Case Study of Zhengzhou

by Rongrong Zhang, Yanan Sun, Shaoyang Zhang, Zhiming Dai, Jiaqi Fan, Jiaxiang Han, Zhongmiao Sun and Guangyu Sun

Land 2026, 15(1), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010195 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 178

Abstract

As China’s urban–rural integrated development strategy advances, traditional urban–rural boundaries are undergoing rapid restructuring. However, it remains unclear whether these boundaries are becoming distinct through factor flow or blurring due to urban–rural functional coupling. To address this, this study examines the dynamic evolution [...] Read more.

As China’s urban–rural integrated development strategy advances, traditional urban–rural boundaries are undergoing rapid restructuring. However, it remains unclear whether these boundaries are becoming distinct through factor flow or blurring due to urban–rural functional coupling. To address this, this study examines the dynamic evolution of boundaries across three core dimensions—population, land, and function—to evaluate the efficacy of integration. We employ the Land Continuity Index, POI Diversity Index, and Gaussian Smoothing Index to characterize transitions in land use structure, spatial functional complexity, and population gradients, respectively. Additionally, a comprehensive Urban–Rural Fuzziness Index (URFI) is developed to quantify boundary blurring trends. Results indicate that Zhengzhou’s urban–rural boundaries exhibit a sustained weakening trend. Notably, changes in functional and population dimensions significantly outpace the land dimension, identifying functional urbanization and population mobility as the primary drivers of this blurring. Consequently, the URFI serves as a robust indicator of integration effectiveness. Overall, boundary blurring is not merely an external manifestation of urban expansion but a profound outcome of factor reorganization, spatial optimization, and the reshaping of urban–rural relationships. This study provides a novel quantitative tool for assessing policy effectiveness, offering both theoretical insights and practical implications for understanding urban–rural integrated development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Urbanization: Urban-Rural Coordination and Sustainable Development)

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29 pages, 9732 KB

Open AccessArticle

Socio-Ecological Coupling and Multifunctional Spatial Differentiation in Watershed Rural Systems: Toward Coordinated Development

by Yanjun Meng, Hui Zhai, Yuhong Xu, Bak Koon Teoh and Robert Lee Kong Tiong

Land 2026, 15(1), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010194 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 159

Abstract

Socio-ecological systems in basin regions characterized by diverse cultural traditions and hierarchical village spatial structure are undergoing profound transformation driven by multifunctional demands and spatial restructuring. This study develops an analytical framework encompassing economic production, socio-cultural functions, and ecological potential to examine the [...] Read more.

Socio-ecological systems in basin regions characterized by diverse cultural traditions and hierarchical village spatial structure are undergoing profound transformation driven by multifunctional demands and spatial restructuring. This study develops an analytical framework encompassing economic production, socio-cultural functions, and ecological potential to examine the spatial differentiation and socio-ecological coupling mechanisms within the Yilong Lake Basin, Yunnan Province. Through the entropy weighting method and a coupling coordination model, the framework evaluates the “lake–mountain–village” gradient of spatial differentiation. The results indicate that: (1) the overall coordination level of multifunctional systems in the region remains relatively low, exhibiting a decreasing trend from lakeshore to the mountain periphery; (2) village-level dependencies of spatial functions can be summarized into three coupling categories—associated with institutional embedding, self-organization, and value mismatch—revealing distinct socio-ecological interaction patterns; and (3) three coupling categories correspond to three differentiated governance pathways, namely coupling optimization, functional transition, and conflict mitigation. The study advances theoretical and methodological insights into the spatial differentiation and evolution of complex village systems, highlighting the nonlinear coexistence of interdependence and constraint among economic, social, and ecological functions. It further provides practical guidance for coordinated governance and sustainable spatial planning in similar rural and basin environments worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human–Land Coupling in Watersheds and Sustainable Development)

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14 pages, 11925 KB

Open AccessTechnical Note

Detecting Mowed Tidal Wetlands Using Time-Series NDVI and LSTM-Based Machine Learning

by Mayeesha Humaira, Stephen Aboagye-Ntow, Chuyuan Wang, Alexi Sanchez de Boado, Mark Burchick, Leslie Wood Mummert and Xin Huang

Land 2026, 15(1), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010193 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 209

Abstract

This study presents the first application of machine learning (ML) to detect and map mowed tidal wetlands in the Chesapeake Bay region of Maryland and Virginia, focusing on emergent estuarine intertidal (E2EM) wetlands. Monitoring human disturbances like mowing is essential because repeated mowing [...] Read more.

This study presents the first application of machine learning (ML) to detect and map mowed tidal wetlands in the Chesapeake Bay region of Maryland and Virginia, focusing on emergent estuarine intertidal (E2EM) wetlands. Monitoring human disturbances like mowing is essential because repeated mowing stresses wetland vegetation, reducing habitat quality and diminishing other ecological services wetlands provide, including shoreline stabilization and water filtration. Traditional field-based monitoring is labor-intensive and impractical for large-scale assessments. To address these challenges, this study utilized 2021 and 2022 Sentinel-2 satellite imagery and a time-series analysis of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) to distinguish between mowed and unmowed (control) wetlands. A bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (BiLSTM) neural network was created to predict NDVI patterns associated with mowing events, such as rapid decreases followed by slow vegetation regeneration. The training dataset comprised 204 field-verified and desktop-identified samples, accounting for under 0.002% of the research area’s herbaceous E2EM wetlands. The model obtained 97.5% accuracy on an internal test set and was verified at eight separate Chesapeake Bay locations, indicating its promising generality. This work demonstrates the potential of remote sensing and machine learning for scalable, automated monitoring of tidal wetland disturbances to aid in conservation, restoration, and resource management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land – Observation and Monitoring)

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23 pages, 6703 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Urban Gardening in the Maintenance of Rural Landscape Heritage in a Large City: Case Study of Brno Metropolitan Area, Czech Republic

by Jaromír Kolejka, Eva Novakova and Jana Zapletalova

Land 2026, 15(1), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010192 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 192

Abstract

The territorial development of the city of Brno during the 19th–21st centuries meant not only the growth of built-up areas (residential, industrial, commercial), but also the absorbing of segments of the ancient rural agricultural landscape. Within the current borders of the city of [...] Read more.

The territorial development of the city of Brno during the 19th–21st centuries meant not only the growth of built-up areas (residential, industrial, commercial), but also the absorbing of segments of the ancient rural agricultural landscape. Within the current borders of the city of Brno, a number of green areas have been preserved, which have spontaneously developed from the original agricultural landscape, without being the result of urban planning. In half of the cases (17 out of a total of 34), they have still preserved the traditional small-scale division of land. Among the 10 medium-sized Moravian cities (between 30,000 and 400,000 inhabitants) in the historical region of Moravia in the east of the Czech Republic, the presence of 34 remnants of the ancient rural landscape in the city of Brno is quite exceptional (in Ostrava only 1; in other cities 0). The subject of the research is the inventory of such segments within the city borders and an attempt to explain their location in the city, state, focusing on the role of natural factors, land ownership and personal and recreational interests of residents. Segments of the ancient rural cultural landscape were identified by comparing the current landscape on aerial photographs with the landscape image on cadastral maps from the 1820s–1830s. Additional data on their natural and cultural properties were obtained through archival and field research. The segments were classified according to their degree of preservation and forms of threat. The results show that the remains of the ancient rural cultural landscape in the city of Brno have generally been preserved in locations that, due to the slope of the slopes, unsuitable building subsoil and poor soil, but locally on warm southern slopes, were not suitable for construction for the time being. Urban gardening contributes to their preservation and these areas are part of the city’s greenery. However, urban gardening also contributes to the destruction of these remnants. In 17 cases, the land was completely re-divided, built up with recreational facilities and overgrown with trees due to poor care. Another 17 locations are threatened by this process due to ignorance of their historical value, although this is essentially a positive development in terms of benefits for the city’s residents—land users. Although the Master Plan of the city of Brno foresees the existence of garden colonies in the future, it does not address the importance of the best-preserved segments as historical heritage. Community agriculture can play a positive role in maintaining segments of rural heritage within the city. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Landscapes, Their Inventory, Management and Future)

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29 pages, 8627 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial–Temporal Evolution and Driving Mechanism of Territorial Space Conflicts in Rapid Urbanization Areas from the Perspective of Suitability: An Empirical Study of Jinan City, China

by Piling Sun, Junxiong Mo, Nan Li, Dengdeng Hou and Qingguo Liu

Land 2026, 15(1), 191; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010191 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

The precise identification of territorial space conflicts (TSCs) and their driving mechanisms is key to enhancing spatial security governance. Taking Jinan City as a case study, this research evaluates territorial space suitability across production, living, and ecological dimensions, proposes an empirical TSC identification [...] Read more.

The precise identification of territorial space conflicts (TSCs) and their driving mechanisms is key to enhancing spatial security governance. Taking Jinan City as a case study, this research evaluates territorial space suitability across production, living, and ecological dimensions, proposes an empirical TSC identification model, and employs GeoDetector to analyze spatiotemporal evolution patterns and driving mechanisms. The results indicated that (1) from 2000 to 2020, significant spatial heterogeneity characterized the suitability of production–living–ecological spaces in Jinan City. High suitability zones of production and living space expanded in the northern plain along the Yellow River and central piedmont plain, respectively, while those of ecological space contracted in the southern mountainous and hilly areas. (2) Significant spatiotemporal variations in territorial space conflicts (TSCs) were observed in Jinan City over the past two decades. Intense conflicts dominated production–living and production–ecological space interactions, while moderate conflicts were prevalent in living–ecological and production–living–ecological space interactions. Production–living space conflict zones expanded, living–ecological space conflict zones contracted, and production–ecological and production–living–ecological space conflict zones showed consistent expansion trends. (3) The spatiotemporal evolution of territorial space conflicts is jointly driven by the natural environment, geographical location, social economy, and regional policies. The interaction of driving factors exhibited significant dual-factor and nonlineal enhancement effects. Finally, this study provides some scientific references for the comprehensive management and pattern optimization of territorial space in Jinan City. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Cover/Use Dynamics and Its Implications for Regional Sustainable Development)

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17 pages, 625 KB

Open AccessArticle

Land Prices and Determinants of Socio-Economic Development in Pleiku, Central Highlands, Vietnam

by Tran Trong Phuong, Tran Duc Vien, Nguyen Duc Loc, Phan Van Khue, Nguyen Dinh Trung and Wolfgang Scholz

Land 2026, 15(1), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010190 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 222

Abstract

The rapid urbanization of Pleiku City, Vietnam, has led to a sharp increase in the demand for and prices of residential land, creating challenges for urban management and land valuation. This study aims to identify and quantify the key factors influencing residential land [...] Read more.

The rapid urbanization of Pleiku City, Vietnam, has led to a sharp increase in the demand for and prices of residential land, creating challenges for urban management and land valuation. This study aims to identify and quantify the key factors influencing residential land prices in Pleiku to provide a scientific basis for land use planning and smart urban development. Data were collected through surveys of 30 state officials involved in land valuation and 250 households living along major streets in Pleiku. Cronbach’s alpha was used to test the reliability of the collected data, and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to identify influencing factor groups. The results show that residential land prices are strongly influenced by multiple factors, with location and infrastructure playing the most decisive roles. Market land prices were found to be approximately 1.5–2 times higher than state-regulated prices. Among the identified factor groups, location and infrastructure had the strongest influence, followed by economic, social, legal, and specific land use factors. Price differences between land plots mainly reflect variations in location, street characteristics, accessibility, and commercial potential. The study concludes that location and infrastructure development are the dominant drivers of residential land prices in Pleiku. These findings have important implications for land valuation, urban planning, and the implementation of smart urban construction policies in rapidly developing cities in Vietnam. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Progress in Land Cadastre)

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35 pages, 2568 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact Mechanism on Multi-Party Collaboration Willingness in Urban Regeneration: A Mixed Methods Study from the “Neighborhood BID” Perspective

by Wenjia Bai, Xinkai Liao, Mingyu Chen, Zhigang Wu and Fazhong Bai

Land 2026, 15(1), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010189 - 20 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1620

Abstract

As a neighborhood-scale derivative of the Business Improvement District (BID) model, the Neighborhood Business Improvement District (NBID) represents a collaborative governance framework aimed at fostering spontaneous urban regeneration. Its successful establishment critically depends on building consensus among diverse stakeholders during the preparatory phase. [...] Read more.

As a neighborhood-scale derivative of the Business Improvement District (BID) model, the Neighborhood Business Improvement District (NBID) represents a collaborative governance framework aimed at fostering spontaneous urban regeneration. Its successful establishment critically depends on building consensus among diverse stakeholders during the preparatory phase. This study addresses a significant gap by investigating the psychological mechanisms that shape stakeholders’ willingness to engage in NBIDs prior to their formation. Employing an exploratory sequential mixed-methods approach, we conducted semi-structured interviews in the Tiyuan North Community (Tianjin) and the Yulin East Road Community (Chengdu). Insights from the qualitative phase informed a subsequent quantitative survey administered to 215 stakeholders in Tianjin. Data were analyzed using regression analysis and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The results reveal that stakeholders’ performance expectations and collaborative willingness are significantly influenced by three core confidence factors: “Confidence in Authority Support (AS)” (particularly “Confidence in Council Representation”), “Confidence in Organization Capability (OC)” (especially “Confidence in Coordination Ability”), and “Confidence in Multi-party Collaboration.” Crucially, “Confidence in Enabling collaboration (MC_3)” itself acts as a key mediator, translating institutional trust into performance expectations. This study contributes a novel “Confidence–Expectation” framework to the literature on collective action and offers practical, context-sensitive insights for designing collaborative community governance structures aimed at sustainable urban regeneration in China and beyond. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Planning and Urban Regeneration for Achieving Sustainable Development: 2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 3456 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics of Native Forests and Exotic Tree Plantations in Southern Chile

by Alheli Flores-Ferrer, John Gajardo Valenzuela, Claudio Verdugo Reyes, Cristóbal Verdugo Vásquez and Gerardo Acosta-Jamett

Land 2026, 15(1), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010188 - 20 Jan 2026

Viewed by 270

Abstract

Assessing the dynamics between native forests and exotic tree plantations is key to understanding the drivers of native forest transformation and conservation challenges. We examined these dynamics across four zones in the Los Ríos and Los Lagos regions of southern Chile: the Coastal [...] Read more.

Assessing the dynamics between native forests and exotic tree plantations is key to understanding the drivers of native forest transformation and conservation challenges. We examined these dynamics across four zones in the Los Ríos and Los Lagos regions of southern Chile: the Coastal Range, Central Valley, Andes, and Chiloé. Changes from 2002–2012 and 2012–2022 were analyzed using satellite image classifications and landscape metrics (total area, mean patch size, number of patches, patch density, mean Euclidean nearest-neighbor distance). In both periods, in zones with strong human influence, such as the Coastal Range and Central Valley, native forest area decreased and became more fragmented, whereas exotic tree plantations initially expanded and then declined, resulting in a net increase. Transitions between native forests and exotic plantations showed strong bidirectional substitutions. In less disturbed zones, such as the Andes and Chiloé, native forests expanded in area and connectivity. Overall, native forest cover increased in the Andes (+12.85 km²) and Chiloé. (+6.19 km²) but declined in the Coastal Range (−0.65 km²) and Central Valley (−7.75 km²), whereas exotic plantations showed a net expansion across all zones. These contrasting trajectories underscore the need for reliable monitoring tools to support effective forest management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Spatial and Temporal Landscape Patterns Under Land Use Change)

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15 pages, 4116 KB

Open AccessTechnical Note

PyLM: A Python Implementation for Landscape Mosaic Analysis

by Gregory Giuliani

Land 2026, 15(1), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010187 - 20 Jan 2026

Viewed by 463

Abstract

Landscape ecology is the study of how different land uses and natural areas are arranged across a region, and how these spatial patterns affect biodiversity, ecosystem health, and human impacts. To measure and track these patterns, ecologists are using a range of tools [...] Read more.

Landscape ecology is the study of how different land uses and natural areas are arranged across a region, and how these spatial patterns affect biodiversity, ecosystem health, and human impacts. To measure and track these patterns, ecologists are using a range of tools and metrics that capture features such as connectivity, fragmentation, and the balance between natural and developed land. One such method is the Landscape Mosaic (LM) approach which classifies land into categories based on the mix of agriculture, natural habitats, and developed areas (e.g., urban), providing an integrated view of how humans are influencing ecosystems. Until recently, LM was only available through a specialized software package (i.e., GuidosToolbox), which limits its flexibility, interaction with other tools, and integration in scientific workflows. To address this, we present PyLM, a Python-based implementation of the LM model, making it easier for researchers, planners, and conservationists to analyze land use/cover (LUC) maps, generate statistics, and embed results into broader environmental workflows. The applicability of PyLM is demonstrated through a use case based on a LUC dataset for Switzerland. This new implementation enhances accessibility, supports sustainability assessments, and strengthens the ability to monitor landscapes over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in Landscape Analysis and Landscape Protection)

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24 pages, 2414 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Regional Spatial Structure Based on the Spatiotemporal Correlation Analysis of Population Migration: A Case Study of Hubei, China

by Lei Sun, Mingxing Hu, Jingyue Huang, Ziye Liu, Jiyuan Shi and Shumin Wang

Land 2026, 15(1), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010186 - 20 Jan 2026

Viewed by 155

Abstract

Population migration is an important indicator for measuring the interactions and connections between cities. Analyzing the spatiotemporal distribution pattern of the migration flows between cities is highly important to understanding urban development relationships and regional structures. From a spatiotemporal perspective, we conduct STFlowLISA [...] Read more.

Population migration is an important indicator for measuring the interactions and connections between cities. Analyzing the spatiotemporal distribution pattern of the migration flows between cities is highly important to understanding urban development relationships and regional structures. From a spatiotemporal perspective, we conduct STFlowLISA (Space-Time Flow Local Indicator of Spatial Association) spatiotemporal autocorrelation analysis using population migration data from Hubei Province from 2018 to 2023 and, on this basis, calculate the spatiotemporal hub index and identify spatiotemporal clusters. The research aims to reveal the regional spatial structure shaped by migration flows and compare it with that of existing town system planning to evaluate deviations and provide a decision-making basis for the regional synergistic development of Hubei Province. The key findings include: (1) the population migration flows between Wuhan and its surrounding cities mostly exhibit a spatiotemporal distribution pattern of HH (high-value agglomeration), whereas the long-distance migration flows between eastern and western Hubei mostly follow a pattern of LL (low-value agglomeration), and these urban connections show improvement after the epidemic; (2) the spatiotemporal hubs of Hubei Province demonstrate a “core-periphery” structure with Wuhan as the absolute core, while Xiangyang’s role as a subcenter does not meet planning expectations; and (3) urban spatiotemporal clusters are dense in the east and sparse in the west, with Enshi and Shiyan showing disconnection from the main network, which deviates from the planned polycentric spatial pattern. By examining the spatiotemporal autocorrelation of migration flows, this study enriches the empirical understanding of regional spatial structure in Hubei Province within the framework of classical spatial theory and highlights the necessity of incorporating dynamic flow analysis into regional planning and policy-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Contexts and Urban-Rural Interactions)

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30 pages, 4232 KB

Open AccessArticle

Promoting or Inhibiting? The Nonlinear Impact of Urban–Rural Integration on Carbon Emission Efficiency: Evidence from 283 Chinese Cities

by Haiyan Jiang, Jiaxi Lu, Ruidong Zhang, Yali Liu, Peng Li and Xi Xiao

Land 2026, 15(1), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010185 - 20 Jan 2026

Viewed by 128

Abstract

In the context of global climate governance and China’s ‘Dual Carbon’ strategy, enhancing carbon emission efficiency (CEE) is a critical pathway toward high-quality development. Urban–rural integration (URI), reshaping urban–rural structures and resource allocation, has significant environmental implications. However, the mechanisms through which URI [...] Read more.

In the context of global climate governance and China’s ‘Dual Carbon’ strategy, enhancing carbon emission efficiency (CEE) is a critical pathway toward high-quality development. Urban–rural integration (URI), reshaping urban–rural structures and resource allocation, has significant environmental implications. However, the mechanisms through which URI influences city-level CEE remain underexplored. Using panel data from 283 Chinese prefecture-level cities (2005–2022), we employ a Spatial Durbin Model to investigate URI’s direct and spatial spillover effects. First, spatiotemporally, URI demonstrates an imbalanced pattern, with higher levels in eastern coastal regions and lower levels in central and western areas. Conversely, CEE exhibits a north–south divide, with higher efficiency in the south. URI advancement has been sluggish with persisting imbalances, whereas CEE has demonstrated a consistent upward trend. Second, the relationship between URI and CEE is characterized by nonlinearity and spatial dependence. The direct effect follows a U-shaped curve, initially inhibiting but later promoting local CEE once a threshold is surpassed (URI = 0.103). The spatial spillover effect follows an inverted U-shaped trajectory (threshold URI = 0.179), suggesting that inter-regional dynamics evolve from synergistic promotion to potential competition. These findings underscore the necessity of phased, adaptive policies to unlock the potential between URI and CEE, providing a scientific basis for coordinating urban–rural development with carbon neutrality objectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design and Planning for Socio-Environmental Sustainability of Landscapes and Communities)

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22 pages, 6317 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Spatiotemporal-Resolution GPP Mapping via a Fusion–VPM Framework: Quantifying Trends and Drivers in the Yellow River Delta from 2000 to 2021

by Ziqi Mai, Pan Li, Xiaomin Sun, Qian Chen, Chongbin Xu, Buli Cui, Yu Wu, Bin Wang and Zhongen Niu

Land 2026, 15(1), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010184 - 20 Jan 2026

Viewed by 242

Abstract

Tracking ecosystem productivity in fast-evolving estuarine wetlands is often constrained by the trade-off between spatial detail and temporal continuity in satellite observations. To address this, we developed a reproducible fusion–VPM framework that integrates multi-sensor data to map Gross Primary Production (GPP) at a [...] Read more.

Tracking ecosystem productivity in fast-evolving estuarine wetlands is often constrained by the trade-off between spatial detail and temporal continuity in satellite observations. To address this, we developed a reproducible fusion–VPM framework that integrates multi-sensor data to map Gross Primary Production (GPP) at a high spatiotemporal resolution. By combining the Flexible Spatiotemporal Data Fusion (FSDAF) method with a Time-Series Linear Fitting Model (TSLFM), we constructed a continuous 30 m, 8-day vegetation index record for China’s Yellow River Delta (YRD) from 2000 to 2021. This record was propagated through the Vegetation Photosynthesis Model (VPM) to simulate GPP and quantify the relative contributions of land-use/land-cover change (LUCC) versus environmental factors. The results show a marginally significant increase in total GPP (9.74 Gg C a⁻¹, p = 0.074) over the last two decades. Deconvolution of driving factors reveals that 87.45% of the GPP increase occurred in stable land-cover areas, where the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) was the dominant driver (explaining 79.97% of the variability). In areas undergoing LUCC, the net effect on GPP primarily reflected the combined influences of artificial saline–alkali wetland expansion and cropland expansion: water-to-vegetation conversions enhanced GPP, whereas vegetation-to-water conversions fully offset these gains. This study demonstrates the efficacy of spatiotemporal data fusion in overcoming observational gaps and provides a transferable analytical framework for diagnosing carbon dynamics in complex, dynamic deltaic ecosystems. This study not only provides a critical, high-resolution assessment of carbon dynamics for the YRD but also delivers a generalizable analytical framework for mapping and attributing GPP trends in complex deltaic ecosystems worldwide. Full article

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26 pages, 2196 KB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Quality Index as a Predictor of Maize–Wheat System Productivity Under Long-Term Nutrient Management

by Deepika Suri, Raj Paul Sharma, Sandeep Gawdiya, Narender Kumar Sankhyan, Sandeep Manuja, Janardan Singh, Tarun Sharma, Nadhir Al-Ansari, Mohamed A. Mattar and Ali Salem

Land 2026, 15(1), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010183 - 20 Jan 2026

Viewed by 180

Abstract

The long-term effects of integrated nutrient management (INM) on crop performance and soil health—particularly within sub-humid environments—remain insufficiently explored. This research aimed to quantify the relationship between the soil quality index (SQI) and overall system productivity. The SQI represents a numerical indicator of [...] Read more.

The long-term effects of integrated nutrient management (INM) on crop performance and soil health—particularly within sub-humid environments—remain insufficiently explored. This research aimed to quantify the relationship between the soil quality index (SQI) and overall system productivity. The SQI represents a numerical indicator of soil functioning and its biological and chemical integrity, while system productivity reflects the economic yield generated by the cropping system. A long-term experiment initiated in 1972 formed the foundation for this study, which was conducted from 2019 to 2021 and included eleven nutrient management treatments. These comprised the following treatments: inorganic fertilizers alone (100% NPK, 150% NPK, 100% NP, 100% N, and 100% NPK without sulfur); combinations of organic and inorganic inputs (50% NPK + FYM and 100% NPK + FYM); lime with inorganic fertilizers (100% NPK + lime); zinc with inorganics (100% NPK + Zn); hand weeding with inorganics (100% NPK + HW); an unfertilized control. The study was implemented in a maize–wheat rotation under the sub-humid climatic conditions of Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India. System productivity was estimated using wheat grain equivalent yield, and SQI values were generated from selected soil properties. These indicators—along with the sustainable yield index (SYI)—were applied to assess the effectiveness of each treatment. The results showed that the 100% NPK + FYM combination produced the highest SQI, followed by 100% NPK + lime, whereas the 100% N treatment yielded the lowest value. Overall, the findings highlight the crucial role of adopting sustainable nutrient management practices to maintain soil quality and optimize productivity in sub-humid agricultural systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land, Soil and Water)

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25 pages, 6295 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatio-Temporal Dynamics and Driving Mechanism of Ecosystem Services Under Ecological Restoration in the Kubuqi Desert, Northern China

by Chunliang Lv, Yangyang Liu, Xu Zhang, Jinfeng Wang, Yongning Hu and Yang Cao

Land 2026, 15(1), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010182 - 19 Jan 2026

Viewed by 198

Abstract

Desertification is an ever-growing global ecological and environmental problem. With the implementation of various ecological restoration initiatives, vegetation cover in many desert regions has increased substantially. Consequently, it is essential to understand the dynamics of ecosystem services (ESs) in desert ecosystems to better [...] Read more.

Desertification is an ever-growing global ecological and environmental problem. With the implementation of various ecological restoration initiatives, vegetation cover in many desert regions has increased substantially. Consequently, it is essential to understand the dynamics of ecosystem services (ESs) in desert ecosystems to better inform environmental management. This study integrates the InVEST model, RWEQ model, Spearman correlation analysis, trade-off and synergy coefficient method, and the Partial Least Squares Path Model (PLS-PM) to systematically assess the spatio-temporal dynamics and underlying driving mechanisms of five key ESs in the Kubuqi (KBQ) Desert, northern China. Specifically, the application of PLS-PM enables the identification of latent pathways, indirect effects, and multi-step causal relationships, which traditional correlation-based methods fail to capture. The results show that the KBQ Desert underwent substantial land use changes from 2000 to 2020: sandy land decreased by 2697.83 km², grassland increased by 1864.15 km², and cropland and urban land expanded by 519.15 km² and 257.74 km², respectively. ESs exhibited divergent trajectories. habitat quality (HQ), carbon sequestration (CS), soil conservation (SC), and water yield (WY) all showed overall increases, with WY and SC increasing particularly strongly, whereas Sand-fixation service (G) displayed a fluctuating trend. Over the past two decades, HQ–CS, HQ–G, and CS–G have shown moderately strong synergies, while CS–WY has exhibited a pronounced trade-off, and SC–G and SC–CS have displayed relatively weaker trade-offs. The spatial distribution results of trade-off and synergy relationships show that the KBQ Desert is dominated by a synergy relationship, and the main synergy relationship combinations are CS–HQ, CS–SC, and HQ–SC. The correlation coefficients between other ES pairs are generally low. Additionally, this study identifies key pathways through the PLS-PM method, such as PRE → NDVI → ES and LU → NDVI → ES, revealing the complex interactions between precipitation (PRE), land use (LU), and vegetation dynamics. The findings show that land use (LU) consistently exerts a strong negative impact on CS, while PRE and NDVI have a significant positive effect on WY. These pathways deepen our understanding of how climate and anthropogenic factors affect ESs, particularly the influence of temperature (TEMP) on evapotranspiration (ETP), which in turn affects WY. Additionally, the impact of NDVI on wind–sand fixation (G) and SC varies over time, with vegetation dynamics playing a particularly enhanced role in 2010 and 2015. These findings highlight the impact of ecological restoration and land management on regional ESs changes. A comprehensive understanding of the interactions between climate factors, LU, and vegetation dynamics will help in developing more effective intervention strategies. Full article

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24 pages, 15825 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing High-Resolution Land Cover Classification Using Multi-Level Cross-Modal Attention Fusion

by Yangwei Jiang, Ting Liu, Junhao Zhou, Yihan Guo and Tangao Hu

Land 2026, 15(1), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010181 - 19 Jan 2026

Viewed by 235

Abstract

High-precision land cover classification is fundamental to environmental monitoring, urban planning, and sustainable land-use management. With the growing availability of multimodal remote sensing data, combining spectral and structural information has become an effective strategy for improving classification performance in complex high-resolution scenes. However, [...] Read more.

High-precision land cover classification is fundamental to environmental monitoring, urban planning, and sustainable land-use management. With the growing availability of multimodal remote sensing data, combining spectral and structural information has become an effective strategy for improving classification performance in complex high-resolution scenes. However, most existing methods predominantly rely on shallow feature concatenation, which fails to capture long-range dependencies and cross-modal interactions that are critical for distinguishing fine-grained land cover categories. This study proposes a multi-level cross-modal attention fusion network, Cross-Modal Cross-Attention UNet (CMCAUNet), which integrates a Cross-Modal Cross-Attention Fusion (CMCA) module and a Skip-Connection Attention Gate (SCAG) module. The CMCA module progressively enhances multimodal feature representations throughout the encoder, while the SCAG module leverages high-level semantics to refine spatial details during decoding and improve boundary delineation. Together, these modules enable more effective integration of spectral–textural and structural information. Experiments conducted on the ISPRS Vaihingen and Potsdam datasets demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. CMCAUNet achieves an mean Intersection over Union (mIoU) ratio of 81.49% and 84.76%, with Overall Accuracy (OA) of 90.74% and 90.28%, respectively. The model also shows superior performance in small object classification, with targets like “Car,” achieving 90.85% and 96.98% OA for the “Car” category. Ablation studies further confirm that the combination of CMCA and SCAG modules significantly improves feature discriminability and leads to more accurate and detailed land cover maps. Full article

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23 pages, 10264 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Public–Private Partnerships in Urban Regeneration: Comparative Insights and Lessons from Brazil, Italy, and the UK

by Paula Vale de Paula, Rui Cunha Marques and Jorge Manuel Gonçalves

Land 2026, 15(1), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010180 - 19 Jan 2026

Viewed by 249

Abstract

Urban regeneration practices have gained prominence in urban planning in different contexts. Among the different areas subject to urban regeneration, waterfronts stand out as privileged areas of the city and are, therefore, very attractive for new uses. Public–Private Partnership (PPP) agreements are often [...] Read more.

Urban regeneration practices have gained prominence in urban planning in different contexts. Among the different areas subject to urban regeneration, waterfronts stand out as privileged areas of the city and are, therefore, very attractive for new uses. Public–Private Partnership (PPP) agreements are often used to implement these projects. However, PPP agreements in regeneration projects are complex and, in many cases, produce controversial results, either in relation to the partnership itself or to the project resulting from that partnership. In this sense, it is important to provide recommendations for the development of these processes and the resulting projects. Based on this, the present study conducts a comparative analysis between the Brazilian, Italian, and UK contexts regarding PPP arrangements in urban regeneration projects and a comparative analysis between three specific case studies: Porto Maravilha in Rio de Janeiro, Porta a Mare in Livorno, and Harbourside in Bristol. Based on the analyses carried out, the study provides recommendations for improving these practices and the resulting projects. In this sense, it is expected that the study contributes to the state of the art on the subject. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green and Blue Infrastructure, Climate Change, and Urban Resilience: Best Practices and Adaptive Implementation)

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34 pages, 15440 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Identification and Evolutionary Analysis of Production–Living–Ecological Space—Taking Lincang City as an Example

by Tingyue Deng, Dongyang Hou and Cansong Li

Land 2026, 15(1), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010179 - 18 Jan 2026

Viewed by 288

Abstract

Optimizing the “production–living–ecological” space (PLES) is critical for achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly in ecologically sensitive mountainous border regions. This study investigates the spatial patterns and dynamic evolution of PLES in Lincang City (2010–2020) to reveal the trade-offs between development [...] Read more.

Optimizing the “production–living–ecological” space (PLES) is critical for achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly in ecologically sensitive mountainous border regions. This study investigates the spatial patterns and dynamic evolution of PLES in Lincang City (2010–2020) to reveal the trade-offs between development and conservation. Methodologically, we proposed a coupling-coordination-based grid-level PLES identification framework. This framework integrates the coupling coordination degree model (CCDM) directly into the functional classification process at a 600 m grid scale—a resolution selected to balance the capture of spatial heterogeneity with the maintenance of functional integrity in complex terrains. Spatiotemporal dynamics were further quantified using transition matrices and a dimension-based landscape metric system. The results reveal that (a) ecological space and production–living–ecological space represent the predominant categories in the study area. During the study period, ecological space continued to decrease, while production–living space increased steadily, and other PLES categories showed only marginal variations. (b) Mutual transitions among PLES types primarily occurred among ecological space, production–ecological space, and production–living–ecological space. These transitions intensified markedly between 2015 and 2020 compared to the 2010–2015 period. (c) From 2010 to 2020, the landscape in Lincang evolved towards lower ecological risk yet higher fragmentation. High fragmentation values, often associated with grassland, cropland, and forested areas, were evenly distributed across northeastern and northwestern regions. Likewise, high landscape dominance and isolation appeared in these regions as well as in the southeast. Conversely, landscape disturbance remained relatively uniform throughout the city, with lower values detected in forested land. Full article

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19 pages, 1638 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Protected Areas in the Conservation of Nothofagus antarctica Forests in Santa Cruz, Argentina

by Rocío L. Arcidiácono, Nirvana N. Churquina, Julián Rodríguez-Souilla, Juan M. Cellini, María Vanessa Lencinas, Francisco Ferrer, Pablo L. Peri and Guillermo Martínez Pastur

Land 2026, 15(1), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010178 - 18 Jan 2026

Viewed by 249

Abstract

Protected areas (PAs) constitute a fundamental strategy for mitigating biodiversity loss. The land–sparing approach has expanded in response to international agreements, but expansion of PAs does not guarantee conservation objectives. The objective was to assess PA effectiveness in conserving Nothofagus antarctica forests in [...] Read more.

Protected areas (PAs) constitute a fundamental strategy for mitigating biodiversity loss. The land–sparing approach has expanded in response to international agreements, but expansion of PAs does not guarantee conservation objectives. The objective was to assess PA effectiveness in conserving Nothofagus antarctica forests in Santa Cruz (Argentina), evaluating human impacts associated with fires, animal uses, and harvesting. The research was conducted within pure native forests in Santa Cruz, Argentina. This province encompasses 52 protected areas, representing the highest concentration of conservation units within the forested landscapes across Argentina. At least eight PAs included N. antarctica forests. Three land tenure categories were evaluated: protected areas (PAs), a buffer of 15 km from PA boundaries on private lands (BL), and private lands (PL) outside the buffer. In total, 103 stands were sampled, where 38 variables were assessed (impacts, soil, forest structure, understory, and animal use). Three indices were developed to analyze ecosystem integrity: forest structure (FI), soil (SI), and animal use (AI). PAs presented the highest FI (0.64 for PA, 0.44 for BL, and 0.30 for PL) and AI (0.60 for PA, 0.55 for BL, and 0.52 for PL), and together with buffer areas, the highest SI (0.43 for PA, 0.47 for BL, and 0.32 for PL). PAs were clearly distinct from private lands; however, sustained actions for livestock exclusion, harvest regulation, and fire management remain necessary for future sustainable planning at the landscape level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Forest Landscape Management Towards Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity (Second Edition))

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29 pages, 2003 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Metropolitan Area Integration Policies on Urban Industrial Structure Upgrading: Evidence from China

by Kan Liu and Jinjun Duan

Land 2026, 15(1), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010177 - 17 Jan 2026

Viewed by 252

Abstract

As global production networks become increasingly regionalized, diversified, and resilience-oriented, metropolitan areas (MAs) have emerged as important spatial platforms for industrial development. This study examines whether China’s national-level metropolitan area integration policies promote urban industrial structure upgrading and, if so, through which channels. [...] Read more.

As global production networks become increasingly regionalized, diversified, and resilience-oriented, metropolitan areas (MAs) have emerged as important spatial platforms for industrial development. This study examines whether China’s national-level metropolitan area integration policies promote urban industrial structure upgrading and, if so, through which channels. We first develop a set of conceptual mechanisms and hypotheses, and then test them using panel data for 281 prefecture-level cities in China from 2012 to 2022. A staggered difference-in-differences (DID) model, complemented by a series of robustness checks, is employed to identify the policy effects. The baseline estimates indicate that the industrial structure of MA member cities is, on average, about 2.43 percentage points more advanced than that of non-MA cities. Mechanism analysis shows that the policies foster urban industrial upgrading through unified market formation, technological improvement, and optimization of factor endowments. However, the policies have only a very limited impact on breakthroughs in cutting-edge or frontier technologies. Based on these findings, we propose targeted policy recommendations to address the identified shortcomings. Full article

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21 pages, 2068 KB

Open AccessArticle

Naming as Resistance: Nahuatl Toponymy and Territorial Dispossession in San Antonio Cacalotepec, Mexico

by Melissa Schumacher, Andrea Galindo-Torres, Laura Romero and Sarah Herrejón-Montes

Land 2026, 15(1), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010176 - 16 Jan 2026

Viewed by 399

Abstract

The Indigenous community of San Antonio Cacalotepec, located in the region of Cholula in central Mexico, has been an active witness to territorial dispossession at the hands of powerful real estate capital. This small territory—where clean water once flowed, milpas and nopales were [...] Read more.

The Indigenous community of San Antonio Cacalotepec, located in the region of Cholula in central Mexico, has been an active witness to territorial dispossession at the hands of powerful real estate capital. This small territory—where clean water once flowed, milpas and nopales were cultivated, and Nahuatl was the everyday language—has now become the epicenter of predatory capitalism, manifested in gated communities, commercial zones, and exclusive residential developments. As a result, the original settlement and its small landholders have been segregated and excluded from the promises of modernity and progress. Nevertheless, in this last enclave, where traces of Nahuatl can still be heard, an Indigenous awareness has emerged, reclaiming identity and the right to continue naming the territory that has been lost as their own. Within this context, fieldwork carried out by the co-research group Colectiva Hilando Territorios has led to a series of community workshops with women from San Antonio Cacalotepec, together with architecture and anthropology students from Universidad de las Américas Puebla. These workshops mapped how Cacalotepec looked before massive urbanization and documented the toponyms in the Nahuatl language. The aim has been to make visible the memory of a living territory that persists, and that, despite the sale of exclusive, car-oriented commercial and residential spaces, is continually re-signified by the community as part of its identity and collective belonging in the face of dispossession. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rural Social Movements and the Question of the Land in the 21st Century)

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24 pages, 7504 KB

Open AccessArticle

Historical Trajectories of the Evolved Cropland Features and Their Reshaped Influences on Agricultural Landscapes and Ecosystem Services in China’s Sanjiang Commodity Grain Base

by Tao Pan, Kun Liu, Zherui Yin, Zexian Li and Lin Shi

Land 2026, 15(1), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010175 - 16 Jan 2026

Viewed by 205

Abstract

Drastic cropland expansion and its internal structural changes have had an obvious impact on agricultural landscapes and ecosystem services. However, a prolonged investigation of this effect is still lacking in China’s grain-producing bases, such as Sanjiang Plain. To address this issue, half a [...] Read more.

Drastic cropland expansion and its internal structural changes have had an obvious impact on agricultural landscapes and ecosystem services. However, a prolonged investigation of this effect is still lacking in China’s grain-producing bases, such as Sanjiang Plain. To address this issue, half a century of study on the ‘land trajectory migration–landscape evolution–ecological effect,’ covering the period 1970–2020, was elucidated using the synergistic methodology of spatial analysis technology, the reclamation rate algorithm, the landscape indicator, and the newly established ecosystem service improvement model. Satellite observation results indicate that the cropland area exhibited a substantial expansion trend from 23,672.69 km² to 42,856.17 km² from 1970 to 2020, representing a net change of +19,183.48 km² and a huge growth rate of 81.04%, which led to an obvious improvement in the level of agricultural cultivation. Concurrently, the internal structure of the cropland underwent dramatic restructuring, with rice fields increasing from 6.46% to 53.54%, while upland fields decreased from 93.54% to 46.46%. In different regions, spatially heterogeneous improvements of 2.64–52.47% in agricultural cultivation levels across all cities were observed. From 1970 to 2020, the tracked cropland center of gravity trajectories exhibited a distinct biphasic pattern, initially shifting westward and then followed by a southward transition, accumulating a displacement of 19.39 km². As for the evolved agricultural landscapes, their integrity has improved (SHDI = −0.08%), accompanied by increased connectivity (CON = +8.82%) and patch edge integrity (LSI = −15.71%) but also by reduced fragmentation (PD = −48.14%). Another important discovery was that the evaluated ecosystem services continuously decreased from 2337.84 × 10⁸ CNY in 1970 to 1654.01 × 10⁸ CNY in 2020, a net loss of −683.84 × 10⁸ CNY and a huge loss rate of 33.65%, accompanied by a center–periphery gradient pattern whereby degradation propagated from the low-value central croplands to the high-value surrounding natural covers. These discoveries will play a significant role in guiding farmland structure reformation, landscape optimization, and ecosystem service improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity Under Land Use Change)

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23 pages, 4296 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Disentangling Complexity and Performance: A Comparative Study of Deep Learning and Random Forest Models for Cropland Vulnerability Assessment in Bangladesh

by Arnob Bormudoi and Masahiko Nagai

Land 2026, 15(1), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010174 - 16 Jan 2026

Viewed by 183

Abstract

Climate change increasingly threatens global food security through disrupted precipitation patterns and extreme weather events, requiring resilient systems for assessing agricultural vulnerability. This study developed and compared machine learning approaches for predicting cropland vulnerability using Earth Observation data, operationalized through NDVI anomalies as [...] Read more.

Climate change increasingly threatens global food security through disrupted precipitation patterns and extreme weather events, requiring resilient systems for assessing agricultural vulnerability. This study developed and compared machine learning approaches for predicting cropland vulnerability using Earth Observation data, operationalized through NDVI anomalies as a defensible biophysical metric. We employed both a dual-stream deep learning architecture and a Random Forest model to predict 2023 NDVI anomalies across Bangladesh croplands using a 22-year time series (2001–2023) of MODIS vegetation indices, ERA5 climate variables, and static environmental covariates. A spatially aware block cross-validation strategy ensured rigorous, independent performance evaluation. Results demonstrated that the Random Forest model (R² = 0.70, RMSE = 197.03) substantially outperformed the deep learning architecture (R² = 0.02, RMSE = 357.57), explaining 70% of cropland stress variance and enabling early detection of vulnerable areas three months before harvest. Feature importance analysis identified recent climate variables, March precipitation, February NDVI, and vapor pressure deficit as primary vulnerability drivers. Spatial analysis revealed distinct vulnerability patterns, with Natore and Magura districts exhibiting elevated stress consistent with 2023 drought conditions, threatening the productivity of the region’s critical irrigation-dependent rice cultivation. These findings demonstrate that simpler, interpretable models can sometimes outperform complex architectures while providing useful information for early warning systems and precision targeting of climate adaptation interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers for Land Innovations—Data and Machine Learning: 3rd Edition)

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29 pages, 6496 KB

Open AccessArticle

Construction and Optimization of Ecological Network Based on SOM and XGBoost-SHAP: A Case Study of the Zhengzhou–Kaifeng–Luoyang Region

by Yunuo Chen, Pingyang Han, Pengfei Wang, Baoguo Liu and Yang Liu

Land 2026, 15(1), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15010173 - 16 Jan 2026

Viewed by 378

Abstract

The ecological network serves as a vital spatial strategy for addressing climate change, biodiversity loss, and habitat fragmentation. Addressing limitations in existing ecological network studies—such as strong subjectivity and insufficient accuracy in structural element identification, cross-regional integration, and resistance surface weighting—this research uses [...] Read more.

The ecological network serves as a vital spatial strategy for addressing climate change, biodiversity loss, and habitat fragmentation. Addressing limitations in existing ecological network studies—such as strong subjectivity and insufficient accuracy in structural element identification, cross-regional integration, and resistance surface weighting—this research uses the Zhengzhou–Kaifeng–Luoyang region (ZKLR) as a case study. It introduces the self-organizing map (SOM) model to identify ecological sources and employs the XGBoost-SHAP model to optimize resistance surface weights, thereby reducing subjective weighting biases. Subsequently, the Linkage Mapper tool is utilized to construct the regional ecological network. The superiority of the SOM model for identifying ecological sources was confirmed by comparison with a traditional network based on morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA). Further integrating complex network topology theory, nodes attack the simulations-assessed network resilience and proposed optimization strategies. The results indicate the following: (1) The area of ecological sources identified by the SOM model is three times that of the MSPA model; (2) SHAP feature importance analysis revealed that elevation (DEM) exerted the greatest influence on the composite resistance surface, contributing over 40%, followed by land use and slope, with each contributing approximately 15%. High-resistance areas were primarily distributed in western and central mountainous regions and built-up urban areas, while low-resistance areas were concentrated in the central and eastern plains; (3) topological analysis indicates that the integrated ecological network (IEN) exhibits superior robustness compared to the structural ecological network (SEN). The edge-adding strategy generated 22 additional ecological corridors, significantly enhancing the overall resilience of the integrated ecological network; and (4) based on ecological network construction and optimization results, a territorial spatial protection strategy of “one belt, two cores, two zones, and three corridors” is proposed. This study provides a novel methodological framework for ecological network construction, with findings offering reference for ecological conservation and spatial planning in the ZKLR and similar areas. Full article

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Land, Volume 15, Issue 1 (January 2026) – 202 articles

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