Analysis of Landscape Character Assessment and Cultural Ecosystem Services Evaluation Frameworks for Peri-Urban Landscape Planning: A Case Study of Harku Municipality, Estonia
Declines in Livestock Numbers Accompany Cropping Deagrarianisation Processes in the Eastern Cape, South Africa
Climate Change and Wetland Ecosystems: The Effects on Halophilous Vegetation Diversity in II-Ballut ta’ Marsaxlokk Natura 2000 Site (Malta)
Quantifying Damages to Soil Health and Emissions from Land Development in the State of Illinois (USA)
Impervious Land Expansion as a Control Parameter for Climate-Resilient Planning on the Mediterranean Coast: Evidence from Greece

Journal Description

Land

Land is an international and cross-disciplinary, peer-reviewed, open access journal on land system science, landscape, soil–sediment–water systems, urban study, land–climate interactions, water–energy–land–food (WELF) nexus, biodiversity research and health nexus, land modelling and data processing, ecosystem services, and multifunctionality and sustainability etc., published monthly online by MDPI. The International Association for Landscape Ecology (IALE), European Land-use Institute (ELI), Landscape Institute (LI) and Urban Land Institute (ULI) are affiliated with Land, and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SSCI (Web of Science), PubAg, AGRIS, GeoRef, RePEc, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Environmental Studies) / CiteScore - Q2 (Nature and Landscape Conservation)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 13.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2023).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 3.9 (2022); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.0 (2022)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-445X

Latest Articles

27 pages, 18399 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Impact of Urban Built Environment on Land Surface Temperature Considering Spatio-Temporal Heterogeneity: A Perspective of Local Climate Zone

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Land 2023, 12(12), 2148; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122148 (registering DOI) - 10 Dec 2023

Abstract

Thermal environment deterioration has seriously threatened urban habitat quality and urban sustainable development. The evolution of the urban built environment (UBE) is an important cause for urban thermal environment variation. However, the dynamic effect of the UBE on the land surface temperature (LST) is rarely studied by combining the local climate zone (LCZ) theory and spatio-temporal heterogeneity. Based on a case study of Beilin District in Xi’an, China, this paper identified LCZ types of Beilin District in 2010, 2015, and 2020 using the GIS method. It also analyzed the spatial–temporal characteristics of the LST in summer based on the remote sensing retrieval method and explored the effects of the built environment on the LST by Geodetector and geographically weighted regression (GWR). The results showed the following: (1) The area share of dense building zones in Beilin District was greater than that of open building zones and natural surface zones, while the share of mid- and high-rise dense building zones continued to increase and the share of low-rise dense building zones continued to decrease during the study period. (2) The LST of different LCZ types in Beilin District was obviously different, and the LST of dense building zones was generally higher than that of open building zones and natural surface zones. Meanwhile, the LST of mid- and low-rise dense building zones increased gradually, and the LST of high-rise open building zones decreased gradually, but the overall warming area was obviously more than the cooling area. (3) The effects of the UBE factors on the LST varied greatly, with their interaction having an enhancement effect. The direct and interactive influence of the two-dimensional (2D) UBE indicators on the LST were greater than those of the three-dimensional (3D) indicators, but there was a gradual decrease in the force of the 2D indicators and a simultaneous diminution, enhancement, and invariance of the force of the 3D indicators. (4) Vegetation cover (VC) and floor area ratio (FAR) acted negatively, and the building height (BH) was changing from a positive to a negative role, with the average action intensity of VC changing from −0.27 to −0.15, FAR from −0.20 to −0.16, and BH from 0.05 to −0.04. The impervious surface area (ISA), building area (BA), and space congestion (SC) acted positively, with the average action intensity of the ISA changing from 0.12 to 0.20, BA from 0.12 to 0.19, and SC was stable at 0.04. The framework enables a deeper portrayal of LST changes in different LCZs, reflecting the direct and interactive effects of different UBE indicators on LST, as well as local variations in the impact effects and provides a basis for urban managers or planners to improve urban heat resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Form and the Urban Heat Island Effect)

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19 pages, 1212 KiB

Open AccessReview

How Can Plants Help Restore Degraded Tropical Soils?

Renaud Massoukou Pamba

Vincent Poirier

Pamphile Nguema Ndoutoumou

and

Terence Epule Epule

Land 2023, 12(12), 2147; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122147 (registering DOI) - 09 Dec 2023

Abstract

In the tropics, anthropogenic activities can lead to water and wind erosion, a loss of biodiversity, and a reduction in sequestered carbon, fertility, and organic matter content in the soils concerned, potentially resulting in their degradation. This study therefore aims to identify the mechanisms used by plant species to restore degraded tropical soils and plant species characteristics that are best suited to achieve this through a critical scoping review of the peer-reviewed literature. Soil restoration leads to the re-establishment of ecosystem services and an increase in soil production potential, the regeneration of biodiversity, the stopping of organic matter losses, and the creation of favorable conditions for carbon sequestration and nitrogen fixation. The choice of appropriate plant species depends on the restoration objectives to be achieved. Five key mechanisms by which plant species contribute to restore degraded tropical soils include: (1) nitrogen fixation, (2) carbon sequestration, (3) organic matter addition, (4) structure stabilization, and (5) erosion control. The main characteristics of plant species and vegetation involved in these mechanisms are (a) the capacity to form symbiotic associations with N-fixing bacteria and mycorrhizae, (b) the production of abundant root biomass releasing litter and exudates, (c) roots having a high length density, branching intensity, and depth distribution, (d) the production of an abundant and easily decomposed above ground litter , (e) the production of a vast canopy, and (f) the presence of different vegetation strata. Targeting these characteristics will contribute to acting on several mechanisms simultaneously, which will increase the chance of success in tropical soil restoration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soils for the Future)

19 pages, 5437 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Social Enterprises and Their Role in Revitalizing Shrinking Cities—A Case Study on Shimizusawa of Japan

Jian Liu

Yixin Zhang

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Junsong Mao

Land 2023, 12(12), 2146; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122146 (registering DOI) - 09 Dec 2023

Abstract

Since their birth in the 1990s, social enterprises, as a kind of third-party organization with the attributes of both a not-for-profit entity and a profit-making enterprise, have played a significant role in the socio-economic development of cities, in particular those facing the challenge of shrinking. But why are social enterprises so deeply embedded in the regeneration process of shrinking cities, and how do they promote their multi-dimensional revitalization? In order to answer these questions, this paper presents a case study on Shimizusawa in Japan based on a literature review and field research. In line with the embeddedness and institution–function–instrument theories, it reviews the revitalization of Shimizusawa by involving a social enterprise in the adaptive reuse of industrial heritage sites and the development of industrial tourism, analyzes the establishment process and organizational characteristics of this social enterprise, and summarizes the four major experiences of its practice—that is, the governance structure of two types of institutions and two types of functions, the planning for both profitable and non-profitable activities, the operation of both for-profit and not-for-profit businesses, and the fund management of leveraging multiple parties to raise funds and reinvesting the profits locally. The extensive support provided by the Shimizusawa Social Enterprise that creates not only economic value but also social value justifies the significant role of social enterprises in the revitalization of shrinking industrial areas. This case study, together with its analytical framework, may serve as a meaningful reference for the revitalization of shrinking industrial areas in other parts of the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategic Spatial Planning in Urban and Regional Sustainability Transitions)

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34 pages, 27373 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Microclimate Conditions Considering Urban Morphology and Trees Using ENVI-Met: A Case Study of Cairo City

Ahmed Yasser Abdelmejeed

and

Dietwald Gruehn

Land 2023, 12(12), 2145; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122145 (registering DOI) - 09 Dec 2023

Abstract

This research aims to optimize the use of trees to enhance microclimate conditions, which has become necessary because of climate change and its impacts, especially for cities suffering from extreme heat stress, such as Cairo. It considers elements of urban morphology, such as the aspect ratio and orientation of canyons, which play an important role in changing microclimate conditions. It also considers both sides of each canyon because the urban shading is based on the orientation and the aspect ratio, which can provide good shade on one side of the canyon but leave the other side exposed to direct and indirect radiation, to ensure a complete assessment of how the use of trees can be optimized. As Cairo city is very large and has a variety of urban morphologies, a total of 144 theoretical cases have been tested for Cairo city using ENVI-met to cover the majority of the urban cases within the city (Stage 1). Then, the same tree scenarios used in the theoretical study are applied to an existing urban area in downtown Cairo with many urban morphology varieties to validate the results of the theoretical study (Stage 2). After testing all cases in both stages, it became very clear that the addition of trees cannot be the same for the different aspect ratios, orientations, and sides of the different canyons. For example, eastern roads should have more trees than other orientations for all aspect ratios, but the required number of trees is greater for the northern side than the southern side, as the southern side is partially shaded for a few hours of the day by buildings in moderate and deep canyons. Northern streets require a very limited number of trees, even in shallow canyons, on both sides. The correlation between the number of trees on each side for the different orientations and aspect ratios shows a strong negative relationship, but the correlation values change between the different sides and orientations. The results of applying trees to an existing urban area show almost the same results as the theoretical study’s results, with very slight differences occurring because of the irregularity of the existing study area. This proves that when adding trees, not only the aspect ratio and orientation but also the side of each canyon should be considered to ensure that pedestrians, in all cases, have better microclimate conditions and that the use of trees is optimized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrating Spatial Analysis and Regional Science to Guide Urban Planning)

20 pages, 1261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nutrients and Contaminants in Soils of Current and Former Oil Palm Production Systems from Indonesia

Hadee Thompson-Morrison

Fransisca Ariantiningsih

Sugesti Muhammad Arief

Sally Gaw

and

Brett Robinson

Land 2023, 12(12), 2144; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122144 (registering DOI) - 08 Dec 2023

Abstract

Palm oil production in Southeast Asia often occurs on nutrient-poor, acidic soils converted from primary forest. Both the agricultural conversion and the production of oil palm are subsidised in Indonesia. As well as depleting soil organic C and plant nutrients, agricultural production on these soils can result in the accumulation of trace elements (TEs)—including micronutrients and non-essential trace elements—from the use of TE-containing agrichemicals including phosphate fertilisers and Cu fungicides. We tested the hypothesis that palm soils will have lower C concentrations than forest soils, as well as accumulation of TEs including Cu, Zn and Cd. Soil samples from active and abandoned oil palm plantations in Sumatra, Indonesia, were analysed for general soil properties as well as TE concentrations. Soils were acidic and low in key nutrients, with production likely to be limited by deficiencies of N, P, K, Mg and Mo, present at some sites in mean concentrations as low as 0.021%, 118 mg kg⁻¹, 778 mg kg⁻¹, 1023 mg kg⁻¹ and 0.095 mg kg⁻¹, respectively. Mean organic C was lower (2.0–3.3%) than reported values in nearby forest soils (7.7%). Soils under palm production contained elevated levels of Cu, Zn, As and Pb up to 38, 91, 9.0 and 28 mg kg⁻¹, respectively, likely due to agrichemical use. The correction of nutrient deficiencies in palm production would require significant fertiliser inputs, which would exacerbate TE accumulation and reduce the net economic revenue from oil production. Our data have shown that in the plantations we have sampled, soils have become degraded. These tropical, weathered, and naturally nutrient-poor soils are ill suited to intensive production that requires high ongoing nutrient inputs. These findings have implications for the sustainability of a regionally significant production system across Southeast Asia. Full article

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12 pages, 1660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ten-Year Impact of Cover Crops on Soil Organic Matter Quantity and Quality in Semi-Arid Vineyards

Marco Antonio Jiménez-González

Hugo López-Romano

Pilar Carral

Ana María Álvarez-González

Juan-Emilio Herranz-Luque

Blanca Esther Sastre-Rodríguez

Andrés García-Díaz

Gregorio Muñoz-Organero

and

María José Marques

Land 2023, 12(12), 2143; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122143 - 08 Dec 2023

Abstract

Soil organic matter depletion is a significant concern in agricultural soils, impacting crucial aspects of ecosystem health, especially soil properties such as fertility and soil moisture retention. Adopting sustainable soil management practices, such as cover crops, can mitigate this issue. In this study, we analyzed the soil organic carbon (SOC) content and quality in vineyards using two distinct management methods: permanent spontaneous cover crops and conventional tillage. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) was quantified and chemically characterized using UV–visible spectroscopy. Our results showed an increase of 4.7 Mg C/ha in the carbon stock (50 cm depth) after 10 years of implementing vegetation covers compared with tilled soil. Additionally, cover crop management increased less humified soluble carbon in surface soil layers, while tillage transformed the solubilized carbon. This finding is important because tilled soil becomes more accessible to microbial degradation and leaching, which, in the long term, leads to a SOM content decrease. In conclusion, an increase in carbon stock was observed when using cover crops due to the incorporation of fresh organic matter, whereas tilled soils showed a depletion of carbon stock, including the mobilization of more stable carbon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Management for Soil Health)

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15 pages, 8219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recognition and Spatial Distribution of Rural Buildings in Vietnam

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Land 2023, 12(12), 2142; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122142 - 08 Dec 2023

Abstract

The research on the distribution of rural buildings is one of the fundamental works of urban–rural development in Vietnam. Adopting a Mask R-CNN deep learning framework and collecting sub-meter remote sensing images, this research used a remote sensing interpretation model of rural buildings trained based on East Asian characteristics of rural buildings and successfully recognized about 2.87 million rural buildings in 34 Vietnamese provincial administrative districts with a total area of rural buildings of 2492 million square meters. The reliability of the identification results was verified by manual detection and quantitative statistics, and a multi-scale database of rural buildings in Vietnam based on individual rural buildings was created. Based on the database, this paper analyzes the distribution characteristics of rural buildings and summarizes characteristics of rural building distribution at the country, regional, and provincial scales. The identification results lay the foundation for the next study of urban–rural relations in Southeast Asia and the construction of a basic database on villages. Full article

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19 pages, 1736 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Socioecological Dynamics and Forest-Dependent Communities’ Wellbeing: The Case of Yasuní National Park, Ecuador

Isabel Dominguez-Gaibor

Nicolae Talpă

Maria Cristina Bularca

Aureliu Florin Hălălișan

Claudiu Coman

and

Bogdan Popa

Land 2023, 12(12), 2141; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122141 - 07 Dec 2023

Abstract

Protected areas are considered the backbone of biodiversity conservation, but their management often fails because local people are not involved, and their needs are ignored. A socioecological approach has been demonstrated to be effective in improving the relationship between conservation efforts and human wellbeing through a better understanding of the interdependence between nature and people. This relationship can be observed through the case of the Kichwa indigenous communities within Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, as they have retained a very close relationship with forest ecosystems. Using key respondent interviews, along with semi-structured interviews and focus groups, this research describes the complex relationship between changing forest ecosystems and human wellbeing. The results highlight food, health, and cultural identity as the most important benefits that communities obtain from forests. The research also sheds light on how people in the investigated area perceive the dynamics of socioecological systems, indicating petroleum, infrastructure development, and small-scale agriculture as the most important direct drivers and land governance and the presence of colonists as the most important indirect drivers of changes to forest ecosystems. This paper demonstrates the importance of monitoring socioecological systems and adapting management to balance complex economic, social, and ecological challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Principles and Conflicts in Landscape Management for Biodiversity Conservation)

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20 pages, 8395 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Urban Morphology, Identity, Heritage, and Reconstruction Processes in Middle East Post-War Scenarios: The Case of Mosul Old City

Domenico Giuseppe Chizzoniti

and

Tommaso Lolli

Land 2023, 12(12), 2140; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122140 - 07 Dec 2023

Abstract

The theme of architectural reconstruction has gained significant prominence within the discipline of architecture, intersecting with the increasing complexity of contemporary events, especially complex socio-political scenarios including deliberate city destruction, often referred to as urbicide. Preservation strategies that safeguard the memory and values embedded in places have become imperative to protect this urban tangible and intangible heritage. This study explores the application of architectural reconstruction in the post-war context of Mosul (Iraq) dealing mainly with the selection of traces, combining a strategy based half on physical evidence and half on the reconstruction of memory devices, and intertwining them into an operative procedure hopefully supporting urban reconstruction. The study’s results indicate that architectural interventions focused on revitalizing these symbolic spaces play a pivotal role in reconstituting the inhabitants’ habits and sense of community in Mosul. The projects, including the Souq and the Great Mosque and districts, successfully address various challenges, including the harmonious fusion of tradition and modernization, the delicate balance between memory and oblivion, and the careful negotiation between reconstruction and restoration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Morphology: A Perspective from Space)

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15 pages, 9127 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial–Temporal Evolution and Correlation Analysis of Human Activity Intensity and Resource Carrying Capacity in the Region around Poyang Lake, China, from 2010 to 2020

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Land 2023, 12(12), 2139; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122139 - 06 Dec 2023

Abstract

To explore the influence of human activities on natural resources and the correlation between these two characteristics, taking the region around Poyang Lake in China as the research area. Utilizing data from 2010, 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2020, including remote sensing, gross domestic product (GDP), and population density data, the human activity intensity (HAI) and resource carrying capacity (RCC) were calculated using relevant models. Analyzing the dynamic change characteristics, the temporal and spatial correlations, and the interaction between the two aspects, bivariate spatial autocorrelation and other methods were used. The results show that: (1) from 2010 to 2020, there was a significant increasing trend in the HAI, while the RCC remained at a generally stable level. (2) In both the temporal and spatial dimensions, there was a certain positive correlation between the HAI and RCC. Their interaction, however, is primarily based on the intrinsic resources and human activity factors within each region, with limited observable factor flow between regions. (3) Regions with the medium level of HAI have greater development potential. The results are expected to enrich the research on human activities and natural resources in the region around Poyang Lake in China and provide a reference for relevant planning. Full article

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22 pages, 2242 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Accounting for Suburban Agricultural Land Rent in a Chinese Context Based on Agricultural Ecological Value and Landscape Value

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Land 2023, 12(12), 2138; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122138 - 06 Dec 2023

Abstract

Agricultural land protection is vital for the realization of national food security and an ecological civilization. From the perspective of agricultural ecological value and landscape value, perfecting the theory of agricultural land rent is beneficial to the construction of an ecological civilization. Based on Marx’s land rent theory of agricultural production, the analytical framework of the agricultural decision support systems (DSS) was constructed; then, the agricultural land rent in suburbs was theoretically accounted for via a numerical example, and its realization rules were simulated according to the conditions of China (i.e., the specific solutions in force). Some interesting conclusions were found: (1) Agricultural production in suburbs involves both natural reproduction and social reproduction. (2) Agricultural land rent should include production land rent, ecological land rent, and landscape land rent. (3) The promotion of an ecological civilization and the development of the economy and society will lead to an increase in the comprehensive coefficient of agricultural land rent. (4) With the development of the economy, ecological land rent and landscape land rent should be gradually charged from zero payment to full payment. Based on these conclusions, five corresponding policy implications are proposed to improve the land profit of agricultural land owners to promote agricultural production, food security, and an ecological civilization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation, Application, and Opportunities of Land-Use Decision Support System in Agriculture)

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20 pages, 2349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Building a More Secure Territory Spatial Pattern in China: An Analysis Based on Human-Environment Interactions

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Land 2023, 12(12), 2137; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122137 - 06 Dec 2023

Abstract

To understand and respond to the common ecological and environmental challenges faced by human beings, this study investigated the relationship between territorial spatial development (TSD), eco-environmental responses, and territorial spatial planning (TSP) from the perspective of human-environment interactions and explores a feasible way to modulate these human-environment interactions by taking China’s TSP practice as an illustrative case. The research results show that (1) the interplay between territorial development, resource utilization, and environmental feedback forms the crux of human-environment interactions. Notably, eco-environment responses, one of which is the spread of germs, coupled with human development and utilization behavior constitute a complete negative feedback loop. Human beings’ adjustment to the unbalanced conditions in these interactions, employing institutions, technology, planning, and other tools, constitutes a positive cycle within human-environment interactions. (2) TSP can regulate the whole process of human-environment interactions through mechanisms such as coordination and control, adaptation and mitigation, and consolidation and restoration. (3) Unreasonable agricultural development and urban expansion have triggered intense negative feedback on the ecological environment. (4) The Chinese government has carried out a top-down TSP reform initiative to establish a unified planning system. This aims to alleviate the adverse ecological and environmental effects caused by TSD and build a more secure territory space pattern. Therefore, nations around the globe should innovate their spatial planning management systems and spatial planning systems, standardize and guide the development and utilization of spatial resources, and coordinate the relationship between humans and the environment. Full article

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19 pages, 8310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of Ecosystem Services and Trade-Offs/Synergies during Urbanization in the Loess Plateau, China

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Land 2023, 12(12), 2136; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122136 - 05 Dec 2023

Abstract

As a typical ecological fragile zone and an area with a high intensity of human activities, the Loess Plateau (LP) of China has significantly altered its ecosystem and the corresponding services under the influence of urbanization processes. However, most existing studies focus on the spatial and temporal changes of ecosystem services (ESs) and their interrelationships under the influence of ecological restoration works in the LP, leaving limited research on the impacts of urbanization on ESs. Therefore, this study constructed a research framework for exploring the spatio-temporal dynamics and interactions of ESs under the influence of urbanization based on time series data from 2000 to 2020. The results showed that: (1) based on the comprehensive urbanization level (CUL), developed and developing areas accounted for 5.63% of the total area; (2) for the whole LP, all ESs except Habitat Quality (HQ) showed an increased trend. HQ showed a trade-off with the other services, while there was a clear synergy between the other three types of services; (3) in terms of processes of urbanization, Carbon Sequestration, Water Yield and HQ gradually decreased with increased levels of urbanization, and Soil Conservation increased the least in developing areas. The trade-off between HQ and the other three services decreased with increasing urbanization, while the synergy between the other three services strengthened as urbanization deepened. These findings suggest that urbanization significantly impacts ESs. It is necessary to implement appropriate measures (e.g., sponge city construction, urban green space, etc.) to address the impacts of urbanization on ESs. Full article

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13 pages, 2083 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Almond-Leaved Pear Pyrus spinosa Forssk. in Mediterranean Pasturelands Carbon Storage and Woodlands Restoration

Rafael Silveira Bueno

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Land 2023, 12(12), 2135; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122135 - 05 Dec 2023

Abstract

A large portion of the Mediterranean basin suffers from a lack of organic carbon in the soil and low woody cover percentages, resulting in a very high risk of desertification. In such conditions, knowing the effects on below and above ground carbon sequestration of pioneer woody species is of great importance, although barely assessed at the individual level. In this study, we first investigated whether almond-leaved pear (Pyrus spinosa) individuals influence soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration and stock in comparison with surrounding pasturelands inside a natural reserve in Sicily, Italy. Second, we evaluated inter individual variability on such storage, testing the effects of plant height, basal diameter, canopy cover and tree structure (single or multiple stems). Soils under pear presented, on average, a significantly higher SOC than pasturelands (3.86% and 3.16%, respectively) as well as a lower bulk density (1.09 and 1.28 g cm⁻³, respectively). Due to a lower soil compaction, SOC stocks (130.3 and 113.9 Mg ha⁻¹, respectively) did not differ significantly. Below and aboveground biomass carbon accounted for a small fraction of carbon stock, while neither pear structure, age nor tree structure significantly influenced SOC concentration and SOC stock. Despite the need of further investigations, our results indicate that pear may represent an excellent tree species to improve carbon storage, both while triggering the restoration of Mediterranean woodlands or increasing biodiversity in pasturelands and agroforestry systems, that, indeed, can hold high SOC if well managed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence on Soil Quality of Agriculture and Forest Management: Assessment, Mitigation and Best Management Practices II)

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18 pages, 15316 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Changes of Terrestrial Carbon Storage in Rapidly Urbanizing Areas and Their Influencing Factors: A Case Study of Wuhan, China

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Land 2023, 12(12), 2134; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122134 - 04 Dec 2023

Abstract

Terrestrial carbon storage plays a vital role in limiting global climate change and achieving regional carbon neutrality. However, intensive human activities and rapid urbanization have led to a rapid decline in carbon storage. Understanding what causes carbon storage to decline and how this happens is important for the scientific regulation of urbanization and safeguarding of urban ecological security. This study takes Wuhan as an example and analyzes the quantity, structure, and spatial patterns of urban land-use changes in the context of human activities and natural conditions, and applies correlation methods to identify general relationships between influencing factors and carbon storage. The results of the study are as follows: over the 30-year period studied, the area devoted to construction land increased by 757 km² and the carbon storage decreased by 7.68 × 10⁶ t. Outside Wuhan’s Third Ring Road, there was a significant increase in the carbon storage, but in the areas where construction increased, there was a reduction in carbon storage. Carbon storage in the remote suburbs was significantly higher than in the city center, and the distribution pattern was characterized by significant spatial heterogeneity. Our analysis revealed that human economic and social activities have affected Wuhan’s ecosystem carbon storage to a significant extent. Policymakers should focus on industrial optimization, strictly control the red line of ecological protection, and ultimately achieve high-quality urban development. Full article

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20 pages, 657 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Quality of Life and Walkability for Urban Regeneration: The Piave Neighbourhood in Mestre-Venice

Ezio Micelli

and

Giulia Giliberto

Land 2023, 12(12), 2133; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122133 - 04 Dec 2023

Abstract

Urban regeneration works on the tangible and intangible assets of a city or part of a city. The research aimed at formulating an assessment methodology that allows for the simultaneous consideration of the tangible and intangible aspects that constitute the qualities of a part of a city. The theoretical frame of reference identifies conceptual frameworks to guide the assessment. Quality of life (QOL) and walkability (W) are chosen as the intangible and tangible dimensions, respectively. The methodology designed had to take summary variables into account for tangible elements. Similarly, walkability was summarised in complex variables carried over to observable and measurable variables. Finally, the QOL and W variables are considered in their dialectical and dynamic relationship. The statistical tools used to assess quality of life and walkability were different. The assessment of QOL and walkability was carried out using the tool of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which can estimate latent variables from observed variables. The interaction between the variables was investigated using structural equation modelling (SEM). The sample surveyed to investigate the quality of the Piave neighbourhood, in the mainland part of the city of Venice, consists of 169 people. The results of the models highlight the relevance of the method used, given the satisfactory statistical indexes obtained. The results are also relevant from an empirical point of view. The study highlights the fact that the significant quality of the space that ensures high levels of accessibility is far from being matched by the quality of social relations, deemed problematic by the majority of those interviewed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Urban Regeneration Pathways via Urban and Architectural Design Projects)

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18 pages, 740 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surfacing Values Created by Incentive Policies in Support of Sustainable Urban Development: A Theoretical Evaluation Framework

Umberto Mecca

and

Beatrice Mecca

Land 2023, 12(12), 2132; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122132 - 04 Dec 2023

Abstract

The development of sustainable cities involves improving the performance of the built environment and its effects on its context as one of the multiple intervention points. Indeed, outlining and implementing building artefacts does not constitute a simple act of generating a physical place, but represents a process that cannot ignore the positive and/or negative impacts that these transformations can have on the environment and societies in which it is embedded. Since in a profit-driven logic, a private investor’s interest in environmental and social values may be limited in favour of economic value, a positive push towards urban sustainability can be found in government-promoted fiscal building incentives. Indeed, these tools offer direct actions for more favourable urban conditions, supporting private entities in meeting the intervention costs. This paper aims to define a theoretical evaluation framework through which the “sustainable” value creation potential of building incentives can be assessed. Through this framework, the research analysed the main Italian building incentives, observing how they support the creation of economic, environmental, and social values for the benefit of society, the environment, and urban areas. This paper discusses the usefulness of the framework in supporting public actors in the potential revision, definition, and communication of such incentive policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fostering Urban Regeneration Pathways via Urban and Architectural Design Projects)

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25 pages, 5076 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Urban Resilience and Its Links to City Size: Evidence from the Yangtze River Economic Belt in China

Liang Wang

Jingye Li

and

Ligang Lv

Land 2023, 12(12), 2131; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122131 - 02 Dec 2023

Abstract

Understanding the relationship between city size and resilience is crucial for informed decisions on preparedness and interventions in building resilient cities. This study addresses this issue by dividing urban resilience into four components: stability, redundancy, resourcefulness, and connectivity. Using the above evaluation framework, we assessed the spatial–temporal variations in the relationship between city size and resilience in the Yangtze River Economic Belt from 2005 to 2020. The findings shows that, overall, resilience increased in the cities, with larger populations and spatial scales showing greater resilience, but both megacities and small cities experienced a decline in resilience. In terms of the four components of resilience, most of the region’s cities have roughly equal connectivity and stability, but redundancy and resourcefulness vary by city size and location. Specifically, downstream and larger cities demonstrated better crisis resolution and innovation. The dominant coupling coordination states showed antagonism between population and resilience. Upstream areas experienced a mismatch between “low resilience” and “large population”, while a moderate coordination existed between spatial scale and resilience. Further, it was found that factors hindering urban resilience varied according to city size. Cities with a population of <3 million faced low connectivity and limited transformation capacity. Those with a population of 3–5 million had moderate connectivity limitations, while cities with a population >5 million faced energy and aging population challenges. This study contributes to urban resilience discourse by providing a conceptual understanding and empirical analysis of the impact of city size on resilience. Full article

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21 pages, 2780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Spatial Protection and Governance of Territories Based on the Ecological Product Supply: A Case Study in Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei, China

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Land 2023, 12(12), 2130; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122130 - 02 Dec 2023

Abstract

Territory space is an ecological resource carrier and place for human development. Human activities and ecological systems are the basis of ecological product supply. Promoting territories’ spatial protection and governance by improving the supply of ecological products is very important. In this study, we established an ecological product supply capacity evaluation index system involving three types of ecological products, i.e., ecological environmental products, ecological material products, and ecological cultural products. For the case of the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region, we comprehensively used principal component analysis, the equivalent factor method, and the entropy method to evaluate the supply capacity of ecological products from 2011 to 2021. Then, we analyzed the spatio-temporal pattern, combining the natural breakpoint and quantile classification methods, and analyzed the obstacle factors using the obstacle degree model of ecological supply. The results show that the supply capacity of different ecological products in each city are closely related to their ecological resource endowment. The supply capacity of ecological products exhibited an upward trend, with the highest ecological environmental product supply being relatively smaller than the ecological material product supply, while the largest growth rate was for ecological cultural product supply. The supply capacity of different ecological products varied across cities over time and displayed noticeable spatial differentiation. The main obstacle factors included eco-land, eco-tourism, eco-leisure, park green space, and fishery products, although there were variations among cities. Finally, based on the level, spatial-temporal pattern, and obstacle factors of ecological product supply, we proposed strategies for territory spatial protection and governance from the perspectives of the integrated protection of elements, structural regulation, and systematic governance. The results reflected the ecological functional heterogeneity of the territory space, which can provide spatial planning guidance for sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Territory Spatial Planning toward High-Quality Development in China II)

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25 pages, 42304 KiB

Open AccessArticle

‘Thousand Years of Charm’: Exploring the Aesthetic Characteristics of the Mount Tai Landscape from the Cross-Textual Perspective

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Land 2023, 12(12), 2129; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12122129 - 01 Dec 2023

Abstract

With accelerating urbanization, Mount Tai is increasingly at risk of homogenization with other scenic spots, losing its landscape aesthetic characteristics as ‘the Most Revered of the Five Sacred Mountains’, which poses a growing threat to the long-term sustainable development of Mount Tai. Accordingly, this study takes texts written by different social groups as the research material and analyses the aesthetic themes and spatial distribution of the elements in the texts to determine the aesthetic characteristics of the Mount Tai landscape from multiple perspectives and long time series. This study complements the research on the Mount Tai landscape, which focuses on specific research material and time. The results of the study can help to raise awareness of the complexity and multiple values of Mount Tai landscapes and have implications for research and practice of other heritage landscapes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Landscape Planning for Mass Tourism in Historical Cities)

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