Land

20 pages, 3534 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Provisioning of Agricultural Extension Services in West Africa to Strengthen Land Management Practices: Case Studies of Burkina Faso and Ghana

by Martin Schultze, Stephen Kankam, Safiétou Sanfo and Christine Fürst

Land 2026, 15(2), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020277 (registering DOI) - 7 Feb 2026

Abstract

The agrarian sector, as the key source of livelihood in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), has become highly vulnerable to changes in extension service deliveries. Farmers mainly lack access to technical advice, financial credits, farming inputs and mechanization tools while environmental challenges reinforce the adaptation [...] Read more.

The agrarian sector, as the key source of livelihood in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), has become highly vulnerable to changes in extension service deliveries. Farmers mainly lack access to technical advice, financial credits, farming inputs and mechanization tools while environmental challenges reinforce the adaptation of sustainable management practices. Therefore, an understanding how multi-functional actor relationships determine agricultural knowledge and information (AKI) sharing is required. This study contributes to filling this gap by characterizing horizontal and vertical interactions. By applying a social network analysis, we mapped actor relations along public–private-community co-operations to provide insights into structural dependencies at different administrative levels. Related to three sites distributed over Burkina Faso and Ghana, local perceptions were collected in stakeholder workshops to generate social network narratives. These narratives were analyzed by various metrics to identify patterns of partnerships and key actors. Study results reveal for Burkina Faso a slight shared network topology, while both sites in Ghana reflect a top-down flow of AKI. The statistical findings indicate that agricultural extension services are primarily delivered to farmers through a few key actors such as NGOs and farm-based organizations/cooperatives. Especially at the community level, the results show many reciprocal links between farmers, business actors and NGOs. This highlights a shift toward a pluralistic agricultural extension service system and underpins the demand for policies to support the long-term viability of these actors, in particular for regions where public extension agents are under-represented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Use, Impact Assessment and Sustainability)

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26 pages, 19585 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Interpretable Index-Based Analysis and Scenario-Based Spatial Simulation of Vegetation Drought in the Yellow River Water Conservation Area

by Rong Li, Rui Zhu, Zhenliang Yin, Tong Li, Mengwei Li and Ganlin Zhou

Land 2026, 15(2), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020276 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Vegetation drought is a critical manifestation of ecosystem vulnerability in high-altitude, water-limited regions under climate change. The Yellow River Water Conservation Area (YRWC), as the core water source of the Yellow River Basin, is highly sensitive to variations in hydrothermal conditions. In this [...] Read more.

Vegetation drought is a critical manifestation of ecosystem vulnerability in high-altitude, water-limited regions under climate change. The Yellow River Water Conservation Area (YRWC), as the core water source of the Yellow River Basin, is highly sensitive to variations in hydrothermal conditions. In this study, a Temperature–Vegetation–Precipitation Drought Index (TVPDI) was constructed to characterize the spatio-temporal dynamics of vegetation drought in the YRWC for 2003, 2012, and 2019. The XGBoost–SHAP framework was further employed to quantitatively analyze the nonlinear response characteristics and relative contributions of key factors within the TVPDI framework. Scenario-based spatial simulations of vegetation drought for 2035 are then conducted based on the GeoSOS-FLUS model. The results indicate that vegetation drought in the YRWC exhibits a relatively stable spatial pattern, with drought severity gradually intensifying from southeast to northwest and moderate drought as the dominant type. Precipitation is the key variable of TVPDI, followed by land surface temperature, while NDVI mainly plays a nonlinear regulatory role. Among external factors, atmospheric moisture conditions show relatively higher explanatory relevance, whereas topographic and human activity factors exert comparatively weaker influences. Scenario-based simulation results suggest that vegetation drought may be alleviated under low-emission pathways, whereas high-emission scenarios substantially exacerbate drought severity and associated risks. This study presents an interpretable, index-based analytical framework combined with scenario-based spatial simulation for characterizing vegetation drought in the YRWC, thereby providing scientific support for ecological management and climate adaptation strategies in the Yellow River Basin. Full article

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17 pages, 3452 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Development of an Image Classification System for Urban Sprawl Areas in Japan

by Ryota Hemmi, Takehito Ujihara, Ryosuke Ando and Seiji Hashimoto

Land 2026, 15(2), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020275 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

In Japan, unlike in many other countries, urbanization has progressed while original rural road structures have been retained, leading to distinctive urban sprawl areas with intermingling residential lots and farmland. Currently, much of Japan’s urban areas consist of urban sprawl areas, posing considerable [...] Read more.

In Japan, unlike in many other countries, urbanization has progressed while original rural road structures have been retained, leading to distinctive urban sprawl areas with intermingling residential lots and farmland. Currently, much of Japan’s urban areas consist of urban sprawl areas, posing considerable challenges for infrastructure development. However, for such urban sprawl areas in Japan, it is difficult to say that methods have been established to identify their spatial distribution based on quantitative evaluation. Therefore, for this study, we used machine learning to investigate a system that extracts sprawling urban areas from aerial photographs divided into meshes. In the system’s design, we prioritized precision to ensure the reliable detection of urban sprawl areas. Consequently, the accuracy of identifying sprawl areas achieved precision of 0.81, recall of 0.63, and an F-score of 0.71. Examination of the classification results of sprawl areas revealed that most misclassifications occurred near class boundaries. By contrast, areas with particularly high levels of urban sprawl showed few misclassifications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Innovations – Data and Machine Learning)

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17 pages, 1752 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Township-Scale Ecological Restoration Priority Areas Based on Ecological Security Pattern and Multi-Method Integration

by Tingyun Zhou, Yutong Li, Yu Zhang, Lushuang Lin, Rui Zhou, Aimin Ma and Junying Chen

Land 2026, 15(2), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020274 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

The scientific establishment of ecological security pattern and identification of ecological restoration priority areas are key for territorial space ecological restoration and people’s well-being enhancement. Although numerous studies have addressed this topic, most focused on regional and urban scales. As the most basic [...] Read more.

The scientific establishment of ecological security pattern and identification of ecological restoration priority areas are key for territorial space ecological restoration and people’s well-being enhancement. Although numerous studies have addressed this topic, most focused on regional and urban scales. As the most basic administrative units in China, townships serve as a crucial link between macro-ecological protection strategies and micro-ecological restoration practices and are essential for effectively implementing ecological restoration and supporting rural revitalization practices, but research at this scale is currently lacking. Therefore, taking a typical township in Shanghai as an example, this study incorporated the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) model, Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA), landscape connectivity analysis, and circuit theory to construct an ecological security pattern and identify ecological restoration priority areas at the township scale, as well as to discuss corresponding ecological restoration strategies. The results showed that: (1) The study area contained 19 significant ecological sources (area of approximately 4.85 km²), exhibiting a spatial pattern characterized by “north–south concentration, central dispersion”. High-resistance areas were mainly distributed in areas with dense human activity and high development intensity, reflecting the significant impact of human activities on ecological processes. There were 32 main ecological corridors with a total length of 58.06 km, showing significant spatial imbalance, with some northern ecological sources at the risk of forming ecological isolated islands. (2) The ecological restoration priority areas mainly consisted of 41 ecological pinch points (area of approximately 27.24 ha) and 30 ecological barrier points (area of approximately 25.67 ha), which were crucial for enhancing ecological network connectivity and maintaining ecological security. (3) Based on the current land use status and spatial distribution characteristics of key ecological restoration areas, a hierarchical and categorized ecological restoration strategy was formulated. This study can strengthen research on identifying ecological restoration priority areas at the township scale. The methodological system established can provide a theoretical framework for ecological restoration research in similar areas. Moreover, this study pinpointed key areas and the spatial layout for ecological restoration, which helped to enhance the level of refined ecological governance at the township level and can also provide precise spatial decision-making basis for ecological restoration of the township territorial space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Urban Climate Improvement and Spatial Pattern Optimization Under a Multi-Objective Orientation)

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21 pages, 1508 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sourcing Critical Metal from Critical Habitat: Is the Trade-Off Worth Making?

by Latifah Azizah and Minerva Singh

Land 2026, 15(2), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020273 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

This study analyzes the environmental impact of nickel mining on biodiversity in Indonesia’s Wallacea region, using habitat quality as a proxy. It employs the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) Habitat Quality Model to project current and future habitat quality and [...] Read more.

This study analyzes the environmental impact of nickel mining on biodiversity in Indonesia’s Wallacea region, using habitat quality as a proxy. It employs the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) Habitat Quality Model to project current and future habitat quality and degradation. Findings confirm that nickel mining significantly threatens habitat quality. Under a future scenario, 10% (513 km²) of excellent-quality habitat is projected to be lost across the study area. Specifically, mining zones face severe degradation and a future absence of excellent habitat, though protected areas are expected to maintain excellent quality. The study highlights Indonesia’s core dilemma between economic nickel dominance and severe environmental destruction, stressing the need for equitable global risk-sharing. We recommend three strategies: (1) an Integrated Land-Sparing Strategy, (2) Responsible Mining Practices, and (3) Risk Mapping with Equitable Global Risk-Sharing Policies. Full article

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19 pages, 3690 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Green Space Exposure Is Associated with Social Vulnerability in the Highly Urbanized Xuhui District, Shanghai

by Chunwen Ji, Chu Wang, Chaoqiang Liang, Ju Shen, Jingwei Li and Shiqiang Du

Land 2026, 15(2), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020272 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Green space (GS) exposure reflects how well urban dwellers engage with GSs, which is closely related to sustainable communities. However, the associations between GS exposure and multi-dimensional social vulnerability (SoV) remain to be elucidated. To address this gap, this study develops a comprehensive [...] Read more.

Green space (GS) exposure reflects how well urban dwellers engage with GSs, which is closely related to sustainable communities. However, the associations between GS exposure and multi-dimensional social vulnerability (SoV) remain to be elucidated. To address this gap, this study develops a comprehensive framework to investigate the associations between GS exposure and SoV using methods of the Gini coefficient, bivariate mapping, and discriminant analysis, taking the Xuhui District of Shanghai as a case study. The results show the following findings. (1) The GS exposure was improved by good accessibility of GSs, particularly for the downtowns suffering a low level of GS availability; (2) The distribution of GS exposure is relatively equitable across different levels of SoV; (3) Communities with low GS exposure and high SoV are characterized by a high proportion of children and a low proportion of highly educated and employed people. The findings highlight the necessity of a systematic evaluation of GS exposure from a SoV perspective. Such a systematic evaluation could help optimize the GS patterns and allocate the valuable GSs to vulnerable groups for a more inclusive and sustainable community. Full article

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18 pages, 7882 KB

Open AccessArticle

Denoising of Binary Built-Up Maps Using Multi-Temporal Image Processing Thresholding

by Sarah J. Becker and Nicole M. Wayant

Land 2026, 15(2), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020271 - 6 Feb 2026

Abstract

Accurate identification of built-up land from remotely sensed imagery is essential for urban planning, environmental monitoring, and disaster response. However, binary built-up maps derived from single-date classifications often contain semantic noise—misclassified pixels resulting from shadows, bare soil confusion, or seasonal conditions. Common denoising [...] Read more.

Accurate identification of built-up land from remotely sensed imagery is essential for urban planning, environmental monitoring, and disaster response. However, binary built-up maps derived from single-date classifications often contain semantic noise—misclassified pixels resulting from shadows, bare soil confusion, or seasonal conditions. Common denoising methodologies, such as smoothing or filtering, are designed for continuous imagery and can distort small or fragmented features and fail to correct underlying classification errors. To overcome these limitations, this study evaluated a multi-date summation and thresholding workflow as a denoising alternative. Five Sentinel-2 images per site were classified as built-up maps, summed into a composite “built-up frequency” raster, and thresholded using Otsu, adaptive, and voting methods to produce refined binary maps. The results across nine international study sites show that the Otsu thresholding method outperformed the other methods in most locations when comparing their accuracies using the Matthews Correlation Coefficient (MCC), showing that using multiple images can improve identification of built-up land. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue GeoAI for Land Use Observations, Analysis and Forecasting (Second Edition))

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34 pages, 2581 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enablers and Obstacles in Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) Implementation and Their Contributions to Sustainable Territorial Development

by Armando Gallegos, Neil S. Grigg and Wendy Llano

Land 2026, 15(2), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020270 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Advancing Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is essential for integrating land and water strategies and ensuring access to safe and secure water services. Yet, assessing the quality of IWRM implementation remains a persistent challenge for policy and practice. This study presents the first [...] Read more.

Advancing Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is essential for integrating land and water strategies and ensuring access to safe and secure water services. Yet, assessing the quality of IWRM implementation remains a persistent challenge for policy and practice. This study presents the first systematic review of 375 empirical articles to consolidate evidence on how enablers and obstacles shape IWRM’s effectiveness in advancing Sustainable Territorial Development (S-TD). Following PRISMA guidelines and combining bibliometric and qualitative coding procedures, we identify ten categories of enablers and eleven categories of obstacles. Results show that institutional strengthening, stakeholder participation, and technological innovation are the most frequent enablers, while fragmentation, coordination challenges, and financial limitations are the most prevalent obstacles. Beyond frequency patterns, this review highlights that outcomes depend on the configurations and interactions of these factors, which condition IWRM’s capacity to steer sustainable development trajectories in the territory. By comparing enablers and obstacles across nexus sectors (food, energy, land) and geographic scales (sub-basin, basin, transboundary, urban, national), we delineate scale- and sector-sensitive pathways linking IWRM to S-TD. To support further research, we provide an open-access dataset as a unique resource for replication, comparative analysis, and policy design, enabling evidence-based decision-making toward sustainability and resilience across diverse geographical and institutional contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers for Land Planning and Landscape Architecture Section, Second Edition)

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22 pages, 12628 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Evolution of Human–Land Patterns and Influencing Factors in the Mountainous Regions of Southwest China

by Qingsong Ni, Zongfeng Chen, Chenlin Wang and Xueqi Liu

Land 2026, 15(2), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020269 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Against the backdrop of rapid urbanization, the human–land relationship in the mountainous regions of Southwest China (Sichuan, Yunnan, Guangxi, Chongqing, and Guizhou) confronts dual pressures from terrain constraints and development demands, shaping a uniquely complex evolutionary pattern. To clarify the evolutionary laws of [...] Read more.

Against the backdrop of rapid urbanization, the human–land relationship in the mountainous regions of Southwest China (Sichuan, Yunnan, Guangxi, Chongqing, and Guizhou) confronts dual pressures from terrain constraints and development demands, shaping a uniquely complex evolutionary pattern. To clarify the evolutionary laws of the regional human–land system, this study focuses on the period of 2000–2020, integrating land use, socioeconomic, and topographic data to construct a comprehensive analytical framework of “Human Activity Intensity (HAI)–Land Use Dynamic Degree (LUDD)–decoupling model–geographic detector.” This framework is employed to explore the spatio-temporal evolution characteristics of the human–land pattern, the differentiation of decoupling modes, and the underlying driving mechanisms. The key findings are as follows: Human Activity Intensity (HAI) presents a stable spatial pattern of “agglomeration in low-altitude areas and dispersion in high-altitude areas,” undergoing a three-stage temporal evolution of “terrain anchoring–policy constraint–all-round expansion.” Land use dynamics are predominantly governed by terrain: low-altitude river valley plains exhibit significant changes, while high-altitude karst regions remain relatively stable, with an overall policy-responsive fluctuation of “rise–fall–rebound.” Human–land decoupling forms a continuous spectrum encompassing four modes: “collaborative optimization–extensive transition–rigid stagnation–advantageous aggregation,” with strong negative decoupling dominating low-altitude favorable areas and recessive decoupling prevailing in high-altitude mountainous areas. In terms of driving mechanisms, terrain factors serve as the rigid foundation of the human–land relationship, while the urban–rural population structure, urbanization level, and land use intensity act as core human drivers. Additionally, the interaction of factors such as “terrain–economy–transportation” plays a crucial role in the differentiation of decoupling modes. This study clarifies the evolutionary logic of “terrain laying the foundation and human factors shaping the pattern” for the human–land relationship in Southwest China’s mountainous regions, providing scientific support for the coordinated advancement of regional economic development and ecological protection, as well as a Chinese case study for global research on human–land coordination in ecologically fragile mountainous areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coupled Man-Land Relationship for Regional Sustainability)

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22 pages, 1655 KB

Open AccessArticle

MuRaF-LULC: A Systematic Multivariate Random Forest Framework for Annual Land-Use and Land-Cover Mapping and Long-Term Change Detection

by Yunuen Reygadas

Land 2026, 15(2), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020268 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Land-use and land-cover (LULC) change is one of the most pervasive drivers of socioenvironmental transformation worldwide. Given its impacts on ecosystems and climate, the systematic analysis of LULC dynamics remains a central objective of land-change science. Despite major advances in Earth observation capabilities, [...] Read more.

Land-use and land-cover (LULC) change is one of the most pervasive drivers of socioenvironmental transformation worldwide. Given its impacts on ecosystems and climate, the systematic analysis of LULC dynamics remains a central objective of land-change science. Despite major advances in Earth observation capabilities, robust, flexible, and scalable algorithms for long-term monitoring remain unevenly adopted, particularly in remote, forested tropical regions. This study introduces the Multivariate Random Forest Land-Use and Land-Cover (MuRaF-LULC) framework, a supervised and generalizable framework that produces annual, multi-class LULC maps from Landsat time series, with interannual change derived through year-to-year comparisons. A key methodological component of the framework is its predictor-selection strategy, in which variable-importance rankings are used to identify an optimized subset of predictors prior to final model training. MuRaF-LULC was implemented in Google Earth Engine (GEE) and evaluated in Guatemala’s Maya Biosphere Reserve (MBR) for the 2018–2024 period using probability-based sampling and uncertainty-aware accuracy assessment and area estimation. Results show that MuRaF-LULC generates robust annual LULC classifications across multiple years (overall accuracy = 0.90–0.92) and reliable estimates of agropecuario expansion (the dominant transition in the study area) when change is assessed over longer temporal windows where transitions signals stabilize and for which the framework is best suited (producer’s accuracy = 0.97 ± 0.03; user’s accuracy = 0.69 ± 0.05). By prioritizing consistent annual, multiclass LULC trajectories, MuRaF-LULC complements breakpoint- and disturbance-oriented approaches commonly used in land-change studies. Implemented in publicly available, well-documented GEE scripts, MuRaF-LULC facilitates policy-relevant LULC assessment by remote sensing practitioners in governmental and private organizations, where reproducibility, clarity, and ease of deployment are as important as methodological sophistication. Full article

35 pages, 15027 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Scale Drivers of Urban Vegetation Moisture Stress: A Comparative OLS and GWR Analysis in Makassar City, Indonesia

by Ramdan Pano Anwar, Muhammad Irfan, Arifuddin Akil, Chenyu Du and László Kollányi

Land 2026, 15(2), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020267 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Rapid urban expansion in tropical coastal cities has intensified vegetation moisture stress, compromising urban resilience and ecological stability. This study investigates the spatial drivers of the Moisture Stress Index (MSI) in Makassar City, Indonesia, by integrating biophysical indicators and land-use characteristics through multi-scale [...] Read more.

Rapid urban expansion in tropical coastal cities has intensified vegetation moisture stress, compromising urban resilience and ecological stability. This study investigates the spatial drivers of the Moisture Stress Index (MSI) in Makassar City, Indonesia, by integrating biophysical indicators and land-use characteristics through multi-scale regression analyses. Utilizing dry-season satellite composites (May–August 2025), the research derived Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Land Surface Temperature (LST), and Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI). MSI was modeled using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) across 240 m, 480 m, and 960 m grids. Results indicate that MSI is highly sensitive to urban morphology and land-use configuration. High moisture stress was concentrated in commercial–industrial and dense residential zones characterized by extreme population densities exceeding 28,000 people/km² and elevated NDBI. In contrast, agricultural zones and open/green spaces provided significant cooling and moisture retention. Comparative performance analysis reveals that the local GWR model significantly outperformed the global OLS model, achieving a substantial reduction in AICc (−10,475.81) and resolving significant spatial autocorrelation to achieve random residuals (z-score = 1.55). The study further confirms that NDBI is the most robust biophysical predictor of MSI. Spatial heterogeneity analysis demonstrated that land-use influences are geographically contingent, with institutional areas showing varied effects based on campus design and canopy presence. These findings emphasize the necessity of scale-aware, climate-adaptive urban planning and demonstrate that GWR provides a high-fidelity tool for identifying neighborhood-level “micro-hotspots” overlooked by global modeling frameworks. Full article

32 pages, 6721 KB

Open AccessArticle

Resilience-Oriented Study on Pedestrian Accessibility Between Subway Stations and Commercial Complexes in Cities

by Xinyu Wang, Changming Yu, Binzhuo Gou and Stephen Siu Yu Lau

Land 2026, 15(2), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020266 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Against the backdrop of global climate change, the rising frequency and intensity of extreme weather events pose severe challenges to urban transport and commercial systems. As a core capacity for managing uncertainty and risk, urban resilience requires infrastructure to resist shocks, recover rapidly, [...] Read more.

Against the backdrop of global climate change, the rising frequency and intensity of extreme weather events pose severe challenges to urban transport and commercial systems. As a core capacity for managing uncertainty and risk, urban resilience requires infrastructure to resist shocks, recover rapidly, and adaptively evolve. From a resilience perspective, this study develops a comprehensive evaluation system for spatial accessibility between subway stations and commercial complexes, operationalized by 21 indicators across five dimensions: Connectivity, Redundancy, Robustness, Dynamic adaptability, and Comfort. Spatial accessibility is simulated and measured using sDNA spatial network analysis, while an in-depth questionnaire survey collects, feeds back, and validates users’ subjective perceptions. By constructing a dual evaluation model that integrates spatial configuration and behavioral psychology, we find that the integrated development of subway stations and commercial complexes can maintain stable functional performance and sustained vitality under complex urban conditions by optimizing connectivity, enhancing redundancy, and improving adaptability. This is manifested in the expansion of residents’ pedestrian networks and the spillover of social service functions. In parallel, underground spaces can be transformed into resilient infrastructure to enhance civil air defense performance and provide diversified evacuation routes. The findings offer theoretical support and practical guidance for the construction of resilient cities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Urban Resilience for Sustainable Futures)

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19 pages, 6521 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Ecosystem Services of Green-Blue Infrastructure in Urban Areas—Case Study: Văcărești Natural Park

by Dan Bărbulescu and Geta Rîșnoveanu

Land 2026, 15(2), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020265 - 5 Feb 2026

Abstract

Urban protected areas are increasingly recognized as essential for human well-being, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience; however, their role in post-industrial cities remains insufficiently understood. To address this gap, we examine Văcărești Nature Park (VNP) (IUCN Category V), a 183-hectare urban wetland in [...] Read more.

Urban protected areas are increasingly recognized as essential for human well-being, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience; however, their role in post-industrial cities remains insufficiently understood. To address this gap, we examine Văcărești Nature Park (VNP) (IUCN Category V), a 183-hectare urban wetland in Bucharest, Romania, formed through spontaneous ecological restoration within a post-industrial landscape. Using a mixed-methods approach that integrates ecological assessment, participatory mapping, and public perception analysis, we evaluate the park’s ecosystem services (ES) and social dynamics. Cultural ES—particularly recreation, wildlife observation, and biodiversity appreciation—dominate public valuation, while regulating services such as microclimate regulation are less recognized and provisioning services remain marginal. This pattern highlights the importance of experiential and relational values in shaping how urban nature is perceived and used. Spatial analysis reveals intensive use of biodiverse interior zones and the avoidance of peripheral areas, primarily driven by infrastructure degradation and perceived safety risks. The resulting core–periphery differentiation points to an uneven distribution of ES benefits with direct implications for urban ecosystem governance and social inclusiveness. Overall use is predominantly passive, centered on immersion in natural settings rather than interactive or educational engagement. By demonstrating how participatory surveys combined with spatial mapping can reveal both ES demand and latent governance challenges, this study shows that spontaneously restored urban wetlands can function as high-value, multifunctional assets and provide generally applicable insights for adaptive management in rapidly changing cities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation of Bio- and Geo-Diversity and Landscape Changes II)

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28 pages, 1201 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Social Capital on Farmers’ Farmland Quality Protection Behavior: Evidence from the Main Rice-Producing Areas in Southern China

by Jiahao Zhan, Juan Ai, Zhaojiu Chen and Yuhan Zhang

Land 2026, 15(2), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020264 - 4 Feb 2026

Abstract

Farmland quality protection is an important measure to implement the strategy of “storing grain in the land” and a vital part of promoting ecological agriculture development. This study focuses on the main agents of farmland quality protection, farmers, with a sample of 1013 [...] Read more.

Farmland quality protection is an important measure to implement the strategy of “storing grain in the land” and a vital part of promoting ecological agriculture development. This study focuses on the main agents of farmland quality protection, farmers, with a sample of 1013 households from the rice-growing areas of Jiangxi Province, which is one of the major rice-growing provinces in southern China. We used an Ordered Probit model, a mediation effect model, and a moderation effect model to analyze the influence and mechanism of farmers’ social capital and structure on their farmland quality protection behavior. The result shows that: (1) Social capital significantly promotes the farmers’ farmland quality protection behaviors. The promoting effect of bonding social capital is greater than that of linking social capital. These conclusions remain robust after the endogeneity issue has been addressed and robustness tests have been conducted; (2) Ecological cognition plays a mediating role in this relation, while Internet use exerts a significant positive moderating effect; (3) The effect of social capital is greater for full-time farming households than for part-time farming households, and more significant for risk-neutral and risk-seeking farmers than for risk-averse farmers. Accordingly, this study proposes recommendations, including fostering farmers’ social capital, improving their ecological cognition, promoting the penetration and use of the Internet, vigorously cultivating new agricultural business entities, and expanding agricultural insurance coverage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Socio-Economic and Political Issues)

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24 pages, 4747 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Synchronization to Divergence: Analysis of Coupling Degree and Influencing Factors of Population Density in Urban and Rural Built-Up Areas of China

by Yingxue Rao, Kun Zhang, Qingsong He and Chenxi Wu

Land 2026, 15(2), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020263 - 4 Feb 2026

Abstract

The uneven distribution of populations within urban and rural built-up areas restricts balanced regional development. This study employs statistical data from 296 cities in China covering the years 2010, 2015, and 2020 to analyze the coupling coordination relationship of population density in urban [...] Read more.

The uneven distribution of populations within urban and rural built-up areas restricts balanced regional development. This study employs statistical data from 296 cities in China covering the years 2010, 2015, and 2020 to analyze the coupling coordination relationship of population density in urban and rural built-up land and its influencing factors. The findings reveal the following: (1) Throughout the study period, population density in urban built-up areas (PUL) experienced a slow increase, whereas population density in rural built-up areas (PRL) declined rapidly. (2) Spatially, high levels of coupling coordination in population density between urban and rural built-up areas are primarily concentrated in the southwestern region, particularly in Sichuan, demonstrating a trend of gradual diffusion from the core to the periphery. Overall, a southwest-high to northeast-low pattern emerged. (3) The regression results indicate that economic development, agricultural structure, public services, and urbanization significantly affect the coupling coordination of population densities in urban and rural built-up areas. Among natural conditions, both elevation and temperature show significantly positive effects. This research provides theoretical foundations and policy recommendations for promoting urban-rural integrated development and achieving regional sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Space Optimization and Governance)

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27 pages, 13062 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Multi-Path Driving Mechanisms of Vegetation Net Primary Productivity in Tibetan Plateau (2001–2022): Coupling Analysis of Geodetector and PLS-SEM

by Jiayu Wang, Huanli Pan, Shuangqing Sheng and Wei Song

Land 2026, 15(2), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020262 - 3 Feb 2026

Abstract

The Tibetan Plateau is highly sensitive to global climate change and characterized by pronounced ecological fragility, making vegetation net primary productivity (NPP) a key indicator for assessing ecosystem functioning and regional ecological security. This study aims to characterize the spatiotemporal dynamics of NPP [...] Read more.

The Tibetan Plateau is highly sensitive to global climate change and characterized by pronounced ecological fragility, making vegetation net primary productivity (NPP) a key indicator for assessing ecosystem functioning and regional ecological security. This study aims to characterize the spatiotemporal dynamics of NPP and to disentangle the multiple natural and land-use drivers shaping its variability across the Tibetan Plateau. MODIS-derived NPP data for the period 2001–2022 are integrated with multi-source datasets on climate, topography, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and land use (CLCD), and analyzed using trend and correlation analyses, land-use transfer matrices, an optimal-parameter geographical detector, and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The results indicate that NPP exhibits a significant but fluctuating upward trend (0.52 gC·m⁻²·a⁻¹, p < 0.01), with higher values in the southeast and lower values in the northwest, the Yunnan Plateau evergreen broadleaf and pine forest region (VA5) and the southern Himalayan montane forest region (VA6) function as high-value centers, and regions such as the Kunlun high-cold desert region (HID1) represent low-value centers. The mutual conversion between forestland and grassland and bare land constitutes a key process driving regional NPP changes, with the net expansion of forestland making a substantial contribution to NPP increases (net gain of 2606.88 TgC). Geographic detector analysis indicates that NDVI (q = 0.741) and land use type (q = 0.741) are the primary factors governing the spatial differentiation of NPP, followed by precipitation, slope, and temperature. Moreover, interactions between any two factors enhance their explanatory power, with the interaction between aspect and land use type exhibiting the strongest effect (q approaching 1). PLS-SEM path analysis further quantifies the driving pathways, revealing that mean annual precipitation and land use type are the most direct drivers of NPP, while climatic and topographic factors influence NPP indirectly through their effects on vegetation cover and land use type. This study advances the understanding of the multifactorial driving mechanisms of ecosystem productivity on the Tibetan Plateau and provides a scientific basis for zoned and differentiated ecological restoration and climate adaptation strategies. Full article

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18 pages, 4777 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nonlinear Impact of Population Shrinkage on Urban Ecological Resilience: A Threshold Effect Analysis Based on City-Level Panel Data from the Yangtze River Economic Belt, China

by Xuan Chen, Yuluan Zhao, Chunfang Zhou and Yonglong Cai

Land 2026, 15(2), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020261 - 3 Feb 2026

Abstract

In the context of rapid urbanization and demographic transition, the implications of population shrinkage for urban sustainable development have attracted increasing scholarly attention. Nevertheless, empirical evidence on the relationship between population change and urban ecological resilience remains limited. Drawing on the Pressure–State–Response (PSR) [...] Read more.

In the context of rapid urbanization and demographic transition, the implications of population shrinkage for urban sustainable development have attracted increasing scholarly attention. Nevertheless, empirical evidence on the relationship between population change and urban ecological resilience remains limited. Drawing on the Pressure–State–Response (PSR) framework, this study constructs a comprehensive indicator system to assess urban ecological resilience in 110 cities along the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YEB) over the period of 2012–2021. Furthermore, a panel threshold regression model is employed to examine the nonlinear effects of population shrinkage on urban ecological resilience. The findings indicate that urban ecological resilience exhibits an overall upward trend in YEB, characterized by pronounced spatial disparities. Eastern cities have a higher level of resilience than cities in the western region in YEB. The number of cities with shrinking populations is gradually increasing, and these shrinking cities are mainly small and medium-sized cities. The empirical results show that the impact of population shrinkage on urban ecological resilience is distinctly nonlinear, and regional economic development plays a moderating role in this nonlinear relationship. At lower levels of economic development, population shrinkage does not significantly moderate urban ecological resilience. As the economy reaches a moderate stage, population shrinkage exerts a stronger modulatory effect on ecological resilience. When economic development advances to a higher level, however, population shrinkage tends to inhibit ecological resilience. Overall, this study provides a scientific basis for the population–ecological policies tailored to local conditions and offers valuable insights to promote urban sustainable development under conditions of population shrinkage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Urban Resilience for Sustainable Futures)

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28 pages, 15765 KB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Changes in Urban–Agricultural–Ecological Space Competition and Assessing Its Impact on Ecosystem Service Value in China’s Key Agricultural Regions

by Xuyang Chen, Hongen Hu, Ziao Xu and Tianyi Cai

Land 2026, 15(2), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020260 - 3 Feb 2026

Abstract

Human activity-driven territorial spatial competition profoundly affects ecosystem service value (ESV). However, the spatiotemporal patterns of “urban–agricultural–ecological space” (UAES) competition in China’s key agricultural regions and their quantitative effects on ESV have not been systematically investigated. Therefore, this study first constructed a “UAES [...] Read more.

Human activity-driven territorial spatial competition profoundly affects ecosystem service value (ESV). However, the spatiotemporal patterns of “urban–agricultural–ecological space” (UAES) competition in China’s key agricultural regions and their quantitative effects on ESV have not been systematically investigated. Therefore, this study first constructed a “UAES competition–ESV response” analytical framework and selected Henan Province, a representative key agricultural region in China, as the study area. Subsequently, utilizing land-use remote sensing monitoring data from five periods (1980 to 2020), this study systematically analyzed the spatiotemporal competition characteristics of UAES in Henan Province and its impact on ESV using GIS spatial analysis method, the Geo-informatic Tupu method, and improved ESV evaluation model. The results indicate that from 1980 to 2020, Henan Province experienced a gradual shrinkage of agricultural space, rapid urban expansion, and a slight decline in ecological space. Urban encroachment on agricultural land is the primary spatial competition manifestation, which is most pronounced in the core area of the Central Plains Urban Agglomeration. This urban expansion and subsequent agricultural encroachment on ecological land are key ESV loss drivers, causing losses of USD 812.41 million and USD 1663.24 million, respectively. The indirect ESV loss from cropland displacement substantially exceeded direct losses from urban expansion. This study provides critical insights into the trade-offs between urban expansion, agricultural development, and ecological protection in agricultural regions undergoing urbanization. The findings inform spatial planning and ecological conservation strategies in Henan Province and other similar agricultural regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Use, Impact Assessment and Sustainability)

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18 pages, 13480 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Ecological Security Pattern by Integrating Multiple Risks in the Structure–Process–Function Framework: A Case Study from Heilongjiang Province, China

by Dehui Meng, Yuanxiang Wu, Mingfeng Zhang, Youcheng Pan, Tingting Li, Hao Zhang and Haochen Li

Land 2026, 15(2), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15020259 - 3 Feb 2026

Abstract

Ecological security is fundamental to human survival and sustainable development. However, current assessment frameworks often lack regional adaptability. They also frequently overlook the security risks associated with landscape patterns. To address these gaps, this study establishes a “structure–process–function” framework that integrates potential ecological [...] Read more.

Ecological security is fundamental to human survival and sustainable development. However, current assessment frameworks often lack regional adaptability. They also frequently overlook the security risks associated with landscape patterns. To address these gaps, this study establishes a “structure–process–function” framework that integrates potential ecological risks. Using Heilongjiang Province as a case study, we assessed the spatiotemporal evolution of its ecological security pattern. The results indicate that: (1) The average ecological security pattern index (ESPI) values for Heilongjiang in 2000, 2010, and 2020 were 0.6869, 0.6573, and 0.6752, respectively. This trend exhibits an initial decline followed by partial recovery, with unsafe areas distributed sporadically. (2) The spatial pattern remained relatively stable but showed significant regional heterogeneity. Yichun City achieved the highest security level, while insecure areas were primarily concentrated in Daqing City. (3) Regarding specific dimensions, habitat fragmentation (structural security) was prevalent in central agricultural and urban areas; soil erosion (process security) remained significant in the southeastern regions, despite overall stability; and ecosystem services (functional security) followed a “degradation–adjustment–recovery” trend from 2000 to 2020. This framework effectively achieves the coupled assessment of landscape patterns and ecological security, providing scientific support for regional ecological management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Landscape Ecology)

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