Land

Land is a fundamental resource that provides a foundation for the economy. Despite a wide range of studies on land governance systems, there is a lack of literature that analyzes the ability of communities to manage a change to different land governance systems. The study aimed to analyze the potential for the Goedverwacht communal settlement in the Western Cape province, South Africa, to transition from a hierarchical governance structure to one based on a communal land governance system. This aim was addressed by answering the research question: What are the roles, expectations and management strategies of the institutions and stakeholders participating in land governance? The study considered the community’s desire to maintain its communal settlement’s existence, and the choice between communal or individual freehold land governance. To understand these issues, the study utilized a framework that includes three theories: the theory of planned behaviour, the theory of institutional capacity, and the critical theory. (2) Methods: Through a survey, qualitative interviews, and focus group discussions, the study analyzed various underlying factors that influenced land governance and the land governance system desired by the community. (3) Results: The findings reveal that power dynamics and conflicting interests significantly affected the community’s ability to manage potential modernization resulting from land reform. While establishing land rights can positively impact economic growth and social mobilization, the lack of the communal settlement’s central government’s capacity to manage modernization effectively can lead to instability.; (4) Conclusions: The paper concludes that balancing institutionalization and modernization is crucial for effectively managing the transition to new land governance systems. Full article

The Loess Plateau is the world’s largest loess landform region, characterized by a fragile ecosystem and frequent natural disasters that render it highly susceptible to ecological damage, highlighting urgent ecological restoration. We constructed a “Pattern-Service-Stress Ecosystem Quality Assessment Model” based on the connotation of ecosystem quality and the ArcGIS platform, then applied it to Suide County, a representative area of the Loess Plateau, as the research object. Next, using the dispersal ecology theory and the MCR model, we constructed an ideal ecological network. According to the quality assessment and ecological network analysis, we selected areas with low ecosystem quality within the scope of an ecological corridor as key areas for restoration. Finally, we proposed restoration strategies using regional ecological techniques. This study yielded the following results: The spatial pattern of ecosystem quality in Suide County exhibited a “high in the south and low in the north” pattern, with a high-value area of 823.87 km², and a low-value area of 509.31 km², accounting for 44.45% and 27.48% of the total area, respectively. In Suide County’s ecological network, the spatial distribution of ecological sources and corridors is dense in the south and sparse in the north, with a significant amount of path overlap within ecological corridors. Located on the southern ecological corridor of Suide County, forty-five key areas for restoration were classified into seven types. Eight problems were identified in the key areas, and twenty-three targeted restoration measures were proposed. These measures can result in 6.44 km² of forest land and 5.26 km² of grassland, improving the ecosystem quality of the key areas and even the entirety of Suide County. This study guides Suide County’s ecological restoration work and provides a paradigm for ecosystem quality assessment and ecological restoration on the Loess Plateau, pointing out directions. It has a certain radiation-driven effect and an important reference significance for ecological restoration in ecologically fragile areas. Full article

This paper introduces actual considerations for the progressive disuse of residential space in the Alpine territory, considering possible actions. Nowadays, the building complexes built around the 1960s and 1970s (a symbol of mass tourism) are suffering and searching for a new identity. The generation of owners who bought them has aged and the propensities of the new generations for holiday in those places has changed, which means fewer opportunities for leisure, particularly in the winter. Due to the great attention (and seeming opportunities) of current incentive policies toward improving the energy use of the existing stock, the authors investigate the private conveniences of transformations through the refurbishment of these buildings. Starting from a study of the territory and the dynamics of the local population, this research analyzes a possible set of energy works, based on a new (2020) incentive measure, the 110% Superbonus, which consists of a series of facilitation mechanisms, deductions, and reimbursements for building interventions. A large part of the insight is focused on a technical and economic feasibility study of the possible actions, following a process based on the evolution of the legislation. This work is based on a specific case study, located in a small municipality in the Piedmont mountain area, consisting of three apartment blocks of mostly second homes. The methodology adopted lends itself on the one hand, as a guide for preliminary economic energy assessments and, on the other hand, as a policy evaluation tool from the public and private perspectives. Full article

The development of differentiated emission reduction strategies plays an important role in achieving carbon compliance targets. Each city should adopt carbon reduction strategies according to its carbon emission characteristics. China is a vast country, and there are significant differences between cities. Therefore, this study classifies 340 Chinese cities according to their carbon emission characteristics since 2020 and proposes differentiated emission reduction strategies accordingly. The results of the research show that Chinese cities can be divided into four categories, and they can strive to achieve their carbon peak targets by adopting differentiated emission reduction strategies. In the baseline scenario, Chinese cities will not be able to meet the peak carbon target by 2030. In the differentiated scenario, eco-agricultural cities, industry-led cities, and high-resource-availability cities will be able to achieve peak carbon by 2030. Unfortunately, resource-poor cities will not reach their peak. However, the extent to which their total carbon emissions contribute to the achievement of national goals is low, and their carbon emissions can be traded off for economic development by appropriately relaxing the constraints on carbon emissions. Therefore, in order to achieve China’s peak carbon goal, this study proposes emission reduction recommendations that should be adopted by different types of cities to form differentiated emission reduction strategies. Full article

China’s poverty alleviation projects have made significant contributions to global poverty eradication. This study investigates the impact of China’s poverty alleviation projects on nighttime lighting in 831 state-level impoverished counties using the “NPP-VIIRS-like” dataset and discusses the difference of land use change under different nighttime light clusters in order to provide reference for future policy formulation and implementation. Our results show that the growth of total intensity of nighttime lighting (GRTNL) and the year-on-year growth rate of total intensity of nighttime lighting (YGRTNL) in China’s impoverished counties are 103.74% and 9.69% from 2013 to 2021, respectively, which are both higher than the average levels of all counties (67.16%, 6.77%) and non-poor counties (64.68%, 6.56%) in China during the same period. Additionally, we discovered that impoverished counties that lifted out of poverty earlier had significantly higher nighttime lighting intensity than those later. Regional analysis reveals that the growth of nighttime lighting intensity shows a trend of decreasing from the central (1550.89 nW·cm⁻²·sr⁻¹) to the eastern (924.57), western (762.57), and northeastern regions (588.07), while the growth rate decreases from western regions (282.46%) to the eastern (189.13%), central (178.56%), and northeastern (108.07%). We also identified that Gini coefficient of nighttime lighting has a trend of “slow and short-term rise-rapid and continuous decline”. Moreover, nighttime lighting growth had similar trends with land use change, especially construction land. Overall, our study provides novel insights into the relationship between poverty alleviation effects and nighttime lighting in China’s impoverished counties, which could inform future policy-making and research in this area. Full article

The Three Rivers Headwaters Region (TRHR), situated in the high-altitude region of the Tibetan Plateau, represents a critical ecological security barrier for both China and Southeast Asia. In addition to providing a vital freshwater supply for China, it is also one of the most biodiverse areas in the world. However, the region is characterized by a fragile and sensitive ecosystem, which makes it particularly vulnerable to environmental disturbances. Given the role of vegetation as a reliable indicator of ecosystem changes, investigating the patterns and drivers of vegetation change in the TRHR can provide valuable insights into the state and trajectory of its ecological system. To assess the spatiotemporal dynamics of vegetation changes in TRHR, this study constructed a comprehensive vegetation index (CVI) based on leaf area index (LAI), fractional vegetation cover (FVC), and net primary productivity (NPP). Trend analysis and significance testing were employed to detect and quantify the magnitude and direction of vegetation changes over the past two decades. Moreover, correlation analysis, spatial overlay, and statistical modeling techniques were applied to examine the relative contributions of climate, land use/cover changes, and slope altitude to CVI changes. The results showed the following: (1) the CVI in the TRHR showed an overall increasing trend from 2000 to 2019, with an average annual increase of 0.6%, indicating a positive development trend of vegetation, but with obvious spatial differences. (2) The vegetation in the TRHR has shown a marked increase over the past two decades, with significant increase accounting for 19% of the total area, mainly concentrated in the Yellow River Basin. Conversely, a significant decline in vegetation was observed in 3% of the total area, predominantly in the Yangtze River Basin. (3) Both temperature and precipitation had a positive impact on vegetation restoration in the TRHR, but the area affected by temperature was larger than that affected by precipitation. (4) The land-use regime had a discernible impact on vegetation increase, with the conversion of land use to ecological land promoting vegetation restoration. However, the efficacy of restoration efforts might have varied depending on natural resource endowments in certain regions. (5) With increasing altitude, vegetation conditions initially improved before eventually deteriorating. Conversely, as the slope increased, vegetation experienced an initial improvement before ultimately stabilizing. This study helps to understand the overall changes and driving mechanisms of vegetation in the TRHR and provides a scientific basis and decision-making reference for the dynamic adjustment of vegetation restoration and ecological engineering in the region in the future. Full article

Chemometric analysis is often used as an effective indicator of the supply capacity of nutrients in soil–plant systems and their biogeochemical cycles. Understanding ecological stoichiometric characteristics of C, N and P in soils under various land uses is crucial to guide ecological restoration and agricultural cultivation in karst rocky desertification region. However, data on ecological stoichiometry at different land uses in karst areas is limited. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different land uses on soil ecological stoichiometric ratios and further identify the factors that influence soil ecological stoichiometric ratios. The topsoil from forest, shrub and cultivated land (paddy field and dry land) both in a karst area and non-karst area (as a reference) of Mashan County was sampled to investigate the spatial variance of the ecological stoichiometric characteristics of C, N and P under different land uses. The results show that: (1) Land-use types significantly determined the spatial heterogeneity of soil ecological stoichiometry in karst areas. (2) Soil organic carbon (SOC) was not significantly different between shrubs in the karst area and forests in the non-karst area (p = 0.595), but there were virtual differences in total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), C:N, C:P and N:P between shrubs in the karst area and forests in the non-karst area (p < 0.01). (3) The contents of SOC, TN, and C:P, N:P in the study area were all generally higher in forests than those in cultivated land, and the content of TP was lower in forests than cultivated land, while C:N in cultivated land was higher than in shrubs in karst areas, and C:N was higher in forests than in cultivated land in non-karst areas. (4) Available nitrogen (AvN) was the main factor influencing stoichiometry in shrubs in karst areas, while pH, AvN, available phosphorus and elevation were the main factors in forests in non-karst areas, indicating that these factors significantly affect the soil ecological stoichiometric ratio during land-use changes. This study helps to understand the variations in soil ecological stoichiometric ratios under land-use changes. It provides guidance for the sustainable management of revegetation in karst regions in southwest China. Full article

Selecting samples with non-landslide attributes significantly impacts the deep-learning modeling of landslide susceptibility mapping. This study presents a method of information value analysis in order to optimize the selection of negative samples used for machine learning. Recurrent neural network (RNN) has a memory function, so when using an RNN for landslide susceptibility mapping purposes, the input order of the landslide-influencing factors affects the resulting quality of the model. The information value analysis calculates the landslide-influencing factors, determines the input order of data based on the importance of any specific factor in determining the landslide susceptibility, and improves the prediction potential of recurrent neural networks. The simple recurrent unit (SRU), a newly proposed variant of the recurrent neural network, is characterized by possessing a faster processing speed and currently has less application history in landslide susceptibility mapping. This study used recurrent neural networks optimized by information value analysis for landslide susceptibility mapping in Xinhui District, Jiangmen City, Guangdong Province, China. Four models were constructed: the RNN model with optimized negative sample selection, the SRU model with optimized negative sample selection, the RNN model, and the SRU model. The results show that the RNN model with optimized negative sample selection has the best performance in terms of AUC value (0.9280), followed by the SRU model with optimized negative sample selection (0.9057), the RNN model (0.7277), and the SRU model (0.6355). In addition, several objective measures of accuracy (0.8598), recall (0.8302), F1 score (0.8544), Matthews correlation coefficient (0.7206), and the receiver operating characteristic also show that the RNN model performs the best. Therefore, the information value analysis can be used to optimize negative sample selection in landslide sensitivity mapping in order to improve the model’s performance; second, SRU is a weaker method than RNN in terms of model performance. Full article

Anthropogenic threats are responsible for habitat degradation and biodiversity decline. The mapping of the distribution and intensity of threats to biodiversity can be useful for informing efficient planning in protected areas. In this study, we propose a cumulative spatial and temporal analysis of anthropogenic impacts insisting on an alpine protected area, the Gran Paradiso National Park. The applied methodology starts with the construction of a spatial and temporal dataset of anthropogenic impacts and normalization based on relative intensity. The impacts analyzed include overgrazing, helicopter flights, road networks, built-up areas, worksites, derivations and discharges, sports activities, and dams and hydroelectric power plants. Each impact was assigned a weight based on its temporal persistence. Threats maps obtained from the collected, normalized, and weighted geodata are thus obtained. Finally, the risk map is calculated by combining the impact map with the vulnerability map, estimated through the methodology outlined in the Green Guidelines of the Metropolitan City of Turin. The risk map obtained was cross-referenced with the Park’s cartography to highlight any critical issues to specific habitats. Results show that most of the territory falls in low-risk (63%) or no-risk (35%) areas. However, there are some habitats that are totally or nearly totally affected by some degree of risk, although different to zero, such as the “Lentic waters with aquatic vegetation [incl. cod. 3130]”, the “Lentic waters partially buried”, the “Mountain pine forests (Pinus uncinata) [cod. 9430]”, and the “Mixed hygrophilous woods of broad-leaved trees [incl. cod. 91E0]”. This study highlights both the potential of these analyses, which enable informed management and planning of the fruition of protected areas, and the limitations of such approaches, which require in-depth knowledge of the territory and ecosystems and how they respond to threats in order to refine the model and obtain realistic maps. Full article

Agricultural and forest ecosystems provide multiple ecosystem services (ESs) fundamental to the well-being and quality of life of citizens. However, in the European context, these ecosystems are often threatened by processes of urban development, around cities, or abandonment, in mountainous or remote areas. Faced with the need for solutions oriented towards greater sustainability and resilience of socio-ecological systems, planning should contribute to rebuilding more integrated and mutually beneficial relationships between urban and rural areas, ensuring the effective production of multiple ESs. The regulation and management of ESs are complex and require scientifically sound and widely understandable policies and governance models, based on detailed assessment methods. This paper proposes a method for mapping and bundling the supply of five ESs produced in agricultural and forest areas, based on the processing of open source territorial data through the analytic hierarchy process (AHP), and tailored for the Tuscany region (Italy). The method integrates the land use and land cover map with other data to obtain a comprehensive ESs assessment, and then uses cluster analysis to identify bundles of ESs. Based on a first trial, the method seems to show high potentialities as a Decision Support System to promote innovative governance models for ES management. Full article

This study investigated the spatial pattern evolution of the rural settlement system in the town of Menggang, China, based on settlement patches extracted from remote sensing data for four time points between 1990 and 2018. Five typical villages were selected to study their spatial textures from point to surface. The reasons for the evolution of the rural settlements were examined as well. The results indicated that the number of settlement patches in Menggang decreased, the area of a single patch expanded, and the scale of the rural settlements continued to expand. Settlements were distributed randomly, but an agglomeration trend began to appear. The plain terrain had little restriction on settlement site selection. Cofferdams and embankments were the limiting factors for settlement expansion, which led to the compact development of the settlements. Economic development, population growth, and family miniaturization were positive factors for the expansion of the rural settlements. In the typical villages, cluster settlements and cluster settlements with a banded tendency had higher spatial utilization efficiency. Several high-density building centers were formed in the settlements, and the trend of residential buildings was mainly northeast–southwest. The plain terrain had little effect on the orientation of buildings, single-building areas, or the public spaces of the settlements. Traditional culture and traffic routes affected the orientation of the main buildings of folk houses. This study has theoretical and reference value for the structure optimization and sustainable development of rural settlements in the lower Yellow River plain. Full article

Many models are designed to generate future predictions under climate-change scenarios. Such models are typically calibrated for a study area with climate data that represent historical conditions. However, future projections of the model may include outputs for which the model has not been calibrated. Ideally, a climate-change-impacts model would be calibrated for recent conditions and also for possible future climate conditions. We demonstrate an approach, where a vegetation model is subjected to two calibrations: conventionally to the study area and separately to the study area plus additional areas representing analogues of potential future climate. We apply the dynamic vegetation model MC2 to a mountainous ecosystem in the Pacific Northwest, USA. We compare the conventional model calibration with the extra-study-area calibration and future projections. The two calibrations produce different outputs in key ecosystem variables, where some differences vary with time. Some model output trends for net primary productivity and plant functional type are more influenced by climatic input, while for others, the calibration area has greater consequence. Excluding areas representing potential future climate may be an important omission in model calibration, making the inclusion of such areas a decisive consideration in climate-change-impact simulations. Full article

The southeast of Mexico City is one of the last areas of environmental importance for the region. However, rapid urban expansion has led to a runoff increase in the presence of intense rainfall. This situation is common to many peri-urban centers close to large cities, where the urbanization of previously green areas has had a direct negative influence on the hydraulic structure. This work proposes a study that combines hydrological analysis for the definition of precipitation scenarios with hydrodynamic simulations based on the current land use. Reconstructed flood scenarios show that the runoffs descending from mountainous areas flow into cemented channels with hydraulic sections and characteristics not adequate to drain specific discharges that can reach 0.90 m${}^2$/s and water depths of the order of 2 m, caused by extreme weather phenomena, determining flooding in nearby areas. Runoffs are also intensified by the presence of non-urbanized open spaces in a state of abandonment, whose soil does not favor infiltration and promotes the flooding of residential centers with water levels higher than 1 m. The results indicate an urgent need to adopt actions to reduce flooding and favor infiltration in an area of the city that is also important for aquifer recharge. Full article

Sustainable landscapes provide environmental, social, and financial benefits, with interest and adoption increasing due to environmental awareness. Ornamental ground-cover systems have garnered interest in the landscape due to the reduced need for water, fertilizers, pesticides, and maintenance compared to typical landscapes; however, limited research on groundcover ability to modulate soil conditions or suppress weeds exists. This study explored how ornamental groundcover systems impact the sustainability of landscapes. The effects of ground-cover growth habit (matting; bunching) and irrigation delivery method (micro spray; overhead) on soil temperature, volumetric water content (VWC), and electric conductivity (EC), along with impacts on weed growth, soil microbial communities, and plant coverage, were measured. Soil temperatures were generally lower under groundcover species with a matting growth habit, and to a lesser extent, bunching growth habits, in comparison to the warmer fallow systems. Groundcovers with a matting form led to lower VWC values compared to taxa with other growth habits, particularly when micro-irrigated. Plant form did not significantly influence EC values; however, micro spray irrigated plots had significantly higher EC values, likely attributed to irrigation spray patterns. Micro spray irrigation in tandem with matting growth habit taxa decreased weed density more effectively than taxa with bunching growth habits or groundcovers maintained under overhead irrigation. Selection of groundcover species with greater foliar coverage along with implementing more efficient irrigation practices can decrease soil temperatures, soil moisture, and weed density. Incorporating groundcovers in the landscape can decrease maintenance requirements and water/chemical use, thus increasing sustainability and decreasing environmental consequences. Full article

Based on the five phases of land use data from Xining corresponding to 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020, we used the equivalent factor method to analyze the values of spatial-temporal variation characteristics of land use and ecosystem services in Xining. The results showed that (1) farmland and developed areas were the most active types of land, and the continuous occupation of farmland and developed areas led to the formation of a kind of “cross shape” in the spatial pattern of conversion of land use types along the Huangshui River, Beichuan River, and Nanchuan River from south to north and from northwest to southeast, respectively, with the central urban area serving as a core of the pattern; (2) the transformation between different land use types mainly occurred in the land-slope range between 0–15° and altitudes between 2000–2750 m; and (3) the ESV of Xining increased by RMB 2165.26 × 10⁶ in the past 40 years. The period from 2000 to 2020 was the main growth period of the ecosystem service value of Xining. Urbanization had a great impact on the variation in land use types and the evolution of ecosystem service values. In the middle and late stages of urbanization, different types of land use changed significantly within each county and district. The ecosystem service values of the central districts were low, with those of the marginal districts and counties being higher, forming a “core-periphery” trend and a phenomenon of hollowing ESV. (4) The spatial agglomeration effect of the ESV per unit area was continuously enhanced in Xining. The high-high (slope-altitude) type of area was distributed in the north and west of Xining, whereas the low-low type of area was distributed in the urban area at the intersection of major rivers in the southeast of Xining. Full article

Agriculture is currently one of the leading economic sectors most impacted by climate change. Due to its great field of application and its susceptibility to meteorological variability, the effects of climate change on agriculture have significant social and economic consequences for human well-being. Moreover, the increasing need for land spaces for population growth has produced strong competition between food and urbanization, leading to a loss of the agroecosystem that supports food security. This review aims to understand the main risks generated by climate change in agricultural production and the potential strategies that can be applied to increase agriculture’s resilience. Agricultural risk can be linked to the decrease in the productivity of foods, weed overgrowth at the crops expense, increase in parasites, water availability, soil alteration, negative impact on production costs and consequent change in the adopted cultivars, reduction in the pollination process, intense fires, and alteration of product quality. Thus, climate change can impact the provisioning of ecosystem services, reducing food security in terms of quantity and quality for future generations. Finally, in this review, we report the main adaptation strategies to increase agroecosystem resilience in adverse environments generated by climate change. Mainly, we highlight new technologies, such as new breeding technologies and agrivoltaic and smart agricultural applications, which, combined with agroecosystems, can reduce the agricultural risks following climate change (for example, drought events and low availability of water). We suggest that the combination of natural capital and technologies can be defined as an “innovation-based solution” able to support and increase ecosystem service flow in agroecosystems. Full article

Migration leads to the separation of rural people from their contracted land and, thus, affects the human–land relationship, agricultural production, and food security in China’s rural areas. Using spatial autocorrelation analysis, GeoDetector analysis, and geographical weighted regression, the mechanism by which the migration behavior of the rural population impacts their contracted land disposal methods was analyzed in this study, and the spatial heterogeneity of this mechanism was further revealed from the perspective of geographical differentiation. The results of this study show that: (1) Chinese rural migrants exhibit pronounced geographical differences in the disposition of contracted land. The spatial distribution patterns of family operation, subleasing, and abandonment are different. (2) Migration behavior contributes to the differences in contracted land disposal methods across regions. Educational attainment, the number of cities migrated to, and the house purchase rate significantly contribute to the geographical differences among all three contracted land disposal methods. (3) The mechanisms by which migration behavior influences rural migrants’ land disposal decisions vary. The direction and degree of the influence of each factor on family operation are relatively consistent across regions. However, regarding the subleasing and abandonment of contracted land, the mechanisms by which migration behavior influences land disposal decision-making exhibit significant regional heterogeneity. The results of this study provide a useful reference for many countries to solve the problems of the human–land relationship and rural development. Full article

In recent decades, particularly intense changes have occurred in Spanish urban areas. This is the result of demographic and urbanizing transformations that have led to a change in the city model. The predominance of compact forms has been replaced by the growing prominence of urban sprawl. Structures are now more extensive, characterized, in turn, by fragmentation and the notable consumption of land in the peripheries. In medium-sized cities, the municipalities bordering the central cities have concentrated the processes of suburbanization and periurbanization. This paper addresses the processes of change for 34 cities and their urban areas located in inland Spain. A proposal is made for the delimitation and characterization of urban areas, taking the municipality as the unit of analysis. At the methodological level, six variables are used, analyzed by means of multicriteria statistical techniques combined with the use of GIS tools. An Urban Transformation Index (ITU) has been developed that synthesizes urbanizing, demographic and socioeconomic dynamics (six variables related to population, housing and socio-productive structure are used). In the territorial area, the 20-min isochrone is used as a reference. In the temporal domain, the period of analysis addresses the events of the first two decades of the twenty-first century. Full article

The Yellow River Basin in Inner Mongolia (YRBIM) has witnessed major changes in land use/land cover (LULC), which have had an impact on the basin’s ecosystem, in the context of fast economic development and urbanization. This study set out to investigate the ecological risk and key driving forces in the basin as LULC evolves. In order to evaluate the ecological risk of the basin and use a geographic detector model to understand the causes of its spatial heterogeneity, we built a landscape ecological risk index (ERI) model based on changes in LULC from 1990 to 2020. The findings indicate that between 1990 and 2020, LULC modifications led to the transfer of several land types to a small number of land types, all of which have since changed into other land types. With high risk areas primarily located in the Hobq Desert, the Hetao irrigation area, and some portions of the Mu Us Sandy Land, the ecological risk level in the basin is gradually decreasing. Human activities are the main cause of the regional variation of ecological risk in the basin, with topography and climate coming in second and third. The Yellow River Basin’s ecological danger and environmental quality have only received a limited amount of analysis to date. This study is a crucial resource for the development of civilization and ecological restoration in the region. Full article