Land

24 pages, 12045 KB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Historical Land Use Change and Transport Accessibility at Ski Resorts: A Case Study in Northeast China

by Benlu Xin, Ziyan Liu, Wentao Zhang, Zhuolin Wang and Shibo Wu

Land 2026, 15(5), 858; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050858 (registering DOI) - 16 May 2026

Abstract

The rapid expansion of ski tourism in Northeast China has triggered extensive land use and land cover change (LULCC), yet the micro-scale spatial mechanisms linking historical land conversion to the accessibility of tourist services remain largely unquantified. This study addresses this gap by [...] Read more.

The rapid expansion of ski tourism in Northeast China has triggered extensive land use and land cover change (LULCC), yet the micro-scale spatial mechanisms linking historical land conversion to the accessibility of tourist services remain largely unquantified. This study addresses this gap by integrating annual 30 m CLCD land cover data with GIS network analysis of Points of Interest (POIs) around 30 major ski resorts (2018–2023). Specifically, it makes a novel distinction between the accessibility outcomes of construction-oriented and agriculture-oriented land transitions. Results indicate that while forest-to-construction conversion significantly predicts reduced travel distances to services (e.g., hotels: r = −0.532, p < 0.01), a distinct and previously unreported agri-tourism synergy emerges: forest-to-cropland conversion is positively associated with higher per capita tourist spending (r = 0.366, p < 0.05). This finding challenges the conventional zero-sum view of land use competition and suggests that cultivated landscapes can function as complementary tourism assets. These empirical patterns provide an evidence-based framework for integrated land-transport planning in emerging winter sports destinations. Full article

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15 pages, 387 KB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Effects of Biochar and Algae-Transformed Organic Waste from the Dairy Industry on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Sorption Properties

by Vladimír Šimanský and Ján Horák

Land 2026, 15(5), 857; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050857 (registering DOI) - 16 May 2026

Abstract

Biochar and algal extracts are promising organic soil amendments, but their synergistic effects on soil organic matter and the sorption complex are still insufficiently understood. Therefore, a 30-day laboratory incubation experiment was conducted using a Haplic Luvisol to evaluate the effects of biochar [...] Read more.

Biochar and algal extracts are promising organic soil amendments, but their synergistic effects on soil organic matter and the sorption complex are still insufficiently understood. Therefore, a 30-day laboratory incubation experiment was conducted using a Haplic Luvisol to evaluate the effects of biochar (S+B), an N-rich algal extract (S+AGN), and their combined application (S+AGN+B) in comparison with the untreated control soil (S). The results showed that biochar led to a substantial increase in soil organic carbon (Corg) by 49% in S+B and by 50% in S+AGN+B treatments compared to S. Labile carbon (C_L) increased by 48% in S+B and by 40% in S+AGN+B. The algal extract alone did not significantly affect either C_L or Corg. Non-labile carbon increased by 2.22 g kg⁻¹ in S+B but slightly decreased in the combined treatment (−2.00 g kg⁻¹), indicating different dynamics of stable carbon fractions when both amendments are applied simultaneously. The combined treatment S+AGN+B, however, had the strongest effect on soil sorption properties. Specifically, the sum of basic cations was the highest among all treatments (189 mmol(+)kg⁻¹, i.e., +18–28 mmol(+)kg⁻¹ compared to S, S+B, and S+AGN), while the cation exchange capacity (CEC) reached the highest values (198 mmol(+)kg⁻¹, representing an increase of 7–27 mmol(+)kg⁻¹ compared to the other treatments). The base saturation remained high across all treatments, and the highest value was observed in S+AGN+B (95.6%). PCA confirmed that the combined treatment produced the most pronounced shifts in the multivariate parameter space and demonstrated a synergistic effect exceeding the effects of the individual organic amendments. Overall, the results indicate that biochar is the dominant factor contributing to the accumulation of stable carbon and the improvement of CEC, whereas the algal extract enhances the accumulation of labile carbon fractions and synergistically promotes the saturation of the sorption complex. The combined application of biochar and algal N effectively increases soil organic matter and sorption capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers for “Land, Soil and Water” Section, 2nd Edition)

26 pages, 1623 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Objective Segmentation and Subjective Perception to Predict Urban Landscape Preference: An XAI-Driven Approach

by Youngeun Kang, Eujin Julia Kim and Gyoungju Lee

Land 2026, 15(5), 856; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050856 (registering DOI) - 15 May 2026

Abstract

Traditional urban landscape evaluations have primarily relied on either objective spatial metrics, such as the Green View Index (GVI), or subjective human surveys, often failing to capture the complex mechanisms of human environmental perception. This study proposes a novel Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) [...] Read more.

Traditional urban landscape evaluations have primarily relied on either objective spatial metrics, such as the Green View Index (GVI), or subjective human surveys, often failing to capture the complex mechanisms of human environmental perception. This study proposes a novel Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) framework that integrates objective physical configuration with subjective cognitive assessment to predict human landscape preference. Utilizing 159 urban landscape images, we extracted physical features via semantic segmentation (SegFormer) and psychological perceptions via a zero-shot vision-language model (CLIP). Our hybrid Random Forest model successfully bridged these dimensions, achieving moderate yet promising predictive performance (Rsquare = 0.442). SHAP (Shapley Additive exPlanations) analysis revealed that psychological perceptions—specifically Safety (0.104), Fascination (0.096), and Tranquility (0.080)—outperformed traditional objective metrics like GVI (0.067) in determining overall preference, while sub-model interpretation linked these psychological responses to specific physical elements such as buildings, sky openness, low vegetation, and water bodies. The findings suggest that urban green space design should move beyond maximizing greenery quantity and instead prioritize spatial compositions that induce psychological security, visual interest, and restoration. The proposed framework offers a scalable and interpretable tool for human-centered landscape assessment, while acknowledging limitations related to sample size, cultural generalizability, pretrained model bias, and reliance on static two-dimensional imagery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Planning and Landscape Architecture)

25 pages, 10501 KB

Open AccessArticle

Contemporary U.S. Anthromes as Defined by HANPP Regimes

by Aishwarya Chandrasekaran, Kat F. Fowler and Christopher Lant

Land 2026, 15(5), 855; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050855 (registering DOI) - 15 May 2026

Abstract

The concepts of anthromes and human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP) are both valuable in understanding our human-dominated planet, yet they have never been integrated theoretically or empirically. Here we utilize an extensive county-level dataset on HANPP and its product-level components to [...] Read more.

The concepts of anthromes and human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP) are both valuable in understanding our human-dominated planet, yet they have never been integrated theoretically or empirically. Here we utilize an extensive county-level dataset on HANPP and its product-level components to derive, through cluster analysis, ten contemporary US anthromes. From highest to lowest density of harvested HANPP, the anthromes are: rainfed corn–soy, dairy fodder, spring wheat–small grain, dryland winter wheat, subtropical soy–cotton, commercial timber, mixed hardwood and pasture, recovered eastern forest, prairie–sagebrush rangeland, and arid and alpine sparse grazing. Expanding to thirteen anthromes maintains these, while bifurcating the commercial timber (softwood, hardwood), rainfed corn–soy (core, fringe) and mixed hardwood and pasture anthromes. Trend analysis shows the expansion of the high-HANPP rainfed corn–soy and the low-HANPP recovered eastern forest anthromes between 2002 and 2017, while some other anthromes with moderate HANNP_harvest are contracting. The methods described here can be applied to any country where data on HANPP can be obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Systems and Global Change)

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14 pages, 1078 KB

Open AccessArticle

Challenges in the Regulation of Payments for Environmental Services: Lessons from São Paulo State, Brazil

by Heitor A. Cofferri, Ramon F. B. da Silva, Mateus Batistella and Marko S. A. Monteiro

Land 2026, 15(5), 854; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050854 (registering DOI) - 15 May 2026

Abstract

Brazil has a deficit of 27 Mha of native vegetation in rural properties and the ambition to restore 12 Mha by 2030 (Nationally Determined Contributions—Paris Agreement), while the state of São Paulo has committed to reforesting 1.5 Mha by 2025. The regulation of [...] Read more.

Brazil has a deficit of 27 Mha of native vegetation in rural properties and the ambition to restore 12 Mha by 2030 (Nationally Determined Contributions—Paris Agreement), while the state of São Paulo has committed to reforesting 1.5 Mha by 2025. The regulation of payment for environmental services (PES) is a new topic in the Brazilian legal system that also aims to contribute to this commitment. In 2021, a federal law established the national PES policy. For São Paulo state, the current regulation is a decree from 2022. This study analyzes whether the regulation of PES made by São Paulo state conveys all the actions provided for in the federal law, as well as whether there is effective public governance in this state’s regulation. This analysis is essential, since São Paulo regulated this through a decree and not specifically through legislation, which, in theory, reduces public participation and governance. We used an exploratory and deductive method to evaluate whether São Paulo’s regulation adequately reflects federal provisions and governance principles, ensuring the planning and implementation of PES. Full article

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29 pages, 37362 KB

Open AccessArticle

Coupling Coordination Mechanisms and Spatial Differentiation Between Urban Expansion and Ecosystem Services in Valley-Type Cities of Semi-Arid Regions

by Shukun Wei, Xianglong Tang and Chenxi Zhao

Land 2026, 15(5), 853; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050853 (registering DOI) - 15 May 2026

Abstract

As a strategic node of the Silk Road Economic Belt and a prototypical valley-type city, Lanzhou is subject to the dual constraints of rapid urbanization and an inherently fragile ecological foundation, making the coordination between urban expansion and ecosystem services a critical issue [...] Read more.

As a strategic node of the Silk Road Economic Belt and a prototypical valley-type city, Lanzhou is subject to the dual constraints of rapid urbanization and an inherently fragile ecological foundation, making the coordination between urban expansion and ecosystem services a critical issue for regional sustainability. Drawing upon multi-temporal land use remote sensing datasets provided by the Chinese Academy of Sciences Resource and Environment Science Data Center, in conjunction with soil, meteorological, and socio-economic data, this study integrates a land use transition matrix, the InVEST model, a modified coupling coordination degree model, and the geographic detector to comprehensively examine land use dynamics, the spatiotemporal evolution of urban expansion, and the spatial heterogeneity of ecosystem services (i.e., carbon storage, water yield, habitat quality, and soil conservation) in Lanzhou. In addition, the coupling coordination relationship and its underlying driving mechanisms are systematically explored. The results demonstrate the following: (1) Between 1980 and 2020, urban land area in Lanzhou increased from 103.87 km² to 286.83 km², accounting for 2.17% of the total area, with cropland constituting the dominant source of expansion and exhibiting a fluctuating “high–low–high” conversion trajectory. (2) Ecosystem services exhibit pronounced spatial heterogeneity, with carbon storage and habitat quality displaying a pattern of “low in the southeast and high in the northwest”, water yield showing an increasing gradient from southeast to northwest, and soil conservation characterized by “lower values in central areas and higher values in peripheral regions”; (3) Urban expansion has accelerated significantly, with Yongdeng County and Gaolan County emerging as principal expansion hotspots during 2010–2020. (4) The dominant driving mechanism gradually shifted from natural factors to the synergistic interaction between natural and socioeconomic factors, and the interaction among driving factors markedly enhanced the explanatory power for ecosystem service evolution. (5) The coupling coordination degree has transitioned from widespread imbalance to a spatially differentiated pattern, characterized by relatively coordinated conditions in peripheral areas and persistent imbalance within the central urban core. These findings provide a robust scientific basis for territorial spatial optimization and the synergistic development of ecological and economic systems in valley-type cities, and offer important implications for sustainable development in arid and semi-arid regions. Full article

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17 pages, 4394 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity of Sand Saltation Thresholds to Horizontal Visibility in the Taklamakan Desert

by Zelin Li, Ze Chen, Chenglong Zhou, Xinchun Liu, Yu Wang, Meiqi Song, Jiacheng Gao, Congzhen Zhu, Ali Mamtimin and Wen Huo

Land 2026, 15(5), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050852 (registering DOI) - 15 May 2026

Abstract

As the initial link in the dust cycle, sand saltation directly determines the release of dust aerosols into the atmosphere. Suspended dust can modify meteorological conditions, potentially altering sand saltation characteristics, though this relationship requires further investigation. The recent deployment of automatic visibility [...] Read more.

As the initial link in the dust cycle, sand saltation directly determines the release of dust aerosols into the atmosphere. Suspended dust can modify meteorological conditions, potentially altering sand saltation characteristics, though this relationship requires further investigation. The recent deployment of automatic visibility sensors has provided new observational support for this study. Using hourly observations from five meteorological stations in the Taklamakan Desert during March–August 2016–2024, together with reanalysis data, this study estimated threshold wind speeds under different dust-intensity conditions, as indicated by horizontal visibility. We analyzed sand saltation frequency and horizontal dust flux across the region under varying visibility conditions, and reassessed recent trends and drivers of dust emission. Results indicate that threshold wind speeds range between 4.67 and 4.71 m·s⁻¹, with a notable increase in wind speed when horizontal visibility falls below 5 km. Based on these thresholds, our analysis reveals significant regional differences in both dust emission frequency and flux under varying visibility conditions, with clear skies also identified as an important contributor to dust emission. Specifically, horizontal dust flux in the Taklamakan Desert showed a decreasing trend during 2016–2021 and a slight increase during 2021–2024, and this recent change in dust-emission trends may be linked to changes in atmospheric circulation and meteorological conditions. These findings provide a scientific basis for dust forecasting, early warning, disaster prevention, and mitigation in the Taklamakan Desert and its surrounding areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate-Driven Land Degradation)

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22 pages, 12401 KB

Open AccessArticle

Toward a Multidimensional Nexus of Sustainable Urban Competitiveness: PCA-Based Spatio-Temporal and Network Analysis in China’s Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei “2 + 36” Urban Agglomeration

by Xiaoqi Wang, Yingjie Huang, Wentao Sun, Duohan Liang and Bo Li

Land 2026, 15(5), 851; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050851 (registering DOI) - 15 May 2026

Abstract

Understanding how sustainable urban competitiveness evolves within megaregions has become a central concern in urban and regional studies, particularly under the pressures of carbon neutrality, spatial inequality, and network-driven urbanization. This study develops a multidimensional framework to assess the sustainable competitiveness of cities [...] Read more.

Understanding how sustainable urban competitiveness evolves within megaregions has become a central concern in urban and regional studies, particularly under the pressures of carbon neutrality, spatial inequality, and network-driven urbanization. This study develops a multidimensional framework to assess the sustainable competitiveness of cities in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei “2 + 36” urban agglomeration and examines its spatio-temporal evolution and relational structure. Using a 30-indicator system grounded in factor foundations, economic performance, innovation capacity, openness, and environmental livability, we construct a composite competitiveness index through principal component analysis (PCA). Kernel density estimation reveals a pattern of overall improvement accompanied by widening disparities, characterized by selective agglomeration and the emergence of a pronounced high-value tail. Spatial autocorrelation consistently indicates significant spatial dependence, while LISA analysis identifies persistent low–low clusters and limited spillover absorption around core cities. A modified gravity model further uncovers a transition from a linear, corridor-based linkage structure to a more polycentric and networked competitiveness system, albeit with enduring peripheral weak nodes. The study contributes theoretically by conceptualizing sustainable urban competitiveness as a multidimensional nexus shaped jointly by territorial attributes and relational network structures. It demonstrates that competitiveness dynamics in megaregions emerge from the interplay of hierarchical consolidation, spatial divergence, and network reconfiguration—challenging the traditional assumption of simple core-to-periphery diffusion. The findings offer broader global implications, showing that the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei case mirrors worldwide megaregional patterns, where proximity alone is insufficient to ensure functional integration, and where coordinated governance, network embeddedness and sustainability transitions increasingly determine regional competitiveness. This research provides a comprehensive analytical foundation for understanding and governing megaregional competitiveness in the era of sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Systems and Global Change)

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25 pages, 11187 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Reconfiguration of China’s Three Major Staple Crops and Climate–Resource Matching Dynamics, 2001–2020

by Di Shi, Qun Meng, Yuandong Zou, Jianbao Huang, Ting Feng, Lu Lu, Hedong Wang, Chengfeng He, Chunqiang Zhao, Tianyu Zeng, Xiaoyu Hu, Yitong Chen, Xiaoxue Wang and Xuemei Luo

Land 2026, 15(5), 850; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050850 (registering DOI) - 15 May 2026

Abstract

Understanding how staple-crop geography aligns with climate resources is important for food-security planning under climate change. Focusing on rice, winter wheat and maize in China from 2001 to 2020, this study constructed 1 km crop-abundance grids from annual 30 m crop-distribution data and [...] Read more.

Understanding how staple-crop geography aligns with climate resources is important for food-security planning under climate change. Focusing on rice, winter wheat and maize in China from 2001 to 2020, this study constructed 1 km crop-abundance grids from annual 30 m crop-distribution data and integrated weighted centres of gravity (COGs), Standard Deviational Ellipses (SDEs), effective accumulated temperature and a Climate Resource Matching Index (CRMI) to evaluate crop migration, spatial-form change and matching with thermal, pluvial and radiant resource centres. Results show that rice exhibited the strongest northeastward migration, with a cumulative COG path of 448.9 km, but its CRMI declined markedly, indicating that thermal relaxation did not translate into coordinated multi-resource improvement. Winter wheat remained anchored in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, with adjustment mainly occurring through internal concentration and persistent moisture constraints. Maize showed expansion before 2015 followed by partial correction, and its CRMI trough in 2015 was robust under alternative weighting schemes. Overall, China’s staple-crop change represents a differentiated spatial reconfiguration rather than a uniform northward shift. Because these metrics are national-scale, the findings should inform crop zoning as broad spatial signals rather than direct local yield responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synergistic Integration of Transport, Land, and Ecosystems)

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35 pages, 11720 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Street-Level Visual Perception on Different Types of Leisure Activity Intensity in Waterfront Spaces: A Case Study of the Core Section of the Pearl River, Guangzhou

by Yudan Pan, Yang Chen and Jin Cao

Land 2026, 15(5), 849; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050849 (registering DOI) - 15 May 2026

Abstract

As urban waterfront public spaces have increasingly become important settings for residents’ daily leisure activities, there remains a lack of empirical evidence based on objective image data regarding how street-level visual environments influence different types of leisure activities. The existing studies have largely [...] Read more.

As urban waterfront public spaces have increasingly become important settings for residents’ daily leisure activities, there remains a lack of empirical evidence based on objective image data regarding how street-level visual environments influence different types of leisure activities. The existing studies have largely relied on macro-scale built environment indicators and paid limited attention to micro-scale visual perception from the pedestrian perspective. To address this gap, this study focuses on the core waterfront section of the Pearl River in Guangzhou. Behavioral observations were conducted across nine spatial units during different time periods on weekdays and weekends, yielding 54 samples of passive, active, and social activity intensity. Meanwhile, 109 street-view sampling points were established, generating 436 pedestrian-view images. Using Mask2Former with an ADE20K pre-trained model, visual environmental indicators—including the Green View Index (GVI), Sky View Index (SVI), built environment proportion, road proportion, and visual diversity (Entropy)—were extracted. Spearman correlation and multiple linear regression were applied to examine their effects on activity intensity. The results show that leisure activities are generally more active in the evening and on weekends, with social activities exhibiting the strongest temporal variation. Active activities remain relatively stable, passive activities show temporal dependence, and social activities display localized high-intensity clustering. Regression results reveal differentiated environmental responses: visual diversity has a stable positive effect on passive activities, active activities show weak associations with visual variables, and social activities are the most sensitive, with GVI, SVI, and built proportion showing significant negative effects, while visual diversity shows a significant positive effect. The social activity model also demonstrates the highest explanatory power (Adj. R² = 0.488). Overall, this study develops a street-view semantic segmentation-based method for quantifying waterfront visual environments, demonstrates the critical role of visual environmental composition in shaping activity patterns, and provides empirical support for the fine-grained and activity-oriented optimization of waterfront public spaces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Design and Planning for Socio-Environmental Sustainability of Landscapes and Communities: 2nd Edition)

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31 pages, 4182 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Cultivated Land Multifunctionality and Its Spatial Heterogeneity Characteristics Based on Topographic Gradients in the Alpine Valley Area

by Lijuan Wang, Dakun Yang and Zichen Zhang

Land 2026, 15(5), 848; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050848 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

Revealing the spatial differentiation patterns of cultivated land multifunctionality contributes to the improvement of cultivated land protection policies. This study investigated the spatiotemporal differentiation characteristics and functional zoning of cultivated land multifunctionality in Alpine Valley Area from a topographic gradient perspective. An evaluation [...] Read more.

Revealing the spatial differentiation patterns of cultivated land multifunctionality contributes to the improvement of cultivated land protection policies. This study investigated the spatiotemporal differentiation characteristics and functional zoning of cultivated land multifunctionality in Alpine Valley Area from a topographic gradient perspective. An evaluation index system for cultivated land multifunctionality in Alpine Valley Area was constructed across four dimensions: production (PF), social (SF), ecological (EF), and landscape (LF) functions. Using Yulong County, Yunnan Province, as a case study, methods including kernel density analysis, standard deviation ellipse theory, topographic gradient analysis, and hierarchical clustering were employed to quantify the horizontal and topographic gradient characteristics of the multifunctionality of cultivated land from 2010 to 2020, thereby delineating functional zones. Results indicated: (1) Cultivated land multifunctionality shows clear topographically-dependent spatial differentiation: PF concentrates in central basins and northwest specialty agricultural zones, SF overlaps with production but with more dispersed high/low values, EF follows a “high in the center, low on the lateral areas” pattern, and LF remains relatively stable; (2) Significant hierarchical differences in cultivated land functions were observed along the elevation, slope, and terrain niche index (TNI) gradients. PF, EF, and LF generally decreased with increasing elevation, slope, and TNI, whereas the dominance of SF exhibited an inverted-V-shaped distribution along the gradient. (3) The study area was divided into five zones: Flat-Basin Agritourism Zone (FAZ), River-Valley Eco-Agriculture Zone (REZ), Sub-Alpine Specialty Agricultural Production Zone (SSAPZ), Sub-Alpine Steep Slope Integrated Management Zone (SSIMZ), and Mid-Mountain Steep Slope Ecological Conservation Zone (MSECZ), with differentiated strategies proposed for each. This study innovatively integrates a topographic gradient perspective, TNI, and hierarchical clustering to systematically evaluate the cultivated land multifunctionality in Alpine Valley Area, providing a new methodological framework for similar mountainous regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Use, Impact Assessment and Sustainability)

30 pages, 5521 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Configuration Potential of Embedded Outdoor Sports Facilities in High-Density Urban Areas

by Yan Xiao, Jingyi Huo, Lingkun Wang, Peijin Sun and Yan Zhu

Land 2026, 15(5), 847; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050847 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

This study assesses the configuration potential of embedded outdoor sports facilities in high-density urban areas in response to persistent challenges related to supply–demand imbalance, limited accessibility, and low spatial efficiency under stock-based urban renewal. Embedded sports facilities, characterized by multifunctional land use and [...] Read more.

This study assesses the configuration potential of embedded outdoor sports facilities in high-density urban areas in response to persistent challenges related to supply–demand imbalance, limited accessibility, and low spatial efficiency under stock-based urban renewal. Embedded sports facilities, characterized by multifunctional land use and efficient resource integration, offer a promising pathway to alleviate these pressures. This study proposes a multidimensional framework to assess configuration potential by integrating multi-source data, spatial analysis, and quantitative evaluation methods. The assessment system is structured around three core dimensions: supply–demand improvement, use convenience, and environmental suitability. The TOPSIS model is applied to evaluate the configuration potential of 1268 parcels at the micro-scale. Results reveal a spatial pattern characterized by clustered low-potential parcels in central areas and scattered high-potential parcels in peripheral zones. The results reveal that low-potential clusters notably coincide with areas characterized by concentrated educational land uses and complex natural topographic conditions. Notably, more than 40 percent of high-potential parcels are located within blue–green infrastructure spaces. These findings provide practical evidence to support precise sports facility planning and community-scale renewal strategies in high-density urban environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Planning and Landscape Architecture)

17 pages, 3484 KB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental Preference as a Mediator of Streetscape Vitality: A Chain Mediation Model for Landscape Design

by Tiean Zou, Yutong Zhang, Wenbo Duan, Yuhao Liu, Xin Meng, Yuexin Zhang and Xingyuan Fu

Land 2026, 15(5), 846; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050846 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

As the inner driving factor of space vitality, environmental perception can be expressed in many ways. Given the current lack of in-depth research on related perceptions, the study integrated theoretical origin and empirical study methods to clarify the role that preference played as [...] Read more.

As the inner driving factor of space vitality, environmental perception can be expressed in many ways. Given the current lack of in-depth research on related perceptions, the study integrated theoretical origin and empirical study methods to clarify the role that preference played as the common foundation of different expression ways of environmental perception. The study also explored the interaction mechanism of different preference expression ways in the “quality-to-vitality” pathway and significant environmental characteristics of them, so as to realize the transformation from landscape design to urban vitality. Key findings indicate that: (1) Three environmental preference expressions—emotion, satisfaction, and behavioral preference—collectively lend credence to a significant chain mediation pathway (“emotion → satisfaction → behavioral preference”) in the quality-to-vitality process; (2) Pedestrian safety infrastructure (e.g., traffic barricades, well-maintained pavements) could ensure perceived security and walking activities; (3) Cultural/recreational facilities mean complementary legibility-enhancing elements (appropriate spatial enclosure, pleasant color schemes, architectural coherence) to evoke positive affect; (4) Streetscape diversity and visual interest might mitigate monotony induced by excessive block length, serving as vital vitality catalysts in some degree. Full article

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24 pages, 1655 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transition Pathways of Poverty Alleviation Relocation Communities into New Urbanization in China: A Policy Tool Perspective Based on 38 Policy Texts

by Zhimin Qin and Kanxuan Huang

Land 2026, 15(5), 845; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050845 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

As a policy-driven land use transition initiative bridging poverty eradication and sustainable development, China’s Poverty Alleviation Relocation (PAR) program exemplifies how state-led resettlement can reconfigure land use patterns while balancing immediate livelihood security with long-term community capacity development. The integration of large-scale PAR [...] Read more.

As a policy-driven land use transition initiative bridging poverty eradication and sustainable development, China’s Poverty Alleviation Relocation (PAR) program exemplifies how state-led resettlement can reconfigure land use patterns while balancing immediate livelihood security with long-term community capacity development. The integration of large-scale PAR communities into new urbanization is a critical postrelocation task that is essential for consolidating poverty eradication achievements and enhancing endogenous development capacity. This study examined how the configuration of policy instruments shapes the endogenous development capacity of PAR communities during their transition to new urbanization. Employing a “tool–goal” analytical framework, we conducted a content analysis of 38 provincial-level policy documents (2021–present) using NVivo 20 software. The findings reveal that while local governments have established a preliminary policy system, structural imbalances persist: (1) uneven deployment of policy tools, (2) underutilization of demand-based policy tools, (3) tool–goal misalignment, and (4) insufficient market/societal participation in government-led measures. The discussion further reveals that the land use transition in the PAR program emphasizes the “living mode” (housing and public services) over the “livelihood mode” (productive resources and nonagricultural employment), creating structural dependency and leaving industrial land underutilized—as evidenced by weak policy support for industrial development (14.83%) and labour outmigration from resettlement areas. Drawing on the sustainable livelihoods framework, we further demonstrate how this exogenous-dominated policy mix disproportionately enhances physical and financial capital while constraining the accumulation of human and social capital—the very foundations of endogenous development capacity. To address these issues, we propose three key recommendations: (1) optimizing the policy mix to strengthen the endogenous development capacity of PAR communities; (2) realigning policy tools with objectives to achieve diversified yet coordinated goals; and (3) addressing implementation gaps to better leverage market mechanisms and social forces in promoting the sustainable urban integration of resettlement areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Use Transition Pathways: Governance, Resources, and Policies)

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25 pages, 144074 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Does the Built Environment Shape Urban Vitality Across Multiple Scales? A Nonlinear Comparative Analysis of Chengdu and Chongqing in China

by Yuantai Ning and Enxu Wang

Land 2026, 15(5), 844; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050844 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

The built environment is the core material carrier shaping urban vitality, and its impact on urban vitality constitutes a key research hotspot in urban geography and urban–rural planning. Most existing studies focus on single cities and single scales. They pay insufficient attention to [...] Read more.

The built environment is the core material carrier shaping urban vitality, and its impact on urban vitality constitutes a key research hotspot in urban geography and urban–rural planning. Most existing studies focus on single cities and single scales. They pay insufficient attention to the heterogeneity of their relationship across different city types and spatial scales. They also lack a systematic framework for multi-dimensional comparative analysis. This study takes Chengdu and Chongqing as cases. They are the core cities of the Chengdu–Chongqing Twin-City Economic Circle. Three grid scales are applied. Using the XGBoost–SHAP-integrated model, this paper explores the differences in indicator importance, nonlinear impacts, and threshold effects of built environment on urban vitality. The objectives of this study are as follows: (1) This study will reveal the spatiotemporal differentiation characteristics and patterns of urban vitality across multiple cities, multiple grid scales, and multiple time periods. (2) This study will identify the relative importance of built environment indicators and their heterogeneous patterns across different cities and grid scales. (3) This study will clarify the nonlinear relationship between the built environment and urban vitality, as well as grid-scale differences and city differences. The results show the following: (1) Urban vitality exhibits significant distribution differences across cities, grid scales, and times. (2) In terms of relative importance, mean building height and building density are both important influencing indicators of urban vitality at multiple grid-scales in different cities. The effects of certain built environment indicators on urban vitality vary across cities and grid scales. Road intersection density plays a prominent role in Chengdu, while commercial accessibility has a significant influence in Chongqing. As the scale changes, indicators including road density, road intersection density, and commercial accessibility demonstrate distinct variation patterns. (3) The nonlinear effects of the built environment on urban vitality are significant and differ across cities and grid scales. The nonlinear effects of certain built environment indicators in Chongqing are more complex than those in Chengdu. As the scale changes, the nonlinear effect trends and thresholds of certain built environment indicators also show significant variations. Based on multi-city and multi-scale spatial analysis, this study deepens our systematic understanding of the relationship between the built environment and urban vitality. It provides a quantitative basis for understanding the interaction between human activities and physical spaces in different types of cities and at different grid scales. It also provides a referable paradigm for multi-dimensional analysis in similar studies. Full article

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22 pages, 15689 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Driving Forces and Spatial Predictions of Soil Total Nitrogen and Soil Total Phosphorus Using Machine Learning and Explainable AI: A Case Study of Grasslands in Qinghai Province, China

by Xinze Guo, Yiming Xu, Zhenqiang Liu, Youquan Tan and Tengfei Fan

Land 2026, 15(5), 843; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050843 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

Soil total nitrogen (TN) and soil total phosphorus (TP) are key soil quality indicators and provide critical ecological functions in the grasslands. This study analyzed the driving factors of TN/TP in the grasslands of Qinghai Province based on Shapley additive interpretation (SHAP) analysis. [...] Read more.

Soil total nitrogen (TN) and soil total phosphorus (TP) are key soil quality indicators and provide critical ecological functions in the grasslands. This study analyzed the driving factors of TN/TP in the grasslands of Qinghai Province based on Shapley additive interpretation (SHAP) analysis. Four machine learning methods, namely random forest (RF), XGBoost 3.2.0, support vector machine, and Cubist, were used to establish spatial prediction models for TN/TP. Vegetation factors (Net Primary Production and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) and precipitation-related factors (Aridity Index and Mean Annual Precipitation) were the most important variables for TN, indicating plant productivity and precipitation are strongly associated with TN accumulation. Elevation and temperature-related factors (Mean Annual Temperature and evapotranspiration) were the most important variables for TP, demonstrating that elevation-mediated temperature was the major factor affecting the TP accumulation. XGBoost and RF were the optimal models for TN and TP, respectively. TN exhibited a decreasing spatial trend from east to west, while the northwestern and southwestern areas showed relatively higher and lower TP, respectively. Total TN and TP stocks were estimated to be 3.57 × 10⁸ t and 0.88 × 10⁸ t, respectively. This study provides data support and suggestions for sustainable soil nutrient management in the grasslands on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Full article

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21 pages, 565 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Balance of Pulse Crops in Rotation with Spring Wheat

by Upendra M. Sainju, Chloe Turner-Meservy and Menuka Maharjan

Land 2026, 15(5), 842; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050842 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

Carbon footprint and C balance are used to understand whether an agroecosystem is a C source or sink. Our objective was to evaluate C inputs and outputs for determining C balance for pulse crops in rotation with spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) [...] Read more.

Carbon footprint and C balance are used to understand whether an agroecosystem is a C source or sink. Our objective was to evaluate C inputs and outputs for determining C balance for pulse crops in rotation with spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) from 2021 to 2022 to 2024–2025 in the US northern Great Plains. Pulse crops (chickpea [Cicer arietinum L], lentil [Lens culinaris Medik.], and pea [Pisum sativum L.]) were rotated with spring wheat to form four crop rotations (chickpea–spring wheat, lentil–spring wheat, pea–spring wheat, and spring wheat–spring wheat). Straw C was 26–74% lower for pulse crops than spring wheat, but 19–23% greater for pea–spring wheat than chickpea–spring wheat and lentil–spring wheat. Root biomass and rhizodeposit C were 24–31% greater for spring wheat–spring wheat than chickpea–spring wheat and pea–spring wheat. Grain C was 21% greater for pea than chickpea, but 64–97% lower for pulse crops than spring wheat. Cumulative CO₂ flux from May to April was 14–17% greater for spring wheat–spring wheat than chickpea–spring wheat and lentil–spring wheat. Soil C sequestration rate was greater for pea and spring wheat than chickpea and lentil, or greater for pea–spring wheat and spring wheat–spring wheat than other crop rotations. Carbon balance was 5–16% lower for pulse crops than spring wheat, or 9–16% lower for pulse crop–spring wheat rotations than spring wheat–spring wheat. Because of greater C input and C sequestration rate, spring wheat can reduce C loss compared to pulse crops, or continuous spring wheat can reduce the loss compared to pulse crop–spring wheat rotations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Water and Soil Conservation and Management for Agriculture)

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35 pages, 11649 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Flood Control Safety into Social–Ecological Development: Spatial Differentiation and Governance Implications in the Haihe River Basin

by Song Xu, Zhongshuo Zhang and Huichen Gao

Land 2026, 15(5), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050841 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

Flood control safety (FCS) is fundamental to sustainable development in river basins facing rapid urbanization and ecological stress. Taking the Haihe River Basin in China as a case study, this paper evaluates the temporal evolution of the three-subsystem development of social, ecological, and [...] Read more.

Flood control safety (FCS) is fundamental to sustainable development in river basins facing rapid urbanization and ecological stress. Taking the Haihe River Basin in China as a case study, this paper evaluates the temporal evolution of the three-subsystem development of social, ecological, and flood control safety from 2008 to 2022, and assesses the coupling coordination degree (CCD) of the social–ecological system (SES). The dynamic relationship between FCS and SES coordination is further examined using a panel vector autoregression (PVAR) model, while grey relational analysis with bootstrap resampling is employed to assess the associations between specific FCS indicators and SES coordination. The results show that all three subsystems improved over the study period, and the basin’s CCD increased from severe imbalance to a more coordinated stage. However, FCS remained the relatively weak subsystem, and its constraining role became more evident under the basin-area-weighted assessment. The overall temporal pattern is broadly consistent across different weighting schemes, although the absolute coordination levels vary. The PVAR results indicate that changes in FCS predict subsequent changes in SES coordination, whereas the reverse relationship is not statistically supported. Grey relational analysis further suggests that several FCS indicators, including levee length, reservoir capacity, and soil and water conservation measures, are similarly strongly associated with SES coordination. These findings suggest that improvements in observed coordination do not necessarily indicate that basin resilience has been fully established. Integrating flood control safety into SES assessment can provide a more policy-relevant basis for flood risk governance in highly urbanized and water-stressed basins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Land–Energy–Water–Climate Nexus and Sustainable Development Challenges)

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26 pages, 9676 KB

Open AccessArticle

Asymmetry Analysis and Hazard Assessment of Drought–Flood Abrupt Alternation Events in the Yellow River Basin

by Shuhan Zhou, Hao Guo, Wei Wang, Weimeng Gan, Li Zhu and Philippe De Maeyer

Land 2026, 15(5), 840; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15050840 (registering DOI) - 14 May 2026

Abstract

Drought–flood abrupt alternation (DFAA) is a typical compound hydroclimatic extreme process and has important implications for regional water resources regulation, agricultural production, and ecological stability. However, existing studies have mainly focused on event identification and frequency variation, while lacking a systematic investigation of [...] Read more.

Drought–flood abrupt alternation (DFAA) is a typical compound hydroclimatic extreme process and has important implications for regional water resources regulation, agricultural production, and ecological stability. However, existing studies have mainly focused on event identification and frequency variation, while lacking a systematic investigation of the directional differences between drought-to-flood (DF) and flood-to-drought (FD) events in terms of process structure, cumulative effects, and spatial hazard patterns. Based on daily precipitation data from 1960 to 2024, this study identified DFAA events in the Yellow River Basin by combining the standardized weighted average precipitation (SWAP) index with run theory, and analyzed the asymmetric characteristics of DF and FD events from the perspectives of event frequency, phase duration, abrupt-transition characteristics, cumulative severity, and integrated hazard. The results show that: (1) the frequency of DFAA events in the Yellow River Basin exhibited pronounced spatial heterogeneity, with an overall pattern of being higher in the middle reaches and lower in the upper and lower reaches. The frequency of DF events was generally higher than that of FD events, and their spatial distribution was also more continuous. No significant long-term trend was detected in the annual frequency, although clear interdecadal variability was observed, characterized by a transition from relatively low-frequency periods to medium- and high-frequency periods. (2) DF and FD events exhibited stable asymmetry in process structure. The abrupt-transition duration of DF events was mainly concentrated within 1–2 days, whereas that of FD events was mainly concentrated within 3–5 days. The two event types had comparable pre-transition durations, but DF events tended to shift more rapidly and were followed by a longer-lasting flood phase. (3) The differences between the two event types in terms of instantaneous intensity were relatively limited, whereas clearer divergence was observed in cumulative severity, with DF events showing greater overall severity than FD events. This indicates that the directional difference is manifested primarily in cumulative process effects rather than in the magnitude at a single moment. (4) The comprehensive hazard index (CHI) revealed that the northern and central-eastern parts of the middle reaches of the Yellow River Basin were the main hotspots of DFAA hazard. Among them, high-hazard areas of DF events were more extensive, whereas FD hazards were characterized more by localized intensification. These findings indicate that within the identification framework adopted here, DFAA in the Yellow River Basin is characterized not only by rapid dry–wet transitions, but also by clear directional differences between DF and FD in process structure and hazard pattern. This study can provide a scientific reference for the monitoring, early warning, and zonal hazard prevention of DFAA in the basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Disaster Monitoring and Land Mapping)

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