Water

15 pages, 7270 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by Carlos Bautista-Capetillo^*

, Brenda Carrillo, Gonzalo Picazo and Hugo Júnez-Ferreira

Maestría en Ingeniería Aplicada Orientación Recursos Hidráulicos, Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas, Avda. Ramón López Velarde, 801, Zacatecas 98000, Mexico

Water 2016, 8(10), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100416 - 23 Sep 2016

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7079

Abstract

Water has always been an essential development factor for civilizations, but its erratic distribution in space and time has caused severe socio-economic problems throughout human history due to both scarcity and excess. In Mexico, insufficient rainwater to satisfy crop water requirements is a [...] Read more.

Water has always been an essential development factor for civilizations, but its erratic distribution in space and time has caused severe socio-economic problems throughout human history due to both scarcity and excess. In Mexico, insufficient rainwater to satisfy crop water requirements is a recurrent phenomenon. From a meteorological perspective, drought refers to a decay of the rainfall–runoff process below normal values, resulting in lower availability of water resources to satisfy the needs of human activities, particularly those related to agriculture and livestock. This research reports on drought assessment for Zacatecas, Mexico using monthly data from 111 weather stations with temperature and precipitation information from a 33-year period. Drought was characterized by applying the Standardized Precipitation Index and the Reconnaissance Drought Index using 3, 6, and 12 month timescales; both indexes were plotted and mapped for the period 2005 to 2014. The trend indicates rainfall anomalies (from incipient drought to severe drought) in 6 or 7 years, depending of the selected timescale. April was selected to start the drought analysis because it is the month when farmers usually establish rainfed crops in the region. In ten years, Zacatecas has lost 478 million US dollars due to drought. 2005, 2009, and 2011 were the most critical years, with 47%, 39%, and 63% losses in agricultural income. Such values are in agreement with drought severity estimates: 2005 and 2011 were both dry years (drought indexes were less than −1.25 in the whole territory). Full article

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24 pages, 1363 KiB

Open AccessReview

Modes and Approaches of Groundwater Governance: A Survey of Lessons Learned from Selected Cases across the Globe

by Robert G. Varady¹, Adriana A. Zuniga-Teran^1,*, Andrea K. Gerlak^1,2 and Sharon B. Megdal³

¹ Udall Center for Studies in Public Policy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA

² School of Geography and Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA

³ Water Resources Research Center, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 417; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100417 - 23 Sep 2016

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 11129

Abstract

The crucial role of groundwater and the centrality of water governance in accommodating growing water demands sustainably are becoming well recognized. We review 10 case studies of groundwater governance—representing diverse global regions and local contexts—from the perspective of four well-established elements: (1) institutional [...] Read more.

The crucial role of groundwater and the centrality of water governance in accommodating growing water demands sustainably are becoming well recognized. We review 10 case studies of groundwater governance—representing diverse global regions and local contexts—from the perspective of four well-established elements: (1) institutional setting; (2) availability and access to information and science; (3) robustness of civil society; and (4) economic and regulatory frameworks. For institutional setting, we find that governing is often a thankless task that paradoxically requires popularity; legislation does not always translate to implementation; conflict resolution is central to governance; and funding is critical for governance. In terms of information access, we see: a need for research for natural systems, social systems, and institutions; trust as an essential element in research; and that urbanized landscapes are critical components of groundwater governance. Looking at civil society robustness, we observe that equity is an essential element for governance; community-based governance requires intention; and leaders can play a powerful role in uniting stakeholders. As for frameworks, the cases suggest that economic incentives sometimes yield unintended results; “indirect” management should be used cautiously; and economic incentives’ effectiveness depends on the system employed. Collectively, the lessons speak to the need for shared governance capacities on the part of governments at multiple levels and civil society actors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Governance, Stakeholder Engagement, and Sustainable Water Resources Management)

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21 pages, 2132 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling Flow Pattern and Evolution of Meandering Channels with a Nonlinear Model

by Leilei Gu^1,2, Shiyan Zhang^1,*

, Li He¹

, Dong Chen^1,2, Koen Blanckaert³, Willem Ottevanger⁴ and Yun Zhang⁵

¹ Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China

² University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China

³ Ecological Engineering Laboratory (ECOL), École Polytechnique Fédérale Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 CH Lausanne, Switzerland

⁴ River Engineering and Inland Shipping, Deltares, 2600 MH Delft, The Netherlands

⁵ Environmental Fluid Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 418; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100418 - 23 Sep 2016

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6372

Abstract

Meander dynamics has been the focus of river engineering for decades; however, it remains a challenge for researchers to precisely replicate natural evolution processes of meandering channels with numerical models due to the high nonlinearity of the governing equations. The present study puts [...] Read more.

Meander dynamics has been the focus of river engineering for decades; however, it remains a challenge for researchers to precisely replicate natural evolution processes of meandering channels with numerical models due to the high nonlinearity of the governing equations. The present study puts forward a nonlinear model to simulate the flow pattern and evolution of meandering channels. The proposed meander model adopts the nonlinear hydrodynamic submodel developed by Blanckaert and de Vriend, which accounts for the nonlinear interactions between secondary flow and main flow and therefore has no curvature restriction. With the computational flow field, the evolution process of the channel centerline is simulated using the Bank Erosion and Retreat Model (BERM) developed by Chen and Duan. Verification against two laboratory flume experiments indicates the proposed meander model yields satisfactory agreement with the measured data. For comparison, the same experimental cases are also simulated with the linear version of the hydrodynamic submodel. Calculated results show that the flow pattern and meander evolution process predicted by the nonlinear and the linear models are similar for mildly curved channels, whereas they exhibit different characteristics when channel sinuosity becomes relatively high. It is indicated that the nonlinear interactions between main flow and secondary flow prevent the growth of the secondary flow and induce a more uniform transverse velocity profile in high-sinuosity channels, which slows down the evolution process of meandering channels. Full article

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11 pages, 4125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Initial Quantification of Suspended Sediment Loads for Three Alaska North Slope Rivers

by Erica Lamb¹ and Horacio Toniolo^2,*

¹ Central Yukon Field Office, Bureau of Land Management, Fairbanks, AK 99709, USA

² Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775-5900, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 419; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100419 - 23 Sep 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4362

Abstract

This study provides an initial assessment of suspended sediment transport in three rivers on the Alaska North Slope. From 2011 to 2013, the Anaktuvuk (69°27′51.00′′ N, 151°10′07.00′′ W), Chandler (69°17′0.30′′ N, 151°24′16.14′′ W), and Itkillik (68°51′59.46′′ N, 150°2′24.00′′ W) Rivers were monitored for [...] Read more.

This study provides an initial assessment of suspended sediment transport in three rivers on the Alaska North Slope. From 2011 to 2013, the Anaktuvuk (69°27′51.00′′ N, 151°10′07.00′′ W), Chandler (69°17′0.30′′ N, 151°24′16.14′′ W), and Itkillik (68°51′59.46′′ N, 150°2′24.00′′ W) Rivers were monitored for a variety of hydrologic, meteorologic, and sedimentologic characteristics. Watershed response to summer precipitation events was examined for each river. Bed sediment grain-size distribution was calculated using a photographic grid technique. Mean sediment diameters were 27.1 and 41.5 mm (Samples A and B) for the Chandler, 35.8 mm for the Anaktuvuk, and 65.0 mm for the Itkillik. Suspended sediment rating curves were developed for each river. Suspended sediment discharge was analyzed. In 2011 and 2013, most of the total annual suspended sediment transport occurred during spring melt and widespread rainfall events, respectively. The results show that each river reacts differently to environmental inputs such as rain and basin characteristics. Full article

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17 pages, 6849 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in the Songhua River Basin

by Fengping Li^1,2, Guangxin Zhang^1,* and Y. Jun Xu³

¹ Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130102, China

² Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources and Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environment and Resources, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China

³ School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 420; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100420 - 25 Sep 2016

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 8429

Abstract

The Songhua River Basin (SRB) in Northeast China is one of the areas most sensitive to global climate change because of its high-latitude location. In this study, we conducted a modeling assessment on the potential change of water resources in this region for [...] Read more.

The Songhua River Basin (SRB) in Northeast China is one of the areas most sensitive to global climate change because of its high-latitude location. In this study, we conducted a modeling assessment on the potential change of water resources in this region for the coming three decades using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). First, we calibrated and validated the model with historical streamflow records in this basin. Then, we applied the calibrated model for the period from 2020 to 2049 with the projected and downscaled climatic data under two emission scenarios (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5). The study results show: (1) The SWAT model performed very well for both the calibration and validation periods in the SRB; (2) The projected temperatures showed a steady, significant increase across the SRB under both scenarios, especially in two sub-basins, the Nenjiang River Basin (NRB) and the Lower SRB (LSRB). With regard to precipitation, both scenarios showed a decreasing trend in the NRB and LSRB but an increasing trend in the Upper Songhua River Basin (USRB); and (3), generally, the hydrologic modeling suggested a decreasing trend of streamflow for 2020–2049. Compared to baseline conditions (1980–2009), the streamflow in the NRB and LSRB would decrease by 20.3%–37.8%, while streamflow in the USRB would experience an increase of 9.68%–17.7%. These findings provide relevant insights into future surface water resources, and such information can be helpful for resource managers and policymakers to develop effective eco-environment management plans and strategies in the face of climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tackling Complex Water Problems in China under Changing Environment)

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12 pages, 906 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Mosquito Management in Experimental Constructed Wetlands: Efficacy of Small-Stature Macrophytes and Fluctuating Hydroperiod

by William E. Walton^1,*

, Dagne Duguma^1,2, Min Tao³, David A. Popko¹ and Scott Nygren⁴

¹ Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA

² Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, University of Florida, 200 9th Street SE, Vero Beach, FL 32962, USA

³ School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hubei Polytechnic University, Huangshi 435003, China

⁴ Orange County Water District, 14980 River Road, Corona, CA 92880, USA

¹ (University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA)

¹ (Alan Plummer Associates Inc., College Station, TX, USA)

Water 2016, 8(10), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100421 - 26 Sep 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5370

Abstract

The impact of small-stature alkali bulrush (Bolboschoenus maritimus) and two hydroperiod treatments (early season raised water level or ambient water level) on mosquito production and water quality was studied in replicate 0.09 ha free water surface (FWS) treatment wetlands. Following reconfiguration [...] Read more.

The impact of small-stature alkali bulrush (Bolboschoenus maritimus) and two hydroperiod treatments (early season raised water level or ambient water level) on mosquito production and water quality was studied in replicate 0.09 ha free water surface (FWS) treatment wetlands. Following reconfiguration of a 1-ha constructed wetland into a system with six replicate wetlands, bulrush was planted on 0.5-m centers in three 5-m wide bands in each wetland in summer, 2012. Open water and the low density of emergent vegetation effectively limited mosquito production from the bands of B. maritimus in each wetland during summer and autumn of year one. After the autumnal senescence of the bulrush culms, water levels were raised in half of the wetlands during winter and early spring to enhance sinking of dead bulrush biomass to reduce harborage for mosquitoes. Macrophyte coverage continued to increase in both hydroperiod treatments during year two, but non-bulrush species proliferated and eventually overgrew B. maritimus. Immature mosquito abundance in dipper samples from wetlands in the raised water level treatment was greater than from wetlands in the constant water level treatment. During spring of year two, adult mosquito production was associated with volunteer vegetation in the center of the test cells and averaged 6–18 mosquitoes m⁻²·day⁻¹, approximately twice that of the other treatment. Hydrological regime did not significantly affect water quality performance (removal of nitrogen, phosphorus and chemical oxygen demand) in the wetlands. Alkali bulrush can persist in shallow water (depth < 0.2 m), but did not persist in deeper zones (mean depth > 0.4 m) of the wetlands and after comparatively large stature grasses and cattails colonized the wetlands. Raised planting beds interspersed with zones of deeper water are recommended to facilitate persistence of alkali bulrush and to limit proliferation of superior competitors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Constructed Wetlands for Water Treatment: New Developments)

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15 pages, 7861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Patterns and Influence Factors of Conversion Coefficients between Two Typical Pan Evaporimeters in China

by Yanzhong Li^1,2

, Changming Liu¹ and Kang Liang^1,*

¹ Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China

² University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China

Water 2016, 8(10), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100422 - 27 Sep 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6827

Abstract

Pan measurement is a reliable and efficient method for indicating the evaporative demand of the atmosphere. There are several types of pan evaporimeters worldwide, and the estimation of the conversion coefficients (K_p) between them is necessary in hydrologic research. In China, [...] Read more.

Pan measurement is a reliable and efficient method for indicating the evaporative demand of the atmosphere. There are several types of pan evaporimeters worldwide, and the estimation of the conversion coefficients (K_p) between them is necessary in hydrologic research. In China, E601B pans were installed at all meteorological stations beginning in 1998. They replaced the 20 cm pans (φ20). To fully use the records from the two pans and obtain long-term pan evaporation, the spatial patterns of K_p between φ20 and E601B and the factors that influence K_p are investigated based on records from 573 national meteorological stations from 1998 to 2001. In this study, The results show that higher K_p values are found in southwestern regions and lower values are found in northeastern regions during the warm seasons (from May to September), while K_p values are lower during warm seasons than during cold seasons (from October to April the following year). In addition, net radiation was found to be the dominant climate factor that affects variations in K_p, followed by relative humidity and the vapor pressure deficit. This study can improve the benefit of not only the selection of appropriate evaporimeters by meteorological departments, but also of the study of temporal variability and trends in the evaporative demand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydro-Meteorological Monitoring)

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14 pages, 3931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Dicentrarchus labrax Meats and the Vegetable Quality of Beta vulgaris var. cicla Farmed in Freshwater and Saltwater Aquaponic Systems

by Valentina Nozzi¹, Giuliana Parisi²

, Davide Di Crescenzo³, Mario Giordano¹ and Oliana Carnevali^1,*

¹ Department of Life and Environmental Science, Università Politecnica delle Marche, via Brecce Bianche, Ancona 60131, Italy

² Department of Agri-Food Production and Environmental Sciences, Animal Sciences Section, Università di Firenze, Via delle Cascine 5, Florence 50144, Italy

³ Aquaguide S.a.s. di Davide Di Crescenzo & C., Via IV Novembre 8, Falconara Marittima (AN) 60015, Italy

Water 2016, 8(10), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100423 - 26 Sep 2016

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7975

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to exploit the euryhaline nature of commercially attractive species for their cultivation in freshwater aquaponic systems. This approach may increase the profitability of aquaponic production in coastal countries where the consumption of marine fish is traditional and [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study is to exploit the euryhaline nature of commercially attractive species for their cultivation in freshwater aquaponic systems. This approach may increase the profitability of aquaponic production in coastal countries where the consumption of marine fish is traditional and of commercial relevance. For this purpose, juvenile European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) were reared in an aquaponic freshwater (AFW) system and an aquaponic saltwater (ASW) system (salinity 20 ppt), in combination with chard (Beta vulgaris var. cicla) seedlings, a salt tolerant plant. At the end of the trial, nitrate and phosphate concentration in water significantly increased in the ASW system, suggesting that the ability of B. vulgaris to absorb these substances was limited by salinity. Total reflection X-ray fluorescence spectrometry revealed that the concentration of some oligoelements such as Fe remained lower with respect to the concentration in the freshwater hydroponic solution, in both AFW and ASW. FTIR-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy on plants showed that growth at high salinity affected their lipid content. In the case of fish, freshwater had no effects on mono- and poly-unsaturated fatty acid profiles, although saturated fatty acids were significantly decreased in D. labrax reared in AFW. Our results demonstrates that it is possible to increase aquaponic profitability by farming D. labrax juveniles in an aquaponic freshwater system together with Beta vulgaris, obtaining good quality products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquaponics: Toward a Sustainable Water-Based Production System?)

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18 pages, 3730 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Coupled Water and Heat Transfer in Freezing and Thawing Soils, Inner Mongolia

by Ying Zhao^1,2,*

, Bingcheng Si^2,3,*, Hailong He¹, Jinghui Xu³, Stephan Peth⁴ and Rainer Horn⁵

¹ Key Laboratory of Plant Nutrition and the Agri-Environment in Northwest China, Ministry of Agriculture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China

² Department of Soil Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada

³ College of Water Resources and Architecture Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China

⁴ Department of Soil Science, University of Kassel, Nordbahnhofstr. 1a, 37213Witzenhausen, Germany

⁵ Institute of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, Christian-Albrechts-University zu Kiel, Olshausenstr. 40, Kiel 24118, Germany

Water 2016, 8(10), 424; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100424 - 27 Sep 2016

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7819

Abstract

Accurate simulation of soil water and heat transfer is critical to understand surface hydrology under cold conditions. Using an extended freezing code in HYDRUS-1D (freezing module), this study was conducted: (1) to evaluate the freezing module using field data collected in a grazed [...] Read more.

Accurate simulation of soil water and heat transfer is critical to understand surface hydrology under cold conditions. Using an extended freezing code in HYDRUS-1D (freezing module), this study was conducted: (1) to evaluate the freezing module using field data collected in a grazed steppe of Inner Mongolia; and (2) to further simulate grazing effects on frozen soil hydrological processes. The experimental data consisted of soil water and temperature profiles measured during freeze-thaw cycles from 2005 to 2006 in two plots (ungrazed since 1979 (UG79) and winter grazing (WG)). To check the sensitivity of the freezing module, a model without a freezing scheme (normal module) was used for comparison. We found that while the normal module can only simulate soil water and heat transfer under unfrozen conditions, the freezing module can simulate well under both frozen and unfrozen conditions. The freezing module can reasonably compute water phase change and, therefore, substantially improved the simulation of the evolution of liquid water and temperature in frozen soil. It overestimated liquid water content during spring snowmelt and, thus, underestimated surface runoff from underlying frozen soil layers. Furthermore, the weak prediction of soil moisture at the WG site, compared with the UG79 site, might relate to the less than ideal parameterization of soil hydraulic properties. Our results confirmed that the freezing module was able to accurately predict behaviors of soil freezing and thawing, as well as the effects of land management. We suggest that detailed knowledge of the soil-atmosphere processes is needed to improve the surface runoff algorithm in the frozen soil module. Full article

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18 pages, 2068 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling the Hydropower–Food Nexus in Large River Basins: A Mekong Case Study

by Jamie Pittock^1,*, David Dumaresq¹ and Andrea M. Bassi²

¹ Fenner School of Environment and Society, The Australian National University, 48 Linnaeus Way, Acton 2600, Australia

² KnowlEdge Srl, via San Giovanni Battista 2, Olgiate Olona 21057, Italy

Water 2016, 8(10), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100425 - 28 Sep 2016

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 9339

Abstract

An increasing global population and growing wealth are raising demand for energy and food, impacting on the environment and people living in river basins. Sectoral decision-making may not optimize socio-economic benefits because of perverse impacts in other sectors for people and ecosystems. The [...] Read more.

An increasing global population and growing wealth are raising demand for energy and food, impacting on the environment and people living in river basins. Sectoral decision-making may not optimize socio-economic benefits because of perverse impacts in other sectors for people and ecosystems. The hydropower–food supply nexus in the Mekong River basins is assessed here in an influence model. This shows how altering one variable has consequent effects throughout the basin system. Options for strategic interventions to maximize benefits while minimizing negative impacts are identified that would enable national and sub-national policy makers to take more informed decisions across the hydropower, water and food supply sectors. This approach should be further tested to see if it may aid policy making in other large river systems around the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Energy-Food Nexus in Large Asian River Basins)

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16 pages, 3099 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conditional Copula-Based Spatial–Temporal Drought Characteristics Analysis—A Case Study over Turkey

by Mahdi Hesami Afshar^1,*, Ali Unal Sorman² and Mustafa Tugrul Yilmaz¹

¹ Department of Civil Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 06800, Turkey

² Department of Civil Engineering, Near East University, Mersin 99138, Turkish Republic of North Cyprus

Water 2016, 8(10), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100426 - 21 Oct 2016

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 7179

Abstract

In this study, commonly used copula functions belonging to Archimedean and Elliptical families are fitted to the univariate cumulative distribution functions (CDF) of the drought characteristics duration (

LD

), average severity (

\bar{S}

), and average areal extent ( [...] Read more.

In this study, commonly used copula functions belonging to Archimedean and Elliptical families are fitted to the univariate cumulative distribution functions (CDF) of the drought characteristics duration (

LD

), average severity (

\bar{S}

), and average areal extent (

\bar{A}

) of droughts obtained using standardized precipitation index (SPI) between 1960 and 2013 over Ankara, Turkey. Probabilistic modeling of drought characteristics with seven different fitted copula functions and their comparisons with independently estimated empirical joint distributions show normal copula links drought characteristics better than other copula functions. On average, droughts occur with an average

LD

of 6.9 months,

\bar{S}

of 0.94, and

\bar{A}

of 73%, while such a drought event happens on average once in every 6.65 years. Results also show a very strong and statistically significant relation between

\bar{S}

and

\bar{A}

, and drought return periods are more sensitive to the unconditioned drought characteristic, while return periods decrease by adding additional variables to the analysis (i.e., trivariate drought analysis compared to bivariate). Full article

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23 pages, 9322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Trends and Temporal Synchrony in Plankton Richness, Diversity and Biomass Driven by Re-Oligotrophication and Climate across 17 Danish Lakes

by Korhan Özkan^1,2,3,*, Erik Jeppesen^1,4,5

, Thomas A. Davidson^1,2

, Rikke Bjerring¹, Liselotte S. Johansson¹, Martin Søndergaard¹

, Torben L. Lauridsen^1,6 and Jens-Christian Svenning²

¹ Freshwater Ecology Group, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Silkeborg 8600, Denmark

² Section for Ecoinformatics and Biodiversity, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000, Denmark

³ Institute of Marine Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Erdemli, Mersin 33340, Turkey

⁴ Greenland Climate Research Centre, Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, Nuuk 3900, Greenland

⁵ Sino-Danish Centre for Education and Research, Beijing 100190, China

⁶ Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8600, Denmark

Water 2016, 8(10), 427; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100427 - 28 Sep 2016

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 7187

Abstract

A two-decade (1989–2008) time series of lake phyto- and zooplankton, water characteristics and climate in 17 Danish lakes was analysed to examine the long term changes and the effects of lake restoration efforts. The analyses of the pair-wise correlations across time series revealed [...] Read more.

A two-decade (1989–2008) time series of lake phyto- and zooplankton, water characteristics and climate in 17 Danish lakes was analysed to examine the long term changes and the effects of lake restoration efforts. The analyses of the pair-wise correlations across time series revealed a strong synchrony in climatic variables among the lakes. A significant, but weak increase in air temperature was observed and resulted in a corresponding increase in surface water temperature only in summer. Lake physico-chemical variables had weaker synchrony than climatic variables. Synchrony in water temperature and stratification was stronger than lake chemistry as the former is mostly affected by atmospheric energy flux. Synchrony in the taxonomic richness of the plankton groups and phytoplankton biomass was apparent, to a similar degree as observed for lake chemistry. The synchrony and the temporal trends in lake chemistry and plankton were more pronounced for the lakes with strong re-oligotrophication. Phytoplankton biomass decreased and plankton richness increased in these lakes, with a shift from Chlorophyta dominance towards more heterogeneous phytoplankton communities. Notably, a widespread significant positive trend in plankton richness was observed not only in lakes with strong re-oligotrophication but across all lakes. The widespread increase in plankton richness coincided with widespread decrease in phosphate and total nitrogen concentrations, as well as with the trends in climate indicating a likely joint effect of nutrient reduction and climate in driving lake plankton. However, temporal changes and synchrony as well as the recovery of richness and composition of lake plankton more coherently corresponded with the nutrient loading reduction across the Danish landscape, while the role of climate control of the lake plankton was less pronounced. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lake Restoration and Management in a Climate Change Perspective)

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14 pages, 470 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Residential Water Demand in a Mexican Biosphere Reserve: Evidence of the Effects of Perceived Price

by Marco Antonio Almendarez-Hernández¹, Gerzaín Avilés Polanco², Víctor Hernández Trejo², Alfredo Ortega-Rubio¹ and Luis Felipe Beltrán Morales^1,*

¹ Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, Instituto Politecnico Nacional 195, Colonia Playa Palo de Santa Rita, 23096 La Paz, B.C.S., Mexico

² Department of Economics, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, Carretera al Sur Km 5.5, 23080 La Paz, B.C.S., Mexico

Water 2016, 8(10), 428; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100428 - 29 Sep 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5158

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to provide empirical evidence for policy-makers of water management, evaluate the applicability of economic variables such as price and other factors that affect demand, and determine the impact thereof on decision-making surrounding water management in the El [...] Read more.

The purpose of this paper is to provide empirical evidence for policy-makers of water management, evaluate the applicability of economic variables such as price and other factors that affect demand, and determine the impact thereof on decision-making surrounding water management in the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve in Mexico. We estimated a dynamic function with an average price specification, as well as price perception specification. Findings demonstrated that consumers tend to react to perceived average price but not to the marginal price. Furthermore, long-term price elasticity was found to be higher than short-term elasticity, and both elasticities were found to be inelastic. Inelastic elasticities, coupled with rising prices, generate substantial revenues with which to improve water planning and supply quality and to expand service coverage. The results suggest that users’ level of knowledge surrounding price is a key factor to take into account when restructuring rates, especially in situations where consumers do not readily possess the necessary information about their rate structure and usage within a given billing period. Furthermore, the results can help water management policy-makers to achieve goals of economic efficiency, social equity, and environmental sustainability. Full article

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12 pages, 6951 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quality of Water in the Road Drainage Systems in the Warsaw Agglomeration, Poland

by Joanna Fronczyk^1,*, Maja Radziemska¹

, Piotr Dynowski², Zbigniew Mazur³ and Marcin Bazydło¹

¹ Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159, Warsaw 02-776, Poland

² Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Universitiy of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Pl. Łódzki 1, Olsztyn 10-727, Poland

³ Faculty of Environmental Management and Agriculture, Universitiy of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Pl. Łódzki 4, Olsztyn 10-727, Poland

Water 2016, 8(10), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100429 - 29 Sep 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5465

Abstract

Water from road drainage systems shed into ditches and infiltration reservoirs may pose a hazard to the natural environment due to the possibility of being introduced into groundwater and surface water. The paper presents the results of chemical analyses of samples collected from [...] Read more.

Water from road drainage systems shed into ditches and infiltration reservoirs may pose a hazard to the natural environment due to the possibility of being introduced into groundwater and surface water. The paper presents the results of chemical analyses of samples collected from selected points of the Warsaw agglomeration road drainage system. The samples were tested for the content of the following parameters: pH, EC (multimeter-electrode), Cl⁻ (Mohr method), SO₄²⁻, PO₄³⁻, NH₄⁺, NO₃⁻, TOC, COD (UV-VIS), Cu, Zn, Ni, and Pb (ASA). The analysed points differed significantly in the variability of the tested parameters in the measurement period. The highest values of EC and Cl⁻ were noted in three tested points, in which the EC content exceeded the permissible values for the second class of water quality. The contents of sulphates in all but one point were within the range for water of very good quality. Water pH was slightly alkaline. Low concentrations of nitrogen forms, nitrate and ammonium ions were observed. The concentrations of Ni, Pb and Zn did not exceed the boundary values for industrial sewage shed into the water or ground. The concentration of Cu exceeded the permissible concentrations determined in the Regulation of the Minister of the Environment almost three times. Full article

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25 pages, 6821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Hollow Fibre Nanofiltration for Organic Matter Rich Lake Water

by Alexander Keucken^1,2,*, Yuan Wang³, Keng Han Tng³, Greg Leslie³, Tom Spanjer⁴ and Stephan J. Köhler⁵

¹ Vatten & Miljö i Väst AB (VIVAB), 311 22 Falkenberg, Sweden

² Water Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Lund Technical University, 221 00 Lund, Sweden

³ UNESCO Centre for Membrane Science and Technology, University of New South Wales, 2052 Sydney, Australia

⁴ Pentair X-Flow B.V., 7500 Enschede, The Netherlands

⁵ Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden

Water 2016, 8(10), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100430 - 30 Sep 2016

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7251

Abstract

Over the years, various technologies have been utilized for Natural Organic Matter (NOM) removal with varying degrees of success. Conventional treatment methods comprising of coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, or filtration are widely used to remove NOM. An alternative to these conventional methods is to [...] Read more.

Over the years, various technologies have been utilized for Natural Organic Matter (NOM) removal with varying degrees of success. Conventional treatment methods comprising of coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, or filtration are widely used to remove NOM. An alternative to these conventional methods is to use spiral wound membranes. These membranes tend to remove too much hardness whilst being ineffective in disinfection. They also have a low tolerance to chlorine and thus, have limited chemical cleaning options. In this study, we investigated how an alternative and new innovative filtration concept, based on capillary NF membranes from modified polyethersulfone (PES), may be used to treat soft but humus-rich surface waters. Comprehensive performance tests, with a fully automated membrane pilot equipped with a full-scale sized test module (40 m² membrane surface), were conducted at WTP Görvälnverket, which is operated by the water utility Norrvatten, providing drinking water from Mälaren (SUVA = 2.7–3.3, TOC = 7.0–10.0 mg·L⁻¹) for about 500,000 people in the northern part of the Swedish capital of Stockholm. The removal of both UV and DOC was modeled using a solution diffusion approach. The optimized parameters allow deducing optimal operation conditions with respect to energy, water consumption, and permeate water quality. Optimal cross flow velocity was determined to be 0.75 m·s⁻¹ at 80% recovery and a flux of 12–18 L·m⁻²·h⁻¹. Under these conditions, 80% of the UV, 75% of the Humic Substances (MW = 600) and 70% of TOC were removed (from 8 to below 2 mg·L⁻¹). A higher cross flow velocity led to marginal improvement (+2%) while both higher and lower membrane fluxes degraded permeate water quality. Apparent optimized diffusion coefficients for UV and TOC were around 1.2–2.4 × 10⁻¹⁰·m²·s⁻¹ and were similar to values found in the literature. Due to their higher diffusion coefficients and higher permeability coefficient, only 40% of the low molecular weight acids (MW = 300–400) were retained. Approximately 30%–40% of the low molecular weight acids in the permeate can be further removed using GAC post NF. The resulting energy consumption of a hypothetical four-stage design, at average operating temperature of 5.73 °C, was calculated to be around 0.6 kWh·m⁻³ produced water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Membranes for Water Treatment)

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18 pages, 7442 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using the RESC Model and Diversity Indexes to Assess the Cross-Scale Water Resource Vulnerability and Spatial Heterogeneity in the Huai River Basin, China

by Junxu Chen^1,2,*, Jun Xia^3,*, Zhifang Zhao¹, Si Hong³, Hong Liu^1,2 and Fei Zhao¹

¹ School of Resource, Environment and Earth Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China

² International Joint Research Center for Karstology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China

³ State Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China

Water 2016, 8(10), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100431 - 30 Sep 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6436

Abstract

Performing a multiscale assessment of water resource vulnerability on the basis of political boundaries and watersheds is necessary for adaptive water resources management. Using the Risk-Exposure-Sensitivity-Adaptability model (RESC model), the water resource vulnerability of the Huai River Basin was assessed using four scales, [...] Read more.

Performing a multiscale assessment of water resource vulnerability on the basis of political boundaries and watersheds is necessary for adaptive water resources management. Using the Risk-Exposure-Sensitivity-Adaptability model (RESC model), the water resource vulnerability of the Huai River Basin was assessed using four scales, namely, Class II, Class III, Province-Class II, and Municipality-Class III WRR (Water Resources Region). Following this, the spatial heterogeneity of the vulnerability of the above four scales was evaluated with the Theil and the Shannon-Weaver index. The results demonstrate that, instead of moving towards convergence, water resource vulnerability presents different grades which change together with the change in scale, and in turn, tend to weaken from east to west. Of the four scales, the scale of Municipality-Class III WRR shows the most significant spatial diversity, whereas that of Class II WRR shows the least diversity. With spatial downscaling, the vulnerability demonstrates high spatial heterogeneity and diversity. Herein, an innovative cross-scales vulnerability assessment is proposed and the RESC model characteristics and uncertainties as well as the employment of cross-scale water resource vulnerability are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tackling Complex Water Problems in China under Changing Environment)

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21 pages, 4492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterizing Changes in Streamflow and Sediment Supply in the Sacramento River Basin, California, Using Hydrological Simulation Program—FORTRAN (HSPF)

by Michelle Stern^1,*

, Lorraine Flint¹, Justin Minear², Alan Flint¹ and Scott Wright¹

¹ California Water Science Center, United States Geological Survey, Sacramento, CA 95819, USA

² Geomorphology and Sediment Transport Laboratory, United States Geological Survey, Golden, CO 80403, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100432 - 30 Sep 2016

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 8423

Abstract

A daily watershed model of the Sacramento River Basin of northern California was developed to simulate streamflow and suspended sediment transport to the San Francisco Bay-Delta. To compensate for sparse data, a unique combination of model inputs was developed, including meteorological variables, potential [...] Read more.

A daily watershed model of the Sacramento River Basin of northern California was developed to simulate streamflow and suspended sediment transport to the San Francisco Bay-Delta. To compensate for sparse data, a unique combination of model inputs was developed, including meteorological variables, potential evapotranspiration, and parameters defining hydraulic geometry. A slight decreasing trend of sediment loads and concentrations was statistically significant in the lowest 50% of flows, supporting the observed historical sediment decline. Historical changes in climate, including seasonality and decline of snowpack, contribute to changes in streamflow, and are a significant component describing the mechanisms responsible for the decline in sediment. Several wet and dry hypothetical climate change scenarios with temperature changes of 1.5 °C and 4.5 °C were applied to the base historical conditions to assess the model sensitivity of streamflow and sediment to changes in climate. Of the scenarios evaluated, sediment discharge for the Sacramento River Basin increased the most with increased storm magnitude and frequency and decreased the most with increases in air temperature, regardless of changes in precipitation. The model will be used to develop projections of potential hydrologic and sediment trends to the Bay-Delta in response to potential future climate scenarios, which will help assess the hydrological and ecological health of the Bay-Delta into the next century. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hillslope and Watershed Hydrology)

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22 pages, 3709 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Terrestrial Sediment Yield Projection under the Bias-Corrected Nonstationary Scenarios with Hydrologic Extremes

by Soojin Moon¹

and Boosik Kang^2,*

¹ Hydrometeorological Cooperation Center, 11, Gyoyukwon-ro, Gwacheon-si 13841, Korea

² Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Dankook University, 152, Jukjeon-ro, Suji-gu, Yongin-si 16890, Korea

Water 2016, 8(10), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100433 - 1 Oct 2016

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5446

Abstract

For reliable prediction of sediment yield in a watershed, fine-scale projections for hydro-climate components were first obtained using the statistical bias correction and downscaling scheme based on the combination of an Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Nonstationary Quantile Mapping (NSQM) and Stochastic Typhoon Synthesis [...] Read more.

For reliable prediction of sediment yield in a watershed, fine-scale projections for hydro-climate components were first obtained using the statistical bias correction and downscaling scheme based on the combination of an Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Nonstationary Quantile Mapping (NSQM) and Stochastic Typhoon Synthesis (STS) sub-modules. Successively, the hydrologic runoff and sediment yield from the land surfaces were predicted through the long-term continuous watershed model, Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), using the bias-corrected and downscaled Regional Climate Model (RCM) output under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC’s) A1B climate change scenario. The incremental improvement of the combined downscaling process was evaluated successfully during the baseline period, which provides projected confidence for the simulated future scenario. The realistic simulation of sediment yield is closely related to the rainfall event with high intensity and frequency. During the long-term future period, the Coefficient of River Regime (CORR) reaches 353.9 (27.2% increase with respect to baseline). The projection for annual precipitation by 2040 and 2100 is a 25.7% and a 57.2% increase with respect to the baseline period, respectively. In particular, the increasing CORR rate (33.4% and 72.5%) during the flood season is much higher than that for the annual total amount. However, the sediment yield is expected to increase by 27.4% and 121.2% during the same periods, which exhibits steeper trends than the hydrologic runoff. The June, July, August (JJA) season occupies 83.0% annual total sediment yield during the baseline period, which is similar during the projection period. The relative change of sediment yield is 1.9-times higher than that of dam inflows. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Soil-Vegetation Dynamic Interactions in Changing Climate)

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18 pages, 2385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Domestic Wastewater Depuration Using a Horizontal Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetland and Theoretical Surface Optimization: A Case Study under Dry Mediterranean Climate

by Pedro Andreo-Martínez, Nuria García-Martínez and Luis Almela^*

Department of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Murcia, Campus of Espinardo, Murcia 30100, Spain

Water 2016, 8(10), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100434 - 5 Oct 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 8867

Abstract

The wastewater generated by isolated houses without access to public sewers can cause environmental problems, like the contamination of aquifers with nitrates and phosphates, as occurs in southeastern Spain. The effectiveness of a previously built horizontal subsurface ﬂow constructed wetland (HF-CW) was studied [...] Read more.

The wastewater generated by isolated houses without access to public sewers can cause environmental problems, like the contamination of aquifers with nitrates and phosphates, as occurs in southeastern Spain. The effectiveness of a previously built horizontal subsurface ﬂow constructed wetland (HF-CW) was studied over two years as a possible solution. This HF-CW measured 27 m2; it was planted with Phragmites australis(Cav.) Trin. Ex Steuds sp. Altissima and the parameters studied were those required by European Union (EU) legislation and adopted by Spain. Average abatement efﬁciency rates, for the ﬁrst and the second year of study, were: biochemical oxygen demand over ﬁve days (BOD5) (96.4%, 92.0%), chemical oxygen demand (COD) (84.6%, 77.7%), total suspended solids(TSS) (94.8%,89.9%),total nitrogen(TN)(79.5%,66.0%),ammonium nitrogen(NH4+-N)(98.8%, 86.6%) and total phosphorous (TP) (83.7%, 82.8%). Average abatement efﬁciency for nitrate nitrogen (NO3−-N) (−1280.5%, −961.1%) and nitrite nitrogen (NO2−-N) (−5.8%, −40.0%) were negative because its content in inﬂuent wastewater was very low and they appear mainly from inﬂuent NH4+-N, as a result of puriﬁcation processes carried out in the HF-CW bed. The abatement rates make the system suitable to produce discharges into the environment in accordance with Spanish law. It is noteworthy that the HF-CW patch suffered an episode of bed drying during the summer of 2013, whereby the causes were related to system oversizing and high evapotranspiration in the area. As a consequence, the decrease in the abatement of water pollutants during the second year can be attributed to the creation of preferential water ﬂow paths and short circuits through the constructed wetland (CW) bed. As a result of the oversizing of the CW, a theoretical resizing based on BOD5, TSS, TN or TP is proposed. The calculated values for the redesign were: 5.22 m2 considering DBO5, 0.18 m2 considering TSS, 10.14 m2 considering TN and 23.83 m2 considering TP. Considering the area where the HF-CW was located and in accordance with Spanish law for non-sensitive areas (no TN or TP requirements for wastewater discharge), BOD5 is the most appropriate parameter for design; it is 5.2 times lower than the HF-CW initially built and without risk of bed drying. Full article

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20 pages, 8726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Redox Dynamics and Oxygen Reduction Rates of Inﬁltrating Urban Stormwater beneath Low Impact Development (LID)

by Mays N. Danfoura

and Jason J. Gurdak^*

Department of Earth & Climate Sciences, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100435 - 4 Oct 2016

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6455

Abstract

Low impact development (LID) best management practices (BMPs) collect, inﬁltrate, and treat stormwater runoff, and increase recharge to aquifers. Understanding the controls on reduction/oxidation (redox) conditions within LID BMPs is important for groundwater management because outﬂow from some LID BMPs can recharge aquifers [...] Read more.

Low impact development (LID) best management practices (BMPs) collect, inﬁltrate, and treat stormwater runoff, and increase recharge to aquifers. Understanding the controls on reduction/oxidation (redox) conditions within LID BMPs is important for groundwater management because outﬂow from some LID BMPs can recharge aquifers and affect groundwater quality. Here we evaluate redox conditions of urban stormwater runoff in a LID inﬁltration trench in San Francisco, California, and quantify the relation between water saturation (%) and temperature (◦C) and resulting dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations, redox dynamics, and O₂ reduction rates. The DO ﬂuctuations ha ve an inverse response to the duration of saturation of the trench. Anoxic (<0.5 mg/L) conditions often occurred within hours of stormwater events and persisted from a few hours to two days, which indicate that microbial respiration can be a limiting factor for DO. Temperature of stormwater runoff was not a statistically signiﬁcant control on DO. The estimated O₂ reduction rate is 0.003mg·L-1·min-1, which is two to ﬁve orders of magnitude higher than in groundwater from previous studies. Higher rates of O₂ reduction are a function of the more toxic and organic-rich stormwater runoff that drives faster microbial O₂ reduction. Our ﬁndings have important implications for the design of inﬁltration trenches and other LID BMPs to achieve desired redox conditions for inﬁltrating stormwater toward minimizing groundwater contamination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Drainage and Urban Stormwater Management)

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19 pages, 5447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonlinear Changes in Land Cover and Sediment Runoff in a New Zealand Catchment Dominated by Plantation Forestry and Livestock Grazing

by Ioannis Kamarinas^1,2,*, Jason P. Julian^1,2, Andrew O. Hughes³, Braden C. Owsley^2,4 and Kirsten M. De Beurs^2,4

¹ Department of Geography, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA

² Landscape & Land Use Change Institute (LLUCI), Norman, OK 73069, USA

³ National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA), Hamilton, 3216, New Zealand

⁴ Department of Geography and Environmental Sustainability, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100436 - 4 Oct 2016

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6959

Abstract

Land cover can change frequently on intensively managed landscapes, affecting water quality across different spatiotemporal scales. Multi-resolution datasets are necessary in order to assess the extent and trends of these changes, as well as potential cross-scale interactions. In this study, both spatial and [...] Read more.

Land cover can change frequently on intensively managed landscapes, affecting water quality across different spatiotemporal scales. Multi-resolution datasets are necessary in order to assess the extent and trends of these changes, as well as potential cross-scale interactions. In this study, both spatial and temporal analyses of land disturbance (i.e., soil exposure from vegetation removal) and water quality were performed on datasets ranging from daily to yearly time scales. Time-series analyses of land disturbance were compared against the water quality variables of total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, and visual clarity for the Hoteo River catchment on the North Island of New Zealand for the 2000–2013 period. During forest harvest and recovery phases, exotic forests were the dominant disturbance, up to ﬁve times the area of grassland disturbance; while after recovery, grasslands assumed the dominant role, for up to 16 times the area of forest disturbance. Time-series of TSS from ﬁeld sampling (2000–2013) and TSS-event analyses (2012–2014) displayed distinct nonlinear patterns, suggesting that after major events, sediment that is stored in the landscape is exhausted and a period of sediment build-up follows until the next major event. Time-series analyses also showed a connection between trends in connected land disturbance and visual water clarity, with connected disturbance having the potential to be a water quality indicator. Future research should be conducted at even ﬁner spatiotemporal scales over longer periods in order to identify effects of localized land disturbances on downstream water quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Use, Climate, and Water Resources)

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22 pages, 5518 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Re-Linking Governance of Energy with Livelihoods and Irrigation in Uttarakhand, India

by Stephanie Buechler^1,2,*, Debashish Sen³, Neha Khandekar^3,4 and Christopher A. Scott^1,2

¹ School of Geography and Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

² Udall Center for Studies in Public Policy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

³ People’s Science Institute, Dehra Dun, Uttarakhand 248006, India

⁴ The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, Delhi 110003, India

Water 2016, 8(10), 437; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100437 - 8 Oct 2016

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 13430

Abstract

Hydropower is often termed “green energy” and proffered as an alternative to polluting coal-generated electricity for burgeoning cities and energy-insecure rural areas. India is the third largest coal producer in the world; it is projected to be the largest coal consumer by 2050. [...] Read more.

Hydropower is often termed “green energy” and proffered as an alternative to polluting coal-generated electricity for burgeoning cities and energy-insecure rural areas. India is the third largest coal producer in the world; it is projected to be the largest coal consumer by 2050. In the Himalayan state of Uttarakhand, India, over 450 hydroelectric power schemes are proposed or are under development. Hydropower projects ranging from micro hydro (run-of-the-river systems with generating capacity up to 100 kW) to large reservoirs (storage systems up to 2000 MW) such as the Tehri Dam are in various stages of planning, construction or implementation. Run-of-the-river hydropower projects are being developed in Uttarakhand in order to avoid some of the costs to local communities created by large dams. Stakeholders in this rapid hydropower expansion include multiple actors with often diverging sets of interests. The resulting governance challenges are centered on tradeoffs between local electricity and revenue from the sale of hydropower, on the one hand, and the impacts on small-scale irrigation systems, riparian-corridor ecosystem services, and other natural resource-based livelihoods, on the other. We focus on the Bhilangana river basin, where water dependent livelihoods differentiated by gender include farming, fishing, livestock rearing and fodder collection. We examine the contradictions inherent in hydropower governance based on the interests of local residents and other stakeholders including hydropower developers, urban and other regional electricity users, and state-level policymakers. We use a social justice approach applied to hydropower projects to examine some of the negative impacts, especially by location and gender, of these projects on local communities and then identify strategies that can safeguard or enhance livelihoods of women, youth, and men in areas with hydropower projects, while also maintaining critical ecosystem services. By assessing the Bhilangana basin case, we also offer hydropower–livelihoods–irrigation nexus lessons for headwater regions across the Himalayas and globally. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Governance, Stakeholder Engagement, and Sustainable Water Resources Management)

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13 pages, 1019 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Restoration of Shallow Lakes in Subtropical and Tropical China: Response of Nutrients and Water Clarity to Biomanipulation by Fish Removal and Submerged Plant Transplantation

by Jinlei Yu^1,*, Zhengwen Liu^1,2,3,*, Kuanyi Li¹, Feizhou Chen¹, Baohua Guan¹, Yaohui Hu¹, Ping Zhong², Yali Tang²

, Xuefeng Zhao⁴, Hu He¹

, Haiyi Zeng² and Erik Jeppesen^3,5

¹ State Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing, 210008, China

² Department of Ecology and Institute of Hydrobiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510630, China

³ Sino-Danish Centre for Education and Research (SDC), University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China

⁴ Beisun Environmental Technology Company, Guangzhou, 510623, China

⁵ Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark

Water 2016, 8(10), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100438 - 5 Oct 2016

Cited by 58 | Viewed by 8264

Abstract

Fish removal has been used to restore temperate lakes, and positive effects on ecological state and water clarity have frequently been recorded in many lakes. Recently, a supplementary measure, transplantation of submerged macrophytes after fish removal, has been applied to restore warm Chinese [...] Read more.

Fish removal has been used to restore temperate lakes, and positive effects on ecological state and water clarity have frequently been recorded in many lakes. Recently, a supplementary measure, transplantation of submerged macrophytes after fish removal, has been applied to restore warm Chinese shallow lakes in order to compensate for the expected lack of increasing grazing control of phytoplankton after the biomanipulation. These measures have successfully shifted turbid warm lakes to a clear water state, but little is known about the responses to restoration of key physico-chemical variables. We analyzed the seasonal variation in nutrient concentrations in two subtropical and one tropical biomanipulated shallow Chinese lakes subjected to restoration. In all three lakes, a marked decline occurred in the concentrations of lake total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), total suspended solids (TSS), and chlorophyll a (Chl a), while the transparency (SD:WD ratio, Secchi depth to water depth ratio) increased. A clear water state was established, lasting so far for 7 to 23 months, and TN, TP, Chl a, and TSS levels in the three restored lakes decreased to, on average, 49%, 58%, 41%, and 18% of the level prior to restoration and/or the level in a reference lake, respectively, while the annual mean SD:WD ratio exhibited a 1.5–4 fold increase. In conclusion, lake restoration by transplantation of submerged macrophytes after fish removal had major positive effects on the physico-chemical variables in our study lakes. However, continuous control of omnivorous and herbivorous fish biomass is recommended as the fish typically present in warm, shallow lakes to some extent feed on submerged macrophytes, when available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lake Restoration and Management in a Climate Change Perspective)

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23 pages, 11075 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of Droughts in South Africa: A Case Study of Free State and North West Provinces

by Christina M. Botai^1,*, Joel O. Botai^1,2

, Lucky C. Dlamini¹, Nosipho S. Zwane¹ and Elelwani Phaduli¹

¹ South African Weather Service, Private Bag X097, Pretoria 0001, South Africa

² Department of Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0001, South Africa

Water 2016, 8(10), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100439 - 10 Oct 2016

Cited by 76 | Viewed by 36801

Abstract

The Free State (FS) and North West (NW) Provinces are often hard hit by droughts with impacts on water availability, farm production and livestock holdings. The South African government declared the two Provinces drought disaster areas in the 2015/2016 hydrological year. This is [...] Read more.

The Free State (FS) and North West (NW) Provinces are often hard hit by droughts with impacts on water availability, farm production and livestock holdings. The South African government declared the two Provinces drought disaster areas in the 2015/2016 hydrological year. This is a major drawback, since both the Provinces play an important role to South African economy as they are a haven to agricultural production and have major water reservoirs in South Africa. This study was undertaken to investigate the historical evolution of drought within the FS and NW Provinces over the past 30 years. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) calculated based on monthly meteorological data from 14 weather/climate stations within the FS and NW Provinces were used to explore and characterize variation in drought intensity, duration, frequency and severity in FS and NW Provinces during 1985–2015. Results indicate that there exist localized positive and negative trends with spatial dependence across the selected stations. In particular, about 60% of the weather stations exhibiting a decreasing trend are located in FS Province, suggesting that FS has being experiencing increasing drought during the analyzed period compared to NW Province. Results from the analysis of drought evaluation indicators (DEIs) calculated from SPEI suggest that drought severity and frequency was more pronounced in FS while the intensity of the drought was more in NW Province during 1985–2015. In addition, based on SPEI calculations, moderate drought occurrences increased during 1985–1994 and 1995–2004 periods and decreased thereafter (2005–2015) in both Provinces. Drought classification based on parameters derived from SPEI produced similar results for mild drought occurrences during the same time scales. Full article

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13 pages, 9014 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Shallow Groundwater Recharge from Extreme Rainfalls in the Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China

by Yuyu Liu^1,2

, Xin Jiang³, Guangxin Zhang^1,2,*, Y. Jun Xu⁴

, Xihua Wang⁵ and Peng Qi^1,2

¹ Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130102, China

² Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Environment, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130102, China

³ Institute of Water and Environmental Research, Faculty of Infrastructure Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China

⁴ School of Renewable Natural Resources, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, 227 Highland Road, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA

⁵ Institute of Hydrogeology and Environmental Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Shijiazhuang 050061, China

Water 2016, 8(10), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100440 - 10 Oct 2016

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6451

Abstract

Groundwater recharge from rainstorms can be vital for regional water resources. With the expansion of the need for more water in some specific regions under global climate change, groundwater is being pumped at a far greater rate than it can be naturally replenished. [...] Read more.

Groundwater recharge from rainstorms can be vital for regional water resources. With the expansion of the need for more water in some specific regions under global climate change, groundwater is being pumped at a far greater rate than it can be naturally replenished. Considering that excess rainstorms could be utilized for groundwater recharge to lessen the declining tendency of regional groundwater level in the Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China, we analyzed groundwater changes in the quantity of a regional shallow aquifer in the region following extreme rainfall in 2013. The results show that shallow groundwater table in the north and central Sanjiang Plain increased following the 2013 extreme rainfall. Most of the annual maximal change of groundwater depth (MCGD) was in the range of 1 m to 3 m, occupying 72.1% of the study area. The average MCGD was 1.73 m in 2013, about 0.4 m higher than the mean value during the last five years (1.33 m). Spatially, the overall average groundwater depth showed an increasing trend from the southeast to the midwest and northeast. We estimated a total recharge of approximately 41.14 × 10⁸ m³ from the 2013 extreme rainfall across the north and central Sanjiang Plain. This large quantity of recharge demonstrates the important role that large rainstorms can play in regional shallow groundwater resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tackling Complex Water Problems in China under Changing Environment)

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18 pages, 5343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Alternative Climate Data Sources for Hydrological Simulations in the Upstream of the Amu Darya River

by Ayetiguli Sidike^1,2, Xi Chen^1,2,*, Tie Liu^1,2

, Khaydar Durdiev^1,2,3 and Yue Huang^1,2

¹ State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 818 South Beijing Road, Urumqi 830011, China

² University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 19A, Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing 100049, China

³ Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Scientific Research Institute of Irrigation and Water Problems under the Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and Melioration, Tashkent 100187, Uzbekistan

Water 2016, 8(10), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100441 - 11 Oct 2016

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5719

Abstract

The main objective of this study is to investigate alternative climate data sources for long-term hydrological modeling. To accomplish this goal, one weather station data set (WSD) and three grid-based data sets including three types of precipitation data and two types of temperature [...] Read more.

The main objective of this study is to investigate alternative climate data sources for long-term hydrological modeling. To accomplish this goal, one weather station data set (WSD) and three grid-based data sets including three types of precipitation data and two types of temperature data were selected according to their spatial and temporal details. An accuracy assessment of the grid-based data sets was performed using WSD. Then, the performances of corrected data combination and non-corrected grid-based precipitation and temperature data combinations from multiple sources on simulating river flow in the upstream portion of the Amu Darya River Basin (ADRB) were analyzed using a Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The results of the accuracy assessments indicated that all the grid-based data sets underestimated precipitation. The Asian Precipitation Highly Resolved Observational Data Integration Towards the Evaluation of Water Resources (APHRODITE) precipitation data provided the highest accuracy (correlation coefficients (CF) > 0.89, root mean square error (RMSE) < 41.6 mm), followed by the CRUNCEP reanalysis data (a combination of the CRU TS.3.2 data and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) reanalysis data) (CF > 0.5, RMSE < 58.1 mm) and Princeton’s Global Meteorological Forcing Dataset (PGMFD) precipitation data (CF > 0.46, RMSE < 62.8 mm). The PGMFD temperature data exhibited a higher accuracy (CF > 0.98, RMSE < 7.1 °C) than the CRUNCEP temperature data (CF > 0.97, RMSE < 4.9 °C). In terms of the simulation performance, the corrected APHRODITE precipitation and PGMFD temperature data provided the best performance. The CF and Nash-Sutcliffe (NSE) coefficients in the calibration and validation periods were 0.96 and 0.92 and 0.93 and 0.83, respectively. In addition, the combinations of PGMFD temperature data and APHRODITE, PGMFD and CRUNCEP precipitation data produced good results, with NSE ≥ 0.70 and CF ≥ 0.89. The combination of CRUNCEP temperature data and APHRODITE precipitation produced a satisfactory result, with NSE = 0.58 and CF = 0.82. The combinations of CRUNCEP temperature data and PGMFD and CRUNCEP precipitation data produced poor results. Full article

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17 pages, 4645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of ASR Clogging Investigations at Three Australian ASR Sites in a Bayesian Context

by Peter Dillon^1,2,3,4,*, Joanne Vanderzalm⁵

, Declan Page⁵

, Karen Barry⁵

, Dennis Gonzalez⁵

, Muthu Muthukaruppan⁶ and Matthew Hudson⁶

¹ CSIRO Land and Water, Honorary Fellow, Glen Osmond 5064, SA, Australia

² NCGRT, School of the Environment, Flinders University, Bedford Park 5042, SA, Australia

³ School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, SA, Australia

⁴ School of City Development, University of Jinan, Jinan 250022, Shangdong, China

⁵ CSIRO Land and Water, PMB2, Glen Osmond 5064, SA, Australia

⁶ City West Water, 1 McNab Avenue, Footscray 3011, VIC, Australia

Water 2016, 8(10), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100442 - 11 Oct 2016

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 6132

Abstract

When evaluating uncertainties in developing an aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) system, under normal budgetary constraints, a systematic approach is needed to prioritise investigations. Three case studies where field trials have been undertaken, and clogging evaluated, reveal the changing perceptions of viability of [...] Read more.

When evaluating uncertainties in developing an aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) system, under normal budgetary constraints, a systematic approach is needed to prioritise investigations. Three case studies where field trials have been undertaken, and clogging evaluated, reveal the changing perceptions of viability of ASR from a clogging perspective as a result of the progress of investigations. Two stormwater and one recycled water ASR investigations in siliceous aquifers are described that involved different strategies to evaluate the potential for clogging. This paper reviews these sites, as well as earlier case studies and information relating water quality, to clogging in column studies. Two novel theoretical concepts are introduced in the paper. Bayesian analysis is applied to demonstrate the increase in expected net benefit in developing a new ASR operation by undertaking clogging experiments (that have an assumed known reliability for predicting viability) for the injectant treatment options and aquifer material from the site. Results for an example situation demonstrate benefit cost ratios of experiments ranging from 1.5 to 6 and apply if decisions are based on experimental results whether success or failure are predicted. Additionally, a theoretical assessment of clogging rates characterised as acute and chronic is given, to explore their combined impact, for two operating parameters that define the onset of purging for recovery of reversible clogging and the onset of occasional advanced bore rehabilitation to address recovery of chronic clogging. These allow the assessment of net recharge and the proportion of water purged or redeveloped. Both analyses could inform economic decisions and help motivate an improved investigation methodology. It is expected that aquifer heterogeneity will result in differing injection rates among wells, so operational experience will ultimately be valuable in differentiating clogging behaviour under different aquifer conditions for the same water type. This paper was originally presented at ISMAR9, Mexico City 20–24 June 2016. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality Considerations for Managed Aquifer Recharge Systems)

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23 pages, 9644 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parameterization of a Hydrological Model for a Large, Ungauged Urban Catchment

by Gerald Krebs^1,*, Teemu Kokkonen¹, Heikki Setälä² and Harri Koivusalo¹

¹ Department of Built Environment, School of Engineering, Aalto University, Tietotie 1E, 02150 Espoo, Finland

² Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Niemenkatu 73, 15140 Lahti, Finland

Water 2016, 8(10), 443; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100443 - 11 Oct 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 7050

Abstract

Urbanization leads to the replacement of natural areas by impervious surfaces and affects the catchment hydrological cycle with adverse environmental impacts. Low impact development tools (LID) that mimic hydrological processes of natural areas have been developed and applied to mitigate these impacts. Hydrological [...] Read more.

Urbanization leads to the replacement of natural areas by impervious surfaces and affects the catchment hydrological cycle with adverse environmental impacts. Low impact development tools (LID) that mimic hydrological processes of natural areas have been developed and applied to mitigate these impacts. Hydrological simulations are one possibility to evaluate the LID performance but the associated small-scale processes require a highly spatially distributed and explicit modeling approach. However, detailed data for model development are often not available for large urban areas, hampering the model parameterization. In this paper we propose a methodology to parameterize a hydrological model to a large, ungauged urban area by maintaining at the same time a detailed surface discretization for direct parameter manipulation for LID simulation and a firm reliance on available data for model conceptualization. Catchment delineation was based on a high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM) and model parameterization relied on a novel model regionalization approach. The impact of automated delineation and model regionalization on simulation results was evaluated for three monitored study catchments (5.87–12.59 ha). The simulated runoff peak was most sensitive to accurate catchment discretization and calibration, while both the runoff volume and the fit of the hydrograph were less affected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Drainage and Urban Stormwater Management)

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19 pages, 2377 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential Impact of Climate Change on Suspended Sediment Yield in NW Spain: A Case Study on the Corbeira Catchment

by M. Luz Rodríguez-Blanco^1,*, Ricardo Arias¹, M. Mercedes Taboada-Castro¹, Joao Pedro Nunes²

, Jan Jacob Keizer²

and M. Teresa Taboada-Castro¹

¹ Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (CICA), Faculty of Sciences, University of A Coruna, A Coruña 15071, Spain

² Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM) and Department Environment & Planning, University of Aveiro, Aveiro 3810-193, Portugal

Water 2016, 8(10), 444; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100444 - 12 Oct 2016

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 6956

Abstract

Soil losses and the subsequent sediment delivery constitute significant environmental threats. Climate change is likely to have an impact on the availability of water and therefore on sediment yield in catchments. In this context, quantifying the sediment response to an increased atmospheric CO [...] Read more.

Soil losses and the subsequent sediment delivery constitute significant environmental threats. Climate change is likely to have an impact on the availability of water and therefore on sediment yield in catchments. In this context, quantifying the sediment response to an increased atmospheric CO₂ concentration and climate change is of utmost importance to the proper management of rural catchments. However, quantitative assessment of climate change impact remains a complex task. In this study, the potential medium (2031–2060) and long-term (2069–2098) impacts of projected changes of temperature, rainfall and CO₂ concentration on sediment yield in a small rural catchment located in NW Spain were evaluated using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. Climate change scenarios were created using future climate data projected by regional climate models from the ENSEMBLES project and two CO₂ concentration scenarios (550 and 660 ppm). The results showed that climate change would have a noticeable impact on suspended sediment if the forecast temperature, rainfall and CO₂ concentration changes included in this study were met. Overall, suspended sediment is expected to decrease (2031–2060: −11%, 2069–2098: −8%) compared to the baseline period (1981–2010), mainly due to decreased streamflow. However, an increase in sediment transport in winter is predicted, possibly associated with increased erosion in cultivated areas (11%–17%), suggesting that, at this time of the year, the effect of soil detachment prevails over sediment transport capacity. Consequently, management practices aimed at reducing soil erosion in cultivated areas should be carried out, because these are the main source of sediment in the study area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Watershed Sediment Process)

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22 pages, 1277 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Governing for Integrated Water and Flood Risk Management: Comparing Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches in Spain and California

by Anna Serra-Llobet^1,*, Esther Conrad^2,3 and Kathleen Schaefer⁴

¹ Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 215 Moses Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA

² Gould Center for Conflict Resolution, Stanford Law School, Stanford, CA 94305, USA

³ The Water in the West Program, Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA

⁴ Center for Catastrophic Risk Management, University of California, Berkeley, 8th Floor Barrows Hall, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100445 - 12 Oct 2016

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 12653

Abstract

Flood risk management in the context of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is becoming widely accepted as an approach to improving resilience in light of increasing flood risks due to climate change and other factors. This paper contributes to a better understanding of [...] Read more.

Flood risk management in the context of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is becoming widely accepted as an approach to improving resilience in light of increasing flood risks due to climate change and other factors. This paper contributes to a better understanding of the governance arrangements needed for effectively implement integrated approaches to managing flood risk. We compare how IWRM and flood risk management have been operationalized within “top-down” and “bottom-up” governance arrangements in the European Union and the United States. We focus in particular on two case study regions, the Catalan coastal region in Spain and the San Francisco Bay Area in California, which have strong similarities in economy, climate, and environmental values, but different institutional settings. Our findings contribute empirical evidence of the need for a balance between “top-down” and “bottom-up” approaches. While the San Francisco Bay Area’s strongly collaborative and participatory approach has generated new connections among flood managers and other stakeholders, the lack of a central entity with the capacity and mandate for on-going coordination and region-wide risk assessments appears to constrain its ability to support integrated and adaptive management. The European Union’s top-down approach and the presence of a central authority at the river basin scale have led to a consolidated regional plan in Catalonia encompassing all phases of flood risk management, but the degree of engagement and opportunities for knowledge-sharing among participants may be more limited. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Variability in Mediterranean-Climate Waters: Space, Time, and Intensity)

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9 pages, 190 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Water-Energy-Food Nexus in Large Asian River Basins

by Marko Keskinen^* and Olli Varis

Water & Development Research Group, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15200, Aalto 00076, Finland

Water 2016, 8(10), 446; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100446 - 12 Oct 2016

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 6608

Abstract

The water-energy-food nexus (“nexus”) is promoted as an approach to look at the linkages between water, energy and food. The articles of Water’s Special Issue “Water-Energy-Food Nexus in Large Asian River Basins” look at the applicability of the nexus approach in different [...] Read more.

The water-energy-food nexus (“nexus”) is promoted as an approach to look at the linkages between water, energy and food. The articles of Water’s Special Issue “Water-Energy-Food Nexus in Large Asian River Basins” look at the applicability of the nexus approach in different regions and rivers basins in Asia. The articles provide practical examples of the various roles and importance of water-energy-food linkages, but also discuss the theoretical aspects related to the nexus. While it is evident that any application of the nexus must be case-specific, some general lessons can be learnt as well. Firstly, there are a variety of interpretations for the nexus. These include three complementary perspectives that see nexus as an analytical approach, governance framework and emerging discourse. Secondly, nexus is—despite its name—a predominantly water-sector driven and water-centered concept. While this brings some benefits by, e.g., setting systemic boundaries, it is also the nexus’ biggest challenge: If the nexus is not able to ensure buy-in from food and energy sector actors, its added value will stay limited. Ultimately, however, what really matters is not the approach itself but the processes it helps to establish and outcomes it helps to create. Through its focus on water-energy-food linkages—rather than on those themes separately—the nexus is well positioned to help us to take a more systemic view on water, energy and food and, hence, to advance sustainable development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water-Energy-Food Nexus in Large Asian River Basins)

17 pages, 12556 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis and GIS Mapping of Flooding Hazards on 10 May 2016, Guangzhou, China

by Hai-Min Lyu¹, Guo-Fu Wang^2,3, Jack Shuilong Shen^1,*

, Lin-Hai Lu² and Guo-Quan Wang⁴

¹ State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering and Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Ship and Deep-Sea Exploration (CISSE), Department of Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China

² Jinan Rail Transit Group Co., Ltd., Jinan 250101, Shandong, China

³ College of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, Shandong, China

⁴ Department of Earth and Atmospheric Science, The National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping (NCALM), University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204-5007, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 447; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100447 - 12 Oct 2016

Cited by 97 | Viewed by 14081

Abstract

On 10 May 2016, Guangdong Province, China, suffered a heavy rainstorm. This rainstorm flooded the whole city of Guangzhou. More than 100,000 people were affected by the flooding, in which eight people lost their lives. Subway stations, cars, and buses were submerged. In [...] Read more.

On 10 May 2016, Guangdong Province, China, suffered a heavy rainstorm. This rainstorm flooded the whole city of Guangzhou. More than 100,000 people were affected by the flooding, in which eight people lost their lives. Subway stations, cars, and buses were submerged. In order to analyse the influential factors of this flooding, topographical characteristics were mapped using Digital Elevation Model (DEM) by the Geographical Information System (GIS) and meteorological conditions were statistically summarised at both the whole city level and the district level. To analyse the relationship between flood risk and urbanization, GIS was also adopted to map the effect of the subway system using the Multiple Buffer operator over the flooding distribution area. Based on the analyses, one of the significant influential factors of flooding was identified as the urbanization degree, e.g., construction of a subway system, which forms along flood-prone areas. The total economic loss due to flooding in city centers with high urbanization has become very serious. Based on the analyses, the traditional standard of severity of flooding hazards (rainfall intensity grade) was modified. Rainfall intensity for severity flooding was decreased from 50 mm to 30 mm in urbanized city centers. In order to protect cities from flooding, a “Sponge City” planning approach is recommended to increase the temporary water storage capacity during heavy rainstorms. In addition, for future city management, the combined use of GIS and Building Information Modelling (BIM) is recommended to evaluate flooding hazards. Full article

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14 pages, 586 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Water Footprint of the Mediterranean and American Diets

by Alejandro Blas^1,2,*, Alberto Garrido^1,2 and Bárbara A. Willaarts^1,2

¹ Water Observatory of the Botin Foundation, Madrid 28001, Spain

² Research Center for the Management of Environmental and Agricultural Risks (CEIGRAM), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid 28040, Spain

Water 2016, 8(10), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100448 - 13 Oct 2016

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 13794

Abstract

Global food demand is increasing rapidly as a result of multiple drivers including population growth, dietary shifts and economic development. Meeting the rising global food demand will require expanding agricultural production and promoting healthier and more sustainable diets. The goal of this paper [...] Read more.

Global food demand is increasing rapidly as a result of multiple drivers including population growth, dietary shifts and economic development. Meeting the rising global food demand will require expanding agricultural production and promoting healthier and more sustainable diets. The goal of this paper is to assess and compare the water footprint (WF) of two recommended diets (Mediterranean and American), and evaluate the water savings of possible dietary shifts in two countries: Spain and the United States (US). Our results show that the American diet has a 29% higher WF in comparison with the Mediterranean, regardless of products’ origin. In the US, a shift to a Mediterranean diet would decrease the WF by 1629 L/person/day. Meanwhile, a shift towards an American diet in Spain will increase the WF by 1504 L/person/day. The largest share of the WF of both diets is always linked to green water (62%–75%). Grey water in the US is 67% higher in comparison with Spain. Only five products account for 36%–46% of the total WF of the two dietary options in both countries, being meat, oil and dairy products the food items with the largest WFs. Our study demonstrates that adopting diets based on a greater consumption of vegetables, fruits and fish, like the Mediterranean one, leads to major water savings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Footprint Assessment)

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23 pages, 3813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reconstructing Historical VOC Concentrations in Drinking Water for Epidemiological Studies at a U.S. Military Base: Summary of Results

by Morris L. Maslia^1,*, Mustafa M. Aral²

, Perri Z. Ruckart¹ and Frank J. Bove¹

¹ Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA

² Multimedia Environmental Simulations Laboratory, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100449 - 13 Oct 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 11173

Abstract

A U.S. government health agency conducted epidemiological studies to evaluate whether exposures to drinking water contaminated with volatile organic compounds (VOC) at U.S. Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, were associated with increased health risks to children and adults. These health studies [...] Read more.

A U.S. government health agency conducted epidemiological studies to evaluate whether exposures to drinking water contaminated with volatile organic compounds (VOC) at U.S. Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, were associated with increased health risks to children and adults. These health studies required knowledge of contaminant concentrations in drinking water—at monthly intervals—delivered to family housing, barracks, and other facilities within the study area. Because concentration data were limited or unavailable during much of the period of contamination (1950s–1985), the historical reconstruction process was used to quantify estimates of monthly mean contaminant-specific concentrations. This paper integrates many efforts, reports, and papers into a synthesis of the overall approach to, and results from, a drinking-water historical reconstruction study. Results show that at the Tarawa Terrace water treatment plant (WTP) reconstructed (simulated) tetrachloroethylene (PCE) concentrations reached a maximum monthly average value of 183 micrograms per liter (μg/L) compared to a one-time maximum measured value of 215 μg/L and exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s current maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 5 μg/L during the period November 1957–February 1987. At the Hadnot Point WTP, reconstructed trichloroethylene (TCE) concentrations reached a maximum monthly average value of 783 μg/L compared to a one-time maximum measured value of 1400 μg/L during the period August 1953–December 1984. The Hadnot Point WTP also provided contaminated drinking water to the Holcomb Boulevard housing area continuously prior to June 1972, when the Holcomb Boulevard WTP came on line (maximum reconstructed TCE concentration of 32 μg/L) and intermittently during the period June 1972–February 1985 (maximum reconstructed TCE concentration of 66 μg/L). Applying the historical reconstruction process to quantify contaminant-specific monthly drinking-water concentrations is advantageous for epidemiological studies when compared to using the classical exposed versus unexposed approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality and Health)

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25 pages, 8005 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Radiation Components in a Global Freshwater Model with Station-Based Observations

by Hannes Müller Schmied^1,2,*

, Richard Müller³, Arturo Sanchez-Lorenzo⁴, Bodo Ahrens⁵

and Martin Wild⁶

¹ Institute of Physical Geography, Goethe-University, Frankfurt D-60438, Germany

² Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), Frankfurt D-60325, Germany

³ Center of Research and Development, German Meteorological Service, Offenbach D-63067, Germany

⁴ Pyrenean Institute of Ecology, Spanish National Research Council, Zaragoza ES-50059, Spain

⁵ Institute for Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences, Goethe-University, Frankfurt D-60438, Germany

⁶ Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich CH-8092, Switzerland

Water 2016, 8(10), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100450 - 14 Oct 2016

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6467

Abstract

In many hydrological models, the amount of evapotranspired water is calculated using the potential evapotranspiration (PET) approach. The main driver of several PET approaches is net radiation, whose downward components are usually obtained from meteorological input data, whereas the upward components are calculated [...] Read more.

In many hydrological models, the amount of evapotranspired water is calculated using the potential evapotranspiration (PET) approach. The main driver of several PET approaches is net radiation, whose downward components are usually obtained from meteorological input data, whereas the upward components are calculated by the model itself. Thus, uncertainties can be large due to both the input data and model assumptions. In this study, we compare the radiation components of the WaterGAP Global Hydrology Model, driven by two meteorological input datasets and two radiation setups from ERA-Interim reanalysis. We assess the performance with respect to monthly observations provided by the Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) and the Global Energy Balance Archive (GEBA). The assessment is done for the global land area and specifically for energy/water limited regions. The results indicate that there is no optimal radiation input throughout the model variants, but standard meteorological input datasets perform better than those directly obtained by ERA-Interim reanalysis for the key variable net radiation. The low number of observations for some radiation components, as well as the scale mismatch between station observations and 0.5° × 0.5° grid cell size, limits the assessment. Full article

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17 pages, 2814 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coupling GIS with Stormwater Modelling for the Location Prioritization and Hydrological Simulation of Permeable Pavements in Urban Catchments

by Daniel Jato-Espino^1,*

, Nora Sillanpää²

, Susanne M. Charlesworth³ and Ignacio Andrés-Doménech⁴

¹ GITECO Research Group, Universidad de Cantabria, Av. de los Castros s/n, 39005 Santander, Spain

² Department of Built Environment, Aalto University School of Engineering, P.O. Box 15200, 00076 Aalto, Finland

³ Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience (CAWR), Coventry University, CV1 5FB Coventry, UK

⁴ Instituto Universitario de Investigación de Ingeniería del Agua y del Medio Ambiente (IIAMA), Universitat Politècnica de València, Cno. de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain

Water 2016, 8(10), 451; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100451 - 14 Oct 2016

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 10191

Abstract

Permeable Pavement Systems (PPS) are an alternative to conventional paving systems that allow water to filter through their layers instead of running off them. They are structural source control Sustainable Drainage System (SuDS), which can contribute to reducing increased flood risk due to [...] Read more.

Permeable Pavement Systems (PPS) are an alternative to conventional paving systems that allow water to filter through their layers instead of running off them. They are structural source control Sustainable Drainage System (SuDS), which can contribute to reducing increased flood risk due to the combination of two of the greatest challenges with which cities will have to deal in the future: urbanization and Climate Change. Hence, this research consisted of the design of a site selection methodology for the location prioritization of PPS in urban catchments, in order to simulate their potential to attenuate flooding caused by severe rainfall events. This was achieved through the coupling of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and stormwater models, whose combination provided a framework for both locating and characterizing PPS. The usefulness of the methodology was tested through a real case study consisting of an urban catchment located in Espoo (southern Finland), which demonstrated that PPS can make a significant difference in the amount of runoff generated in an urban catchment due to intense storms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydroinformatics and Urban Water Systems)

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16 pages, 524 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Off-Farm Employment on Irrigation Water Efficiency in North China

by Ning Yin¹, Qiuqiong Huang², Zhihai Yang^1,*

and Yapeng Wang¹

¹ College of Economics & Management, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, Hubei, China

² Department of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 452; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100452 - 14 Oct 2016

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6194

Abstract

This paper examines the impacts of off-farm employment on irrigation water efficiency (IWE) with a set of household level data collected in Hebei Province in North China. A major finding is that households with higher shares of laborers working off-farm locally seem to [...] Read more.

This paper examines the impacts of off-farm employment on irrigation water efficiency (IWE) with a set of household level data collected in Hebei Province in North China. A major finding is that households with higher shares of laborers working off-farm locally seem to achieve higher IWEs. The effect of local off-farm employment is greater among those households that have made more efforts to use furrow irrigation. We also find that households with higher shares of elderly laborers and those with larger land holding are associated with lower IWEs. Households with better soil quality and those that pump from deeper wells are associated with higher IWEs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Economics and Policy)

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17 pages, 2718 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simplified Model to Estimate the Concentration of Inorganic Ions and Heavy Metals in Rivers

by Clemêncio Nhantumbo^1,2,*

, Rolf Larsson¹, Magnus Larson¹, Dinis Juízo²

and Kenneth M. Persson¹

¹ Water Resources Engineering, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, Lund SE-221 00, Sweden

² Faculty of Engineering, Eduardo Mondlane University, Avenida de Moçambique km 1.5, Maputo C.Postal 257, Mozambique

Water 2016, 8(10), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100453 - 14 Oct 2016

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6162

Abstract

This paper presents a model that uses only pH, alkalinity, and temperature to estimate the concentrations of major ions in rivers (Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, HCO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻, Cl [...] Read more.

This paper presents a model that uses only pH, alkalinity, and temperature to estimate the concentrations of major ions in rivers (Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺, HCO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻, Cl⁻, and NO₃⁻) together with the equilibrium concentrations of minor ions and heavy metals (Fe³⁺, Mn²⁺, Cd²⁺, Cu²⁺, Al³⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺). Mining operations have been increasing, which has led to changes in the pollution loads to receiving water systems, meanwhile most developing countries cannot afford water quality monitoring. A possible solution is to implement less resource-demanding monitoring programs, supported by mathematical models that minimize the required sampling and analysis, while still being able to detect water quality changes, thereby allowing implementation of measures to protect the water resources. The present model was developed using existing theories for: (i) carbonate equilibrium; (ii) total alkalinity; (iii) statistics of major ions; (iv) solubility of minerals; and (v) conductivity of salts in water. The model includes two options to estimate the concentrations of major ions: (1) a generalized method, which employs standard values from a world-wide data base; and (2) a customized method, which requires specific baseline data for the river of interest. The model was tested using data from four monitoring stations in Swedish rivers with satisfactory results. Full article

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16 pages, 5267 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plankton Community Stability and Its Relationship with Phytoplankton Species Richness in Lake Nansihu, China

by Wang Tian, Huayong Zhang^*

, Lei Zhao

, Xiang Xu

and Hai Huang

Research Center for Engineering Ecology and Nonlinear Science, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China

Water 2016, 8(10), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100454 - 14 Oct 2016

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5734

Abstract

The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning is a central issue in ecology. The insurance hypothesis suggests that biodiversity could improve community productivity and reduce the temporal variability of main ecosystem processes. In the present study, we used a plankton community that was [...] Read more.

The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning is a central issue in ecology. The insurance hypothesis suggests that biodiversity could improve community productivity and reduce the temporal variability of main ecosystem processes. In the present study, we used a plankton community that was investigated from 2011 to 2014 in Lake Nansihu to test this hypothesis and explore the mechanisms involved. As a result, 138 phytoplankton and 76 zooplankton species were identified in the lake, and their biomasses showed apparent seasonal variations. The average temporal stability index of zooplankton taxa was significantly higher than that of phytoplankton. Complex relationships were observed between the species richness and temporal stability of different phytoplankton taxa: a unimodal relationship for both Cyanophyta and Bacillariophyta; a strong concave relationship for Euglenophyta; and no apparent relationship for both Chlorophyta and total phytoplankton. These relationships were primarily controlled by the portfolio effect; while the effects of overyielding and species asynchrony were relatively weak. Phytoplankton species richness had a significant positive influence on the temporal stability indices of protozoa, Rotifera and total zooplankton, while its influence on Cladocera and copepods was not significant. The dominant mechanisms were found to be ‘trophic overyielding’ and a weak ‘trophic portfolio effect’; however, ‘trophic species asynchrony’ played a minor role. These results demonstrated that the effects of diversity on community stability can be complex in natural ecosystems. In addition, the diversity of phytoplankton not only influenced its own temporal stability, but also affected the stability of zooplankton through trophic interactions. Full article

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16 pages, 7757 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Runoff Simulation in the Upper Reaches of Heihe River Basin Based on the RIEMS–SWAT Model

by Songbing Zou^1,*, Hongwei Ruan^1,2, Zhixiang Lu¹, Dawen Yang³, Zhe Xiong⁴ and Zhenliang Yin¹

¹ Key Laboratory of Ecohydrology of Inland River Basin, Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China

² University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China

³ Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China

⁴ Key Laboratory of Regional Climate-Environment for Temperate East Asia, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China

Water 2016, 8(10), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100455 - 14 Oct 2016

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 6279

Abstract

In the distributed hydrological simulations for complex mountain areas, large amounts of meteorological input parameters with high spatial and temporal resolutions are necessary. However, the extreme scarcity and uneven distribution of the traditional meteorological observation stations in cold and arid regions of Northwest [...] Read more.

In the distributed hydrological simulations for complex mountain areas, large amounts of meteorological input parameters with high spatial and temporal resolutions are necessary. However, the extreme scarcity and uneven distribution of the traditional meteorological observation stations in cold and arid regions of Northwest China makes it very difficult in meeting the requirements of hydrological simulations. Alternatively, regional climate models (RCMs), which can provide a variety of distributed meteorological data with high temporal and spatial resolution, have become an effective solution to improve hydrological simulation accuracy and to further study water resource responses to human activities and global climate change. In this study, abundant and evenly distributed virtual weather stations in the upper reaches of the Heihe River Basin (HRB) of Northwest China were built for the optimization of the input data, and thus a regional integrated environmental model system (RIEMS) based on RCM and a distributed hydrological model of soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) were integrated as a coupled climate–hydrological RIEMS-SWAT model, which was applied to simulate monthly runoff from 1995 to 2010 in the region. Results show that the simulated and observed values are close; Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency is higher than 0.65; determination coefficient (R²) values are higher than 0.70; percent bias is controlled within ±20%; and root-mean-square-error-observation standard deviation ratio is less than 0.65. These results indicate that the coupled model can present basin hydrological processes properly, and provide scientific support for prediction and management of basin water resources. Full article

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17 pages, 3065 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Serious Gaming for Water Systems Planning and Management

by Dragan A. Savic^*

, Mark S. Morley and Mehdi Khoury

Centre for Water Systems, University of Exeter, North Park Road, Exeter EX4 4QF, UK

Water 2016, 8(10), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100456 - 14 Oct 2016

Cited by 65 | Viewed by 13906

Abstract

Water systems planning and management share the same roots with gaming, as they rely on concepts in systems analysis, operations research and decision sciences. This paper focuses on Serious Games (those used for purposes other than mere entertainment), with applications in the area [...] Read more.

Water systems planning and management share the same roots with gaming, as they rely on concepts in systems analysis, operations research and decision sciences. This paper focuses on Serious Games (those used for purposes other than mere entertainment), with applications in the area of water systems planning and management. A survey of published work on gaming is carried out with particular attention given to applications of Serious Gaming to water systems planning and management. The survey is also used to identify the principal criteria for the classification of Serious Gaming for water related applications, including application areas, goals, number and type of players, user interface, type of simulation model used, realism of the game, performance feedback, progress monitoring and game portability. The review shows that game applications in the water sector can be a valuable tool for making various stakeholders aware of the socio-techno-economic issues related to managing complex water systems. However, the critical review also indicates a gap that exists in the Serious Game application area with the lack of water distribution system games. A conceptually simple, but computationally elaborate new game for water distribution system analysis, design and evaluation (SeGWADE) is presented in this paper. It has a main goal of finding a least-cost design for a well-known benchmark problem, for which the game environment takes the computational and visualisation burden away from the simulation tool and the player. The game has been evaluated in a classroom environment in which a high degree of player engagement with the game was observed, due to its basic game ingredients and activities, i.e., challenge, play and fun. In addition, a clear improvement in learning has been observed in how players attempted to identify solutions that satisfy the pressure criterion with players readily identifying the proximity of the better solutions to the starting, infeasible configuration. Through applications of Serious Gaming such as this, decision makers can learn about the complexity of the water distribution system design problem, experiment safely using a computer model of a real system, understand conflicting objectives (i.e., minimization of cost and satisfaction of minimum pressure) and develop strategies for coping with complexity without being burdened by the limitations of the ICT technology at their disposal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydroinformatics and Urban Water Systems)

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25 pages, 3708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics of Bacterial Community Abundance and Structure in Horizontal Subsurface Flow Wetland Mesocosms Treating Municipal Wastewater

by Kristjan Oopkaup^*

, Marika Truu, Hiie Nõlvak, Teele Ligi, Jens-Konrad Preem, Ülo Mander and Jaak Truu

Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, 46 Vanemuise St., 51014 Tartu, Estonia

Water 2016, 8(10), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100457 - 17 Oct 2016

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6881

Abstract

Dynamics of bacterial community abundance and structure of a newly established horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF) pilot-scale wetland were studied using high-throughput sequencing and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods. Bacterial community abundance increased rapidly within one month and stabilised thereafter in three replicate [...] Read more.

Dynamics of bacterial community abundance and structure of a newly established horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF) pilot-scale wetland were studied using high-throughput sequencing and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods. Bacterial community abundance increased rapidly within one month and stabilised thereafter in three replicate HSSF constructed wetland (CW) mesocosms. The most dominant phylum was Proteobacteria, followed by Bacteroidetes in wetland media biofilms and Firmicutes in influent wastewater. CW bacterial community diversity increased over time and was positively related to the wastewater treatment efficiency. Increase in the abundance of total bacteria in the community was accompanied with the abundance of denitrifying bacteria that promoted nitrate and nitrite removal from the wastewater. During the 150-day study period, similar patterns of bacterial community successions were observed in replicate HSSF CW mesocosms. The data indicate that successions in the bacterial community in HSSF CW are shaped by biotic interactions, with a significant contribution made by external abiotic factors such as influent chemical parameters. Network analysis of the bacterial community revealed that organic matter and nitrogen removal in HSSF CW could be, in large part, allocated to a small subset of tightly interconnected bacterial species. The diversity of bacterial community and abundance of denitrifiers were good predictors of the removal efficiency of ammonia, nitrate and total organic C in HSSF CW mesocosms, while the removal of the seven-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD₇) was best predicted by the abundance of a small set of bacterial phylotypes. The results suggest that nitrogen removal in HSSF CW consist of two main pathways. The first is heterotrophic nitrification, which is coupled with aerobic denitrification and mediated by mixotrophic nitrite-oxidizers. The second pathway is anaerobic denitrification, which leads to gaseous intermediates and loss of nitrogen as N₂. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Constructed Wetlands for Water Treatment: New Developments)

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16 pages, 5841 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reduced Runoff Due to Anthropogenic Intervention in the Loess Plateau, China

by Yanzhong Li^1,2

, Changming Liu¹, Dan Zhang³, Kang Liang^1,*, Xinan Li⁴ and Guotao Dong⁵

¹ Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China

² University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China

³ Key Laboratory of Watershed Geographic Sciences, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210000, China

⁴ Guizhou Survey/Design Research Institute for Water Resources and Hydropower, Guiyang 550000, China

⁵ Yellow River Institute of Hydraulic Research, Yellow River Conservancy Commission, Zhengzhou 450003, China

Water 2016, 8(10), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100458 - 17 Oct 2016

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6455

Abstract

To maintain the sustainable utilization of water resources and reduce soil erosion in the Loess Plateau, the Chinese government has adopted a number of environmental restoration strategies since 1999, including the Grain for Green Project (GFGP) and the Natural Forest Conservation Program; these [...] Read more.

To maintain the sustainable utilization of water resources and reduce soil erosion in the Loess Plateau, the Chinese government has adopted a number of environmental restoration strategies since 1999, including the Grain for Green Project (GFGP) and the Natural Forest Conservation Program; these large projects greatly alter the regional water cycle. Detecting runoff changes and quantitatively assessing the contribution of anthropogenic activities (including land use/cover change (LUCC) and water diversion) and climate change (including potential evaporation and precipitation) are imperative for implementing sustainable management strategies. Using observed records from 15 hydrological stations and 85 national meteorological stations from 1980 to 2013, the decomposition method, based on the Budyko hypothesis, is used to quantify the impact of climate variation and anthropogenic interference on annual runoff for the 12 catchments in the Loess Plateau. The results show the following: (1) the observed annual runoff exhibited a negative trend in all 12 catchments (significant in eight catchments) with a range of −1.94 to −0.16 mm·year⁻¹ and exhibited a substantial difference before and after 1999; (2) the sensitivity of runoff to vegetation change, precipitation, and potential evapotranspiration increased in most catchments after 1999, indicating that great challenges and uncertainties might be introduced to regional water resource availability; and (3) the anthropogenic interference, particularly LUCC caused by forest strategies, has become the main contribution to runoff change. We suggest that more attention should be given to water resource availability and that the hydrologic consequences of revegetation should be taken into account in future management. Full article

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20 pages, 3496 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Climate Change Will Make Recovery from Eutrophication More Difficult in Shallow Danish Lake Søbygaard

by Jonas Rolighed^1,*, Erik Jeppesen^1,2,3,4

, Martin Søndergaard^1,2

, Rikke Bjerring¹, Jan H. Janse^5,6

, Wolf M. Mooij^6,7 and Dennis Trolle^1,2,*

¹ Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Vejlsøvej 25, P.O. Box 314, 8600 Silkeborg, Denmark

² Sino-Danish Centre for Education and Research (SDC), University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190 Beijing, China

³ Greenland Climate Research Centre (GCRC), Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, Kivioq 2, P.O. Box 570, 3900 Nuuk, Greenland

⁴ Arctic Centre (ARC), Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark

⁵ PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, P.O. Box 303, NL-3720 AH Bilthoven, The Netherlands

⁶ Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology, P.O. Box 50, 6700 AB Wageningen, The Netherlands

⁷ Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management Group, Department of Environmental Sciences, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands

Water 2016, 8(10), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100459 - 17 Oct 2016

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 8895

Abstract

Complex lake ecosystem models can assist lake managers in developing management plans counteracting the eutrophication symptoms that are expected to be a result of climate change. We applied the ecological model PCLake based on 22 years of data from shallow, eutrophic Lake Søbygaard, [...] Read more.

Complex lake ecosystem models can assist lake managers in developing management plans counteracting the eutrophication symptoms that are expected to be a result of climate change. We applied the ecological model PCLake based on 22 years of data from shallow, eutrophic Lake Søbygaard, Denmark and simulated multiple combinations of increasing temperatures (0–6 °C), reduced external nutrient loads (0%–98%) with and without internal phosphorus loading. Simulations suggest nitrogen to be the main limiting nutrient for primary production, reflecting ample phosphorus release from the sediment. The nutrient loading reduction scenarios predicted increased diatom dominance, accompanied by an increase in the zooplankton:phytoplankton biomass ratio. Simulations generally showed phytoplankton to benefit from a warmer climate and the fraction of cyanobacteria to increase. In the 6 °C warming scenario, a nutrient load reduction of as much as 60% would be required to achieve summer chlorophyll-a levels similar to those of the baseline scenario with present-day temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lake Restoration and Management in a Climate Change Perspective)

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19 pages, 678 KiB

Open AccessReview

Drought and Carbon Cycling of Grassland Ecosystems under Global Change: A Review

by Tianjie Lei^1,2, Zhiguo Pang^1,2,*, Xingyong Wang^1,2, Lin Li^1,2, June Fu^1,2,†, Guangyuan Kan^1,2,†, Xiaolei Zhang^1,2,†, Liuqian Ding^1,2, Jiren Li^1,2, Shifeng Huang^1,2 and Changliang Shao^3,*

¹ State Key Laboratory of Simulation and Regulation of Water Cycle in River Basin, Beijing 100038, China

² China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR), Beijing 100038, China

³ Department of Geography/CGCEO, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Water 2016, 8(10), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100460 - 17 Oct 2016

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 14788

Abstract

In recent years, the increased intensity and duration of droughts have dramatically altered the structure and function of grassland ecosystems, which have been forced to adapt to this change in climate. Combinations of global change drivers such as elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration, [...] Read more.

In recent years, the increased intensity and duration of droughts have dramatically altered the structure and function of grassland ecosystems, which have been forced to adapt to this change in climate. Combinations of global change drivers such as elevated atmospheric CO₂ concentration, warming, nitrogen (N) deposition, grazing, and land-use change have influenced the impact that droughts have on grassland C cycling. This influence, to some extent, can modify the relationship between droughts and grassland carbon (C) cycling in the multi-factor world. Unfortunately, prior reviews have been primarily anecdotal from the 1930s to the 2010s. We investigated the current state of the study on the interactive impacts of multiple factors under drought scenarios in grassland C cycling and provided scientific advice for dealing with droughts and managing grassland C cycling in a multi-factor world. Currently, adequate information is not available on the interaction between droughts and global change drivers, which would advance our understanding of grassland C cycling responses. It was determined that future experiments and models should specifically test how droughts regulate grassland C cycling under global changes. Previous multi-factor experiments of current and future global change conditions have studied various drought scenarios poorly, including changes in precipitation frequency and amplitude, timing, and interactions with other global change drivers. Multi-factor experiments have contributed to quantifying these potential changes and have provided important information on how water affects ecosystem processes under global change. There is an urgent need to establish a systematic framework that can assess ecosystem dynamic responses to droughts under current and future global change and human activity, with a focus on the combined effects of droughts, global change drivers, and the corresponding hierarchical responses of an ecosystem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tackling Complex Water Problems in China under Changing Environment)

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12 pages, 1909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonlinear Relationship of Near-Bed Velocity and Growth of Riverbed Periphyton

by Mohamed Ateia^1,*

, Mahmoud Nasr²

, Akira Ikeda¹, Hisako Okada³, Manabu Fujii¹, Masafumi Natsuike¹ and Chihiro Yoshimura¹

¹ Civil Engineering Department, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1-M1-4 Ookayama, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan

² Sanitary Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, P.O. Box 21544, Alexandria 21544, Egypt

³ Faculty of Agriculture, Meiji University, 1-1-1, Higasi-mita, Tama Ward, Kawasaki City, Kanagawa 214-8571, Japan

Water 2016, 8(10), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100461 - 17 Oct 2016

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5393

Abstract

Artificial streams were set up to test the relationship between near-bed water velocity and periphyton growth. Periphyton community samples collected from a Japanese stream were incubated for 44 days under a light intensity of 252 ± 72 μmol·photons/m²·s, a temperature of [...] Read more.

Artificial streams were set up to test the relationship between near-bed water velocity and periphyton growth. Periphyton community samples collected from a Japanese stream were incubated for 44 days under a light intensity of 252 ± 72 μmol·photons/m²·s, a temperature of 20–25 °C, and three near-bed water velocity classes: low (<17.9 cm/s), moderate (17.9–32.8 cm/s), and high (>32.8 cm/s). A logistic model was applied to estimate the maximum net growth rate (μ_max) and carrying capacity (B_max). A response surface method was also applied to estimate chlorophyll a (Chl-a) and ash-free dry mass (AFDM) with respect to the independent variables (i.e., time and water velocity). We detected both the highest μ_max (1.99 d⁻¹) and highest B_max (7.01 mg/m²) for Chl-a at the moderate water velocity. For AFDM, we observed the highest μ_max (0.57 d⁻¹) and B_max (1.47 g/m²) at the low and moderate velocity classes, respectively. The total algae density in the region of moderate velocity at the end of the experiment was 6.47 × 10³ cells/cm², corresponding to levels 1.7 and 1.3 times higher than those at lower and higher velocities, respectively. Our findings indicated that the moderate near-bed water velocity provided favorable conditions for algal growth and corresponding biomass accumulation. Full article

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20 pages, 9538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Delineating Groundwater Vulnerability and Protection Zone Mapping in Fractured Rock Masses: Focus on the DISCO Index

by Helen Meerkhan¹, José Teixeira^1,2,3, Jorge Espinha Marques⁴

, Maria José Afonso^1,2 and Helder I. Chaminé^1,2,*

¹ Laboratory of Cartography and Applied Geology (Labcarga), Department of Geotechnical Engineering, School of Engineering (ISEP), Polytechnic of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal

² Centre GeoBioTec|UA—Georesources, Geotechnics and Geomaterials group, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal

³ Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts, University of Porto (FLUP), 4099-002 Porto, Portugal

⁴ Institute of Earth Sciences (ICT|UP), Department of Geosciences, Environmental and Land Planning, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto (FCUP), 4099-002 Porto, Portugal

Water 2016, 8(10), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100462 - 18 Oct 2016

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7712

Abstract

Hard-rock catchments are considered to be source of valuable water resources for water supply to inhabitants and ecosystems. The present work aims to develop a groundwater vulnerability approach in the Caldas da Cavaca hydromineral system (Aguiar da Beira, Central Portugal) in order to [...] Read more.

Hard-rock catchments are considered to be source of valuable water resources for water supply to inhabitants and ecosystems. The present work aims to develop a groundwater vulnerability approach in the Caldas da Cavaca hydromineral system (Aguiar da Beira, Central Portugal) in order to improve the hydrogeological conceptual site model. Different types of information were overlaid, generating several thematic maps to achieve an integrated framework of key sectors in the study site. Thus, a multi-technical approach was used, encompassing field and laboratory techniques, whereby different types of data were collected from fields such as geology, hydrogeology, applied geomorphology and geophysics and hydrogeomechanics, with the fundamental aim of applying the so-called DISCO index method. All of these techniques were successfully performed and an intrinsic groundwater vulnerability to contamination assessment, based on the multicriteria methodology of GOD-S, DRASTIC-Fm, SINTACS, SI and DISCO indexes, was delineated. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) provided the basis on which to organize and integrate the databases and to produce all the thematic maps. This multi-technical approach highlights the importance of groundwater vulnerability to contamination mapping as a tool to support hydrogeological conceptualization, contributing to improving the decision-making process regarding water resources management and sustainability. Full article

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25 pages, 4803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Case Study: A Real-Time Flood Forecasting System with Predictive Uncertainty Estimation for the Godavari River, India

by Silvia Barbetta^1,*

, Gabriele Coccia²

, Tommaso Moramarco¹

and Ezio Todini²

¹ National Research Council, IRPI, Via Madonna Alta 126, 06128 Perugia, Italy

² BiGeA—University of Bologna, Via Zamboni 67, 40126 Bologna, Italy

Water 2016, 8(10), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100463 - 18 Oct 2016

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7815

Abstract

This work presents the application of the multi-temporal approach of the Model Conditional Processor (MCP-MT) for predictive uncertainty (PU) estimation in the Godavari River basin, India. MCP-MT is developed for making probabilistic Bayesian decision. It is the most appropriate approach if the uncertainty [...] Read more.

This work presents the application of the multi-temporal approach of the Model Conditional Processor (MCP-MT) for predictive uncertainty (PU) estimation in the Godavari River basin, India. MCP-MT is developed for making probabilistic Bayesian decision. It is the most appropriate approach if the uncertainty of future outcomes is to be considered. It yields the best predictive density of future events and allows determining the probability that a critical warning threshold may be exceeded within a given forecast time. In Bayesian decision-making, the predictive density represents the best available knowledge on a future event to address a rational decision-making process. MCP-MT has already been tested for case studies selected in Italian river basins, showing evidence of improvement of the effectiveness of operative real-time flood forecasting systems. The application of MCP-MT for two river reaches selected in the Godavari River basin, India, is here presented and discussed by considering the stage forecasts provided by a deterministic model, STAFOM-RCM, and hourly dataset based on seven monsoon seasons in the period 2001–2010. The results show that the PU estimate is useful for finding the exceedance probability for a given hydrometric threshold as function of the forecast time up to 24 h, demonstrating the potential usefulness for supporting real-time decision-making. Moreover, the expected value provided by MCP-MT yields better results than the deterministic model predictions, with higher Nash–Sutcliffe coefficients and lower error on stage forecasts, both in term of mean error and standard deviation and root mean square error. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Uncertainty Analysis and Modeling in Hydrological Forecasting)

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11 pages, 1458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Near Real-Time Flow Cytometry Monitoring of Bacterial and Viral Removal Efficiencies during Water Reclamation Processes

by Xiao Huang^†, Zheng Zhao^†, Dana Hernandez

and Sunny C. Jiang^*

¹ Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Water 2016, 8(10), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100464 - 18 Oct 2016

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 9046

Abstract

Wastewater reuse has become an important part of the urban water supply portfolio in water stressed regions. Effective wastewater treatment processes are critical to protect public health during water reuse practices. However, the microbial removal efficiencies in wastewater reclamation plants are not routinely [...] Read more.

Wastewater reuse has become an important part of the urban water supply portfolio in water stressed regions. Effective wastewater treatment processes are critical to protect public health during water reuse practices. However, the microbial removal efficiencies in wastewater reclamation plants are not routinely monitored due to the lack of a simple quantification method. This study applied a near real-time flow cytometry (FCM) technique to quantify the removal of total bacteria and viruses at three wastewater reclamation plants in Southern California. The results showed that the activated sludge process removed 1–2 log₁₀ of bacteria but was not efficient at removing viruses. The membrane bioreactor process was capable of removing both bacteria and viruses with high efficiency. At the plant using chloramines as the main disinfectant, even though culturable total coliform bacteria were effectively reduced to the level meeting the California Title 22 Water Recycling Criteria (7-day median of 2.2 most probable number (MPN)/100 mL, and no more than one sample exceeds 23 MPN/100 mL), the disinfected final effluent still contained greater than 10⁶ bacterial and 10⁸ viral particles per mL in. In contrast, more than 4 log₁₀ removal of both bacteria and viruses were observed at the plant using free chlorine as the main disinfectant. The results indicate that additional microbial indicators are needed and suggest the potential use of FCM as a rapid monitoring tool for evaluation of microbial removal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogens in Water)

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14 pages, 2429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Potential of Constructed Wetlands for Removal of Antibiotics from Saline Aquaculture Effluents

by Maria Bôto^1,2, C. Marisa R. Almeida^1,*

and Ana P. Mucha¹

¹ Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, CIIMAR/CIMAR, Universidade do Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal

² Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal

Water 2016, 8(10), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100465 - 18 Oct 2016

Cited by 53 | Viewed by 7702

Abstract

This work aimed to evaluate the potential of constructed wetlands (CWs) for removal of antibiotics (enrofloxacin and oxytetracycline) and antibiotic resistant bacteria from saline aquaculture wastewaters. Removal of other contaminants (nutrients, organic matter and metals) and toxicity reduction and the influence of antibiotics [...] Read more.

This work aimed to evaluate the potential of constructed wetlands (CWs) for removal of antibiotics (enrofloxacin and oxytetracycline) and antibiotic resistant bacteria from saline aquaculture wastewaters. Removal of other contaminants (nutrients, organic matter and metals) and toxicity reduction and the influence of antibiotics with these processes were evaluated. Thus, nine CWs microcosms, divided into three treatments, were assembled and used to treat wastewater (doped or not with the selected antibiotics) between October and December of 2015. Each week treated wastewater was removed and new wastewater (doped or not) was introduced in CWs. Results showed >99% of each antibiotic was removed in CWs. After three weeks of adaptation, removal percentages >95% were also obtained for total bacteria and for antibiotic resistant bacteria. Nutrients, organic matter and metal removal percentages in CWs treated wastewater were identical in the absence and in the presence of each antibiotic. Toxicity in treated wastewaters was significantly lower than in initial wastewaters, independently of antibiotics presence. Results showed CWs have a high efficiency for removing enrofloxacin or oxytetracycline as well as antibiotic resistant bacteria from saline aquaculture wastewaters. CWs can also remove other contaminants independently of drug presence, making the aquaculture wastewater possible to be reutilized and/or recirculated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Constructed Wetlands for Water Treatment: New Developments)

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19 pages, 246 KiB

Open AccessReview

Water Banks: What Have We Learnt from the International Experience?

by Nazaret M. Montilla-López^*

, Carlos Gutiérrez-Martín

and José A. Gómez-Limón

Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Córdoba, Campus Rabanales, Ctra. N-IV km 396, Córdoba 14014, Spain

Water 2016, 8(10), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100466 - 18 Oct 2016

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 12522

Abstract

In recent decades, the use of economic instruments has been promoted as a way to improve water demand management, required due to the difficulty of further supply increases. Against this backdrop, this paper analyses the potential of water banks as a type of [...] Read more.

In recent decades, the use of economic instruments has been promoted as a way to improve water demand management, required due to the difficulty of further supply increases. Against this backdrop, this paper analyses the potential of water banks as a type of water market that can provide institutional flexibility in the allocation of water resources among different users. Research has involved an extensive review of the literature, which has allowed us to identify different types of water banks that operate around the world, as well as an analysis of the experiences of water banks implemented to date, in order to assess the performance of this economic instrument in improving water management. This has provided evidence that water banks, if properly implemented, can be a useful tool for improving governance of water resources. Finally, the analysis has enabled us to propose a number of guidelines on how to improve the implementation of water banks in different countries around the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Economics and Policy)

11 pages, 420 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. Sucrine) Growth Performance in Complemented Aquaponic Solution Outperforms Hydroponics

by Boris Delaide^1,*,†, Simon Goddek^2,†, James Gott³, Hélène Soyeurt⁴ and M. Haissam Jijakli^1,*

¹ Integrated and Urban Plant Pathology Laboratory, Université de Liège, Gembloux B-5030, Belgium

² Biobased Chemistry & Technology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen 6700 AA, The Netherlands

³ Geography and Environment, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK

⁴ Statistics, Informatics, and Applied Modelling Unit, Department AGROBIOCHEM, University of Liège, Gembloux B-5030, Belgium

^† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Water 2016, 8(10), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100467 - 19 Oct 2016

Cited by 141 | Viewed by 28222

Abstract

Plant growth performance is optimized under hydroponic conditions. The comparison between aquaponics and hydroponics has attracted considerable attention recently, particularly regarding plant yield. However, previous research has not focused on the potential of using aquaponic solution complemented with mineral elements to commercial hydroponic [...] Read more.

Plant growth performance is optimized under hydroponic conditions. The comparison between aquaponics and hydroponics has attracted considerable attention recently, particularly regarding plant yield. However, previous research has not focused on the potential of using aquaponic solution complemented with mineral elements to commercial hydroponic levels in order to increase yield. For this purpose, lettuce plants were put into AeroFlo installations and exposed to hydroponic (HP), aquaponic (AP), or complemented aquaponic (CAP) solutions. The principal finding of this research was that AP and HP treatments exhibited similar (p > 0.05) plant growth, whereas the shoot weight of the CAP treatment showed a significant (p < 0.05) growth rate increase of 39% on average compared to the HP and AP treatments. Additionally, the root weight was similar (p > 0.05) in AP and CAP treatments, and both were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than that observed in the HP treatment. The results highlight the beneficial effect of recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) water on plant growth. The findings represent a further step toward developing decoupled aquaponic systems (i.e., two- or multi-loops) that have the potential to establish a more productive alternative to hydroponic systems. Microorganisms and dissolved organic matter are suspected to play an important role in RAS water for promoting plant roots and shoots growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquaponics: Toward a Sustainable Water-Based Production System?)

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7 pages, 924 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Survey of Aquaponics in Europe

by Morris Villarroel^1,*, Ranka Junge², Tamas Komives^3,4

, Bettina König⁵, Ignacio Plaza¹, András Bittsánszky³

and Agnès Joly⁶

¹ School of Agricultural Engineering, Technical University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, Madrid 28040, Spain

² Institute for Natural Resource Sciences, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Waedenswil 8820, Switzerland

³ Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Centre for Agricultural Research, Herman Otto 15, Budapest 1022, Hungary

⁴ Faculty of Agricultural Science, Esterhazy Karoly University, Matrai ut 36, Gyongyos 3200, Hungary

⁵ Faculty of Life Science and IRI THESys, Humboldt University of Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, Berlin 10099, Germany

⁶ AQUAPRIMEUR SARL, rue de la Mer, Blainville-sur-Orne 14550, France

Water 2016, 8(10), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100468 - 20 Oct 2016

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 14810

Abstract

International aquaponic production has increased over the past decade, but less is known about research activities and production facilities operating in Europe. We conducted an online survey to get a better idea about research and production in Europe, focusing on five areas of [...] Read more.

International aquaponic production has increased over the past decade, but less is known about research activities and production facilities operating in Europe. We conducted an online survey to get a better idea about research and production in Europe, focusing on five areas of aquaponics (i.e., demographics, facilities used, fish and crops produced, funding sources, and personal or company priorities for further development). The 68 respondents were distributed among 21 European countries, 43% were working at a university, and 19% were commercial producers. Only 11.8% of those surveyed had sold fish or plants in the past 12 months. Most respondents were male (66.2%) and had a post-graduate degree (91.7%). Facilities were generally new (74.5% constructed after 2010) and self-designed. Production figures were modest, with less than 10 respondents producing more than 1000 kg of fish or plants per year (mostly tilapia or catfish and herbs or lettuce). Systems were often funded by government grants (35.3%). The great majority of respondents (80.4%) stated that aquaponics was not their main source of income. Most respondents prioritized using aquaponics for educational purposes, while few (25%) used it to produce their own food or improve their health. Questions related to personal knowledge about aquaponics underlined the need for more training about fish diseases and plant pests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquaponics: Toward a Sustainable Water-Based Production System?)

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23 pages, 5261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flood Reduction in Urban Drainage Systems: Cooperative Operation of Centralized and Decentralized Reservoirs

by Eui Hoon Lee¹

, Yong Sik Lee¹, Jin Gul Joo², Donghwi Jung³

and Joong Hoon Kim^1,*

¹ School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Korea University, 306, Eng. Building, Anam-dong, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Korea

² Department of Civil Engineering, Dongshin University, Naju 520-714, Korea

³ Research Center for Disaster Prevention Science and Technology, Seoul 02841, Korea

Water 2016, 8(10), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100469 - 22 Oct 2016

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 17162

Abstract

Failure of drainage systems leads to urban flooding; therefore, structural measures such as the installation of additional drainage facilities, including pump stations and detention reservoirs, have been adopted in the past to prevent and mitigate urban flooding. These measures, however, are costly and [...] Read more.

Failure of drainage systems leads to urban flooding; therefore, structural measures such as the installation of additional drainage facilities, including pump stations and detention reservoirs, have been adopted in the past to prevent and mitigate urban flooding. These measures, however, are costly and time consuming. To maximize flood mitigation efficiency, it is essential to also implement non-structural measures such as effective operation of drainage facilities. In this study, we propose a new cooperative operation scheme for urban drainage systems that involves linking centralized reservoir (CR) and decentralized reservoir (DR) operations by sharing water level information at monitoring nodes. Additionally, we develop a resilience index to assess the system's ability to mitigate, restore, and recover from inundation (i.e., failure). Most results show that flood reduction and resilience in cooperative operations are better than the current operation. However, the results of CR operation for 2010 are worse than the current operation at high monitoring node levels (1.4 m–1.5 m), and the results of DR operation for 2011 are worse than the current operation at low monitoring node levels (0.8 m–0.9 m). All results related to flood reduction and resilience in cooperative operation are superior to the current operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Systems towards New Future Challenges)

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16 pages, 2880 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of the Municipal Solid Waste Łubna Landfill on Environmental Pollution by Heavy Metals

by Barbara Gworek¹, Wojciech Dmuchowski^2,3, Eugeniusz Koda^4,*

, Marta Marecka¹, Aneta H. Baczewska³, Paulina Brągoszewska¹, Anna Sieczka⁴

and Piotr Osiński⁴

¹ Institute of Environmental Protection-National Research Institute, Krucza 5/11d St., Warsaw 00-548, Poland

² Department of Agriculture and Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 159 St., Warsaw 02-776, Poland

³ Polish Academy of Sciences, Botanical Garden—Center for Biological Diversity Conservation, Prawdziwka 2 St., Warsaw 02-973, Poland

⁴ Department of Geotechnical Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 159 St., Warsaw 02-776, Poland

Water 2016, 8(10), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100470 - 21 Oct 2016

Cited by 96 | Viewed by 12790

Abstract

Landfills have been identified as potential sources of heavy metal pollution of the environment. The municipal solid waste Łubna landfill is one of the largest landfills in Poland. Its impact on heavy metal pollution (Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu, and Cr) of groundwater, soil [...] Read more.

Landfills have been identified as potential sources of heavy metal pollution of the environment. The municipal solid waste Łubna landfill is one of the largest landfills in Poland. Its impact on heavy metal pollution (Cd, Pb, Zn, Cu, and Cr) of groundwater, soil and plants has been thoroughly evaluated. Elevated levels of contamination have not been recorded in the vicinity of the landfill. The concentrations of heavy metals in soil from the vicinity of the landfill were similar to the geochemical background levels for the forest and farming soils of central Poland. The concentrations of heavy metals in European goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea L.) and grasses (Poaceae) did not exceed the baseline concentrations and did not indicate environmental pollution by heavy metals. The levels of the metal concentration in groundwater did not exceed the standards established for water intended for consumption. Full article

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14 pages, 2370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Case Study: Effect of Climatic Characterization on River Discharge in an Alpine-Prealpine Catchment of the Spanish Pyrenees Using the SWAT Model

by Leticia Palazón^*

and Ana Navas

Department of Soil and Water, Estación Experimental de Aula Dei (EEAD-CSIC), Avda, Montañana 1005, Zaragoza 50059, Spain

Water 2016, 8(10), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100471 - 21 Oct 2016

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5045

Abstract

The new challenges in assessment of water resources demand new approaches and tools, such as the use of hydrologic models, which could serve to assist managers in the prediction, planning and management of catchment water supplies in view of increased demand of water [...] Read more.

The new challenges in assessment of water resources demand new approaches and tools, such as the use of hydrologic models, which could serve to assist managers in the prediction, planning and management of catchment water supplies in view of increased demand of water for irrigation and climatic change. Good characterization of the spatial patterns of climate variables is of paramount importance in hydrological modelling. This is especially so when modelling mountain environments which are characterized by strong altitudinal climate gradients. However, very often there is a poor distribution of climatic stations in these areas, which in many cases, results in under representation of high altitude areas with respect to climatic data. This results in the poor performance of the models. In the present study, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model was applied to the Barasona reservoir catchment in the Central Spanish Pyrenees in order to assess the influence of different climatic characterizations in the monthly river discharges. Four simulations with different input data were assessed, using only the available climate data (A1); the former plus one synthetic dataset at a higher altitude (B1); and both plus the altitudinal climate gradient (A2 and B2). The model’s performance was evaluated against the river discharges for the representative periods of 2003–2005 and 1994–1996 by means of commonly used statistical measures. The best results were obtained using the altitudinal climate gradient alone (scenario A2). This study provided insight into the importance of taking into account the sources and the spatial distribution of weather data in modelling water resources in mountainous catchments. Full article

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16 pages, 12324 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Variation in Water Balance Components in Mountainous Inland River Basin Experiencing Climate Change

by Zhenliang Yin¹

, Qi Feng¹

, Songbing Zou^1,2,* and Linshan Yang¹

¹ Key Laboratory of Ecohydrology of Inland River Basin, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, China

² College of Earth Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, Gansu, China

Water 2016, 8(10), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100472 - 22 Oct 2016

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 7470

Abstract

Quantification of the changes of water balance components is significant for water resource assessment and management. This paper employed the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model to estimate the water balance in a mountainous watershed in northwest China at different spatial scales [...] Read more.

Quantification of the changes of water balance components is significant for water resource assessment and management. This paper employed the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model to estimate the water balance in a mountainous watershed in northwest China at different spatial scales over the past half century. The results showed that both Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) and determination coefficient (R²) were over 0.90 for the calibration and validation periods. The water balance components presented rising trends at the watershed scale, and the total runoff increased by 30.5% during 1964 to 2013 period. Rising surface runoff and rising groundwater flow contributed 42.7% and 57.3% of the total rising runoff, respectively. The runoff coefficient was sensitive to increasing precipitation and was not significant to the increase of temperature. The alpine meadow was the main landscape which occupied 51.1% of the watershed and contributed 55.5% of the total runoff. Grass land, forest land, bare land, and glacier covered 14.2%, 18.8%, 15.4%, and 0.5% of the watershed and contributed 8.5%, 16.9%, 15.9%, and 3.2% of the total runoff, respectively. The elevation zone from 3500 to 4500 m occupied 66.5% of the watershed area, and contributed the majority of the total runoff (70.7%). The runoff coefficients in the elevation zone from 1637 to 2800 m, 2800 to 3500 m, 3500 to 4000 m, 4000 to 4500 m, and 4500 to 5062 m were 0.20, 0.27, 0.32, 0.43, and 0.78, respectively, which tend to be larger along with the elevation increase. The quantities and change trends of the water balance components at the watershed scale were calculated by the results of the sub-watersheds. Furthermore, we characterized the spatial distribution of quantities and changes in trends of water balance components at the sub-watershed scale analysis. This study provides some references for water resource management and planning in inland river basins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Use, Climate, and Water Resources)

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20 pages, 4517 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating Water Footprints of Vegetable Crops: Influence of Growing Season, Solar Radiation Data and Functional Unit

by Betsie Le Roux¹

, Michael Van der Laan^1,*, Teunis Vahrmeijer^1,2

, John G. Annandale¹

and Keith L. Bristow^1,3

¹ Department of Plant Production and Soil Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield 0028, South Africa

² Citrus Research International, P.O. Box 28, Nelspruit 1200, South Africa

³ CSIRO Agriculture, PMB Aitkenvale, Townsville 4814, Queensland, Australia

Water 2016, 8(10), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100473 - 22 Oct 2016

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 8887

Abstract

Water footprint (WF) accounting as proposed by the Water Footprint Network (WFN) can potentially provide important information for water resource management, especially in water scarce countries relying on irrigation to help meet their food requirements. However, calculating accurate WFs of short-season vegetable crops [...] Read more.

Water footprint (WF) accounting as proposed by the Water Footprint Network (WFN) can potentially provide important information for water resource management, especially in water scarce countries relying on irrigation to help meet their food requirements. However, calculating accurate WFs of short-season vegetable crops such as carrots, cabbage, beetroot, broccoli and lettuce presented some challenges. Planting dates and inter-annual weather conditions impact WF results. Joining weather datasets of just rainfall, minimum and maximum temperature with ones that include solar radiation and wind-speed affected crop model estimates and WF results. The functional unit selected can also have a major impact on results. For example, WFs according to the WFN approach do not account for crop residues used for other purposes, like composting and animal feed. Using yields in dry matter rather than fresh mass also impacts WF metrics, making comparisons difficult. To overcome this, using the nutritional value of crops as a functional unit can connect water use more directly to potential benefits derived from different crops and allow more straightforward comparisons. Grey WFs based on nitrogen only disregards water pollution caused by phosphates, pesticides and salinization. Poor understanding of the fate of nitrogen complicates estimation of nitrogen loads into the aquifer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Footprint Assessment)

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16 pages, 4235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Water Storage Changes within Deep Profiles under Introduced Shrubs during the Growing Season: Evidence from Semiarid Loess Plateau, China

by Yuanxin Liu¹, Wenwu Zhao^1,2,*, Xiao Zhang¹ and Xuening Fang¹

¹ College of Resources Science & Technology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China

² Department of Earth Sciences, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA

Water 2016, 8(10), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100475 - 22 Oct 2016

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5401

Abstract

Water stored deep in the soil profile is the primary bio-available reservoir for regional vegetation in the semiarid Loess Plateau of China. However, the planting of introduced shrubs over many years as part of the “Grain to Green Program (GGP)” has consistently lead [...] Read more.

Water stored deep in the soil profile is the primary bio-available reservoir for regional vegetation in the semiarid Loess Plateau of China. However, the planting of introduced shrubs over many years as part of the “Grain to Green Program (GGP)” has consistently lead to dried soil in areas with severe water scarcity. Knowledge of soil water storage (SWS) changes within deep profiles in water-deficient regions is critical for the sustainable development of vegetation restoration. Caragana korshinskii K. (CK) and Hippophae rhamnoides L. (HR) are widely planted in the Loess Plateau to control soil erosion. We selected these two shrubs for a study on variations in deep soil water (100–500 cm) and identified the main factors affecting deep soil water storage replenishment (SWSR) during their growing seasons. The results indicated that the mean SWS at 100–500 cm depth under HR was significantly higher than that under CK at both the beginning (352.74 mm for CK and 644.79 mm for HR) and end of the growing season (311.95 mm for CK and 529.05 mm for HR) (p < 0.01). In these ecosystems, SWS was only recharged below 340 cm under CK, which was due to vegetation characteristics. Under HR, however, soil water consumption exceeded recharge throughout the whole 100–500 cm profile. The SWSR at the 100–340 cm depth was mainly affected by sand content, which explained 28% of the variability of SWSR. At the 340–500 cm depth, the variability in SWSR was due to vegetation type. Therefore, expansion of the GGP should pay more attention to both soil water conditions and influencing factors, including appropriate vegetation selection and the altering of the microtopography. Full article

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24 pages, 8436 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Yunnan’s Fast-Paced Large Hydropower Development: A Powershed-Based Approach to Critically Assessing Generation and Consumption Paradigms

by Thomas Hennig¹, Wenling Wang², Darrin Magee³ and Daming He^4,*

¹ Faculty of Geography, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Deutschhausstr. 10, Marburg 35037, Germany

² Yunnan Key Laboratory of International Rivers and Transboundary Eco-security, Yunnan University, the 6th Floor of Wenjin Building, No. 2 North Road of the Green Lake, Kunming 650091, Yunnan, China

³ Hobart & William Smith Colleges, 300 Pulteney Street, Geneva, NY 14456, USA

⁴ Asian International River Center, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, Yunnan, China

Water 2016, 8(10), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100476 - 22 Oct 2016

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 12131

Abstract

Southwest China’s Yunnan province is evolving into one of the world’s largest hydro-power-producing regions. It already rivals the world’s largest hydro-producing nations. However, five of Yunnan’s six basins are international and therefore its hydropower development is of great academic and geopolitical interest. While [...] Read more.

Southwest China’s Yunnan province is evolving into one of the world’s largest hydro-power-producing regions. It already rivals the world’s largest hydro-producing nations. However, five of Yunnan’s six basins are international and therefore its hydropower development is of great academic and geopolitical interest. While the implementation of large projects on Yunnan’s three large rivers (Jinsha, Mekong and Nu) is relatively well studied, hydropower development outside these three main streams is hardly known. Here, we identified 128 large hydropower projects (≥50 MW) having a capacity of 16.5 GW, along with another 16.4 GW of other types of power generation, neither of which has been discussed in the academic literature yet. The paper utilizes a powershed approach to study the rapid hydropower development underway in Yunnan, both in its implication and challenges (at basin and administrative level) as well as in its trade-offs within the broader electricity context. Yunnan’s power generation and consumption patterns are characterized by diverging interests of local/provincial usage and export utilization. Within the province, the largest (hydro-) power users are energy/electricity intensive industries, which themselves have strong impacts on land use changes. Yunnan is also evolving as a major power exporter, already in 2013 exporting about one-third of its generated electricity mainly to Guangdong’s Pearl River Delta. We see a need for a critical revision of those existing generation and consumption paradigms, which includes a rethinking of major development modes, both in terms of future hydropower generation and utilization projects as well as export obligations. Full article

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