Reconstructing Historical VOC Concentrations in Drinking Water for Epidemiological Studies at a U.S. Military Base: Summary of Results
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Background
2.2. Water Supply and Conctamination
- 1400 μg/L of TCE in treated drinking water at the Hadnot Point WTP (May 1982),
- 380 μg/L and 720 μg/L of benzene in a Hadnot Point WTP supply well (July and December 1984, respectively),
- 215 μg/L of PCE in treated drinking water at the Tarawa Terrace WTP (February 1985), and
- 1580 μg/L of PCE in a Tarawa Terrace WTP supply well (January 1985).
2.3. Historical Reconstruction Methods
- Effective and efficient (with respect to published methods) fire-flow test method for water-distribution system model calibration [28],
- Historical monthly operations and pumped groundwater volumes reconstructed for nearly 100 supply wells [29],
- Linear state-space representation of a contaminated aquifer developed to reconstruct historical concentrations in supply wells without the need to use traditional numerical fate and transport modeling [30],
- Volume estimates of lost benzene and LNAPL fate and transport in groundwater [31], and
- Probabilistic Markov process to estimate the number of intermittent transfers of drinking water between a contaminated and uncontaminated drinking-water system [12].
2.3.1. Modeling of Groundwater Flow and Contaminant Fate and Transport
2.3.2. Modeling of Drinking-Water Concentrations
3. Historical Reconstruction Analyses and Results
3.1. Fate and Transport of Trichloroethylene (TCE) in Groundwater
3.2. Reconstructed Drinking-Water Concentrations
3.3. Sensitivity and Uncertainty Analyses
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AST/UST | above ground storage tank/underground storage tank |
ATSDR | Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry |
BTEX | benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene |
C | source concentration |
CLW | Camp Lejeune water document |
EPANET 2 | water-distribution system model developed by the USEPA |
EPS | extended period simulation |
ft | foot or feet |
GIS | geographical information system |
GT-MESL | Georgia Institute of Technology, Multimedia Environmental Simulations Laboratory |
HPIA | Hadnot Point Industrial Area |
HPFF | Hadnot Point fuel farm |
HPLF | Hadnot Point landfill |
I | infiltration |
IRP | Installation Restoration Program of the U.S. Department of the Navy |
J (in data tables) | estimated value |
KD | distribution coefficient |
km | kilometer or kilometers |
Kxx, Kzz | horizontal and vetical hydraulic conductivity |
LCM | linear control model |
LNAPL | light nonaqueous-phase liquid |
m | meter or meters |
MCL | maximum contaminant level |
mg/L | milligram per liter |
mi | mile or miles |
MODFLOW | modular, three-dimensional groundwater flow model developed by the United States Geological Survey |
nE | porosity |
NPL | National Priorities List |
PCE | tetrachloroethylene |
Qmonthly | historical monthly pumping |
SI | supplemental information |
TCE | trichloroethylene |
USEPA | United States Environmental Protection Agency |
USMCB | United States Marine Corps Base |
VC | vinyl chloride |
VOC | volatile organic compound |
WTP | water treatment plant |
αL, αT, αV | longitudinal, transverse, and vertical dispersivity |
Δt | time-step size |
Δx, Δy | finite-difference cell size |
λ | biodegradation rate |
ρb | bulk density |
μg/L | micrograms per liter |
1,2-tDCE | trans-1,2-dichloroethylene |
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Analysis | Description | Analysis Type and Simulation Tool | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Geohydrologic framework | Detailed analyses of well and geohydrologic data used to develop framework of the Brewster Boulevard and Castle Hayne aquifer systems and Tarawa Terrace aquifer | Data analysis and interpretation | [32] |
Water-level analyses and groundwater flow | Characterizations of water-level data and groundwater flow | Data analysis and interpretation | [33] |
Predevelopment groundwater flow | Steady-state, three-dimensional groundwater flow, occurring prior to initiation of water-supply well activities (1942) using a grid of uniform cells of 300 ft × 300 ft (91 m × 91 m) | Simulation using MODFLOW-2005 | [34,35] |
Historical water-supply well operations | Documenting water-supply well capacities, histories, and reconstructing operating schedules on a monthly basis for the period 1942–2008 (e.g., Figure S1) | Data analysis, interpretation, and simulation using TechWellOP | [10,29] |
Transient groundwater flow | Unsteady-state, three-dimensional groundwater flow occurring primarily because of the initiation and continued operation of water-supply wells (July 1942–June 2008), using a variably-spaced grid ranging in area from 300 ft × 300 ft (91 m × 91 m) to 50 ft × 50 ft (15 m × 15 m) in the HPIA and HPLF model subdomain areas (e.g., Figure S2) | Simulation using MODFLOW-2005 | [34,35] |
Properties of VOCs in groundwater | Properties of degradation pathways of common organic compounds in groundwater | Literature survey | [2] |
Occurrence of selected contaminants in groundwater | Description and summaries of groundwater contaminants of selected VOCs and BTEX components at IRP and AST/UST sites; listing of water-supply and monitor well location and construction data | Data analysis | [9,13] |
Computation of mass for PCE, TCE, and benzene | Estimates of mass (volume) of TCE, PCE, and benzene in groundwater using field data and a variety of analytical and numerical techniques | Site investigation data, GIS spatial analyses, LNAPL volume analyses (TechNAPLVol) | [9,13,31,36] |
Fate and transport of TCE, PCE, and benzene | Simulation of the fate and migration of TCE and dissolved benzene from sources in the HPIA; simulation of the fate and migration of PCE from the HPLF; | Simulation using MT3DMS-5.3 | [36,37,38] |
Fate and transport of benzene (LNAPL) | Simulation of the fate and migration of benzene as an LNAPL from sources at the Handot Point fuel farm in the HPIA; | Simulation using TechFlowMP | [31,39,40,41] |
Concentrations of PCE, TCE, 1,2-tDCE, and VC in a water-supply well | Reconstructing concentrations of PCE, TCE, 1,2-tDCE, and VC in water-supply HP-651 (HPLF)) using a linear control model methodology | Simulation using TechControl | [30] |
TCE, PCE, 1,2-tDCE, VC, and benzene in WTP drinking water | Computations of concentrations of TCE, PCE, 1,2-tDCE, VC, and benzene in drinking water from the Hadnot Point WTP using results from fate and transport and linear control model simulations | Materials mass balance model using principles of conservation of mass and continuity—algebraic | [36,42] |
Parameter uncertainty and variability | Assessment of parameter sensitivity and uncertainty associated with model simulations of groundwater flow, fate and transport, and water distribution | One-at-a-time sensitivity analysis (OAT), Monte Carlo (MC) simulation using Latin hypercube sampling (LHS), and MC simulation | [12,35,36,43] |
Intermittent pump operation for transfer of drinking water | Probabilistic analysis of the occurrence of pump operations during the period 1972–1985 for transferring Hadnot Point drinking water to Holcomb Boulevard housing areas | Probabilistic Markov analysis using TechMarkovChain | [12,44] |
Distribution of TCE, PCE, 1,2-tDCE, VC, and benzene throughout the Holcomb Boulevard housing areas | Simulation of hydraulics and water-quality in the water-distribution system serving the Holcomb Boulevard housing areas, 1972–1985; intermittent pump operations estimated using data and Markov analysis | Simulation using EPANET 2 | [12,45] |
Contaminant | Measured Data 1 | Reconstructed (Simulated) 2 | Reconstructed (Maximum Value) 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sample Date | Concentration, in μg/L | Simulation Date | Concentration, in μg/L | Simulation Date | Concentration, in μg/L | |
PCE | 27 May 1982 3 | 15 | May 1982 | 21 | November 1983 | 39 |
27 July 1982 4 | 100 | July 1982 | 27 | |||
4 December 1984 6 | 3.9 J | November 1984 | 31 | |||
5 February1985 7 | 7.5 J | January 1985 | 16 | |||
TCE | 27 May 1982 3 | 1400 | May 1982 | 438 | November 1983 | 773 |
27 July 1982 5 | 19 | August 1982 | 670 | |||
27 July 1982 6 | 21 | August 1982 | 670 | |||
4 December 1984 5 | 46 | November 1984 | 639 | |||
4 December 1984 6 | 200 | November 1984 | 639 | |||
12 December 1984 6 | 2.3 J | December 1984 | 43 | |||
19 December 1984 | 1.2 | December 1984 | 43 | |||
5 February 1985 7 | 429 | January 1985 | 324 | |||
1,2-tDCE | 4 December 1984 6 | 83 | November 1984 | 358 | November 1983 | 435 |
4 December 1984 5 | 15 | December 1984 | 26 | |||
12 December 1984 6 | 23 J | December 1984 | 26 | |||
5 February 1985 7 | 150 | January 1985 | 163 | |||
VC | 5 February 1985 7 | 2.9 J | January 1985 | 31 | November 1983 | 67 |
Benzene | 19 November 1985 7,8,9 | 2500 | November 1985 | 3 | April 1984 | 12 |
10 December 1985 7 | 38 | December 1985 | 3 | |||
18 December 1985 7 | 1 | December 1985 | 3 |
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Maslia, M.L.; Aral, M.M.; Ruckart, P.Z.; Bove, F.J. Reconstructing Historical VOC Concentrations in Drinking Water for Epidemiological Studies at a U.S. Military Base: Summary of Results. Water 2016, 8, 449. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100449
Maslia ML, Aral MM, Ruckart PZ, Bove FJ. Reconstructing Historical VOC Concentrations in Drinking Water for Epidemiological Studies at a U.S. Military Base: Summary of Results. Water. 2016; 8(10):449. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100449
Chicago/Turabian StyleMaslia, Morris L., Mustafa M. Aral, Perri Z. Ruckart, and Frank J. Bove. 2016. "Reconstructing Historical VOC Concentrations in Drinking Water for Epidemiological Studies at a U.S. Military Base: Summary of Results" Water 8, no. 10: 449. https://doi.org/10.3390/w8100449