Agronomy

16 pages, 1354 KB

Open AccessArticle

Omics Profiles of the Null Segregants of RNA-Directed DNA Methylation-Positive Tobacco Plants

by Haruka Morimoto, Yukiko Umeyama, Sayaka Hirai, Takumi Nishiuchi, Takumi Ogawa, Tomofumi Mochizuki, Daisaku Ohta, Hiroaki Kodama and Taira Miyahara

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 277; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020277 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM), a new plant breeding technology, induces epigenetic modifications that can be inherited even after segregation of the responsible transgene. The transgene-free descendants (null segregants) are potentially exempt from the regulation of genetically modified plants. To evaluate the risks of [...] Read more.

RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM), a new plant breeding technology, induces epigenetic modifications that can be inherited even after segregation of the responsible transgene. The transgene-free descendants (null segregants) are potentially exempt from the regulation of genetically modified plants. To evaluate the risks of potential unintended molecular changes in the null segregants of RdDM-positive plants, we produced null segregants (S44end2-null) from a transgenic tobacco line in which RdDM targeting the promoter of the transgene was introduced. Comprehensive multi-omics analyses, including transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, were conducted using S44end2-null and wild-type (WT) plants. Principal component analysis demonstrated clear separation of the transcriptomic and proteomic profiles of the two groups. The metabolomic profiles of S44end2-null plants exhibited considerable overlap with those of WT plants. Proteomic analysis of the null segregants of tobacco plants transformed with an empty vector demonstrated distinct cluster separation from WT plants. Because only sporadic DNA methylation on the tobacco genome was expected by the RdDM construct used in this study, the observed differences in omics profiles are considered to be significantly influenced by genetic variation accumulated during the transformation and regeneration processes (somaclonal variation). The safety assessment points for null segregants using RdDM technology are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Breakthrough and Innovation of Mutants in Genetic Improvement of Crop Varieties)

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16 pages, 1660 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Sorghum–Soybean Intercropping for Yield Benefit: A Systematic Review and Exploratory Meta-Analysis

by Deborah Joy Blessing, Jia Liu, Wanrong Xia, Yujie Xu, Shuang Liu, Wenhao Duan and Yan Gu

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020276 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.)–soybean (Glycine max L.) intercropping produces a significant yield advantage over monocropping. However, a comprehensive synthesis is lacking to quantify yield benefits. This article provides a systematic review, a primary meta-analysis, and an exploratory meta-analysis to quantify the [...] Read more.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.)–soybean (Glycine max L.) intercropping produces a significant yield advantage over monocropping. However, a comprehensive synthesis is lacking to quantify yield benefits. This article provides a systematic review, a primary meta-analysis, and an exploratory meta-analysis to quantify the land productivity advantage of sorghum–soybean intercropping, explore the impact of planting configuration, and critically assess the methodological robustness of the existing literature. A random-effect meta-analysis of Land Equivalent Ratio (LER), with a primary analysis on studies with reported and calculated variance only (n = 23 treatments from six studies) and an exploratory analysis on the full dataset, which includes studies with imputed variances (n = 103 treatments from 21 studies). Group-specific analyses examined row configurations. The exploratory meta-analysis showed a pooled LER of 1.31 (95% CI: 1.25–1.36), suggesting an approximately 31% average land productivity gain (LER > 1). Configuration beyond a 1:1 row ratio showed potential for higher yield gains (LER = 1.43 for 2:2). Critically, over 75% of studies required variance data imputation. The analysis, limited to studies with reported or calculated variance data, showed a higher LER of 1.55 (95% CI: 1.41–1.69), but with extreme heterogeneity (I² = 96.2%). This highlights substantial outcome variability and inconsistent statistical reporting in the literature, limiting robust synthesis. Future research must prioritize long-term, well-replicated experiments with reported standardized variance and configuration evaluations to enable precise, locally relevant intercropping recommendations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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22 pages, 1163 KB

Open AccessArticle

Agronomic and Nutritional Potential of Ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) Accessions as Raw Material for Silage in the Tropical Andes of Peru

by Leidy G. Bobadilla, Miguel A. Altamirano-Tantalean, William Carrasco-Chilón, Vanesa Lizbeth Silva Baca, Flor L. Mejía, Ysai Paucar, Leandro Valqui, William Bardales, Jorge L. Maicelo and Héctor V. Vásquez

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020275 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

In the tropical Andes, rangeland degradation has become one of the main threats to the sustainability of livestock production in the face of climate change. In this context, optimizing the yield and nutritional quality of raw material for silage is essential to sustain [...] Read more.

In the tropical Andes, rangeland degradation has become one of the main threats to the sustainability of livestock production in the face of climate change. In this context, optimizing the yield and nutritional quality of raw material for silage is essential to sustain livestock productivity. The aim of this study was to identify local accessions (LM) of Lolium multiflorum Lam. with greater forage potential through evaluations in consecutive cuts made at the anthesis phenological stage, using a randomized complete block design with four replicates and ten local accessions (LM1, LM2, LM3, LM4, LM6, LM7, LM8, LM11, LM12 and LM13). The statistical analysis, based on linear mixed models, showed that cuts at anthesis had a significant effect among accessions, revealing high variability in agronomic and nutritional performance across cuts. In LM4, plant height at the fourth cut was 2.48-fold higher than at the first cut. Likewise, LM4 and LM13 were identified as the latest accessions to reach anthesis in the first cut, with a decreasing trend across cuts and stabilization from the third cut onward. These accessions also showed the greatest basal coverage area, increasing 9.94- and 8.18-fold in the fourth cut relative to the first. Fresh forage yields in LM4 and LM13 increased 13.2- and 10.1-fold, and dry matter yields 13.98- and 9.86-fold, compared with the first cut. They also exhibited the highest average daily dry matter ac-cumulation rate. By contrast, the fresh forage and dry matter yields of the remaining accessions were significantly lower than those of LM4 and LM13. The main difference between these two accessions was observed in dry matter percentage, with higher values and a stable trend in LM4 across all cuts. In terms of nutritional quality, LM4 presented crude protein of 24.2% in the second cut and 24.0% in the fourth cut, while digestibility was 86.2% in the second cut and 85.0% in the fourth cut. In conclusion, although the ensiling process was not evaluated in this study, LM4 showed the most stable and outstanding values in both agronomic and nutritional performance, thus emerging as a promising accession for selection and use as raw material for silage production in the tropical Andes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)

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38 pages, 1623 KB

Open AccessReview

Addressing Black Soil Compaction: An Integrated Analysis of the Mechanisms, Efficacy, and Future Directions of Conservation Tillage

by Yuanqi Ma, Yumeng Zhu, Jiaqi Li, Zhao Li, Duo Zhao, Zhipeng Qu, Xinyu Zhou, Wei Zhao, Xinhe Wei, Jixuan Sun, Liang Yang and Shoukun Dong

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020274 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

In Northeast China, increasing agricultural activities has led to severe soil compaction, reducing soil aeration and water infiltration capacity. Conservation tillage, through multiple approaches, alleviates this compaction while simultaneously enhancing crop yields and promoting sustainable agricultural production. In light of domestic and international [...] Read more.

In Northeast China, increasing agricultural activities has led to severe soil compaction, reducing soil aeration and water infiltration capacity. Conservation tillage, through multiple approaches, alleviates this compaction while simultaneously enhancing crop yields and promoting sustainable agricultural production. In light of domestic and international developments, this paper provides a detailed elaboration on conservation tillage (CT) as a sustainable agricultural practice system. It examines its core technical measures, global adoption status, and impacts on soil physicochemical properties. Furthermore, by analyzing the causes and detrimental effects of soil compaction, it proposes approaches and elucidates the significance of using CT to alleviate compaction in black soils. Integrating considerations of its influence on climate change, economic benefits, future development, challenges, and trends, the paper offers a forward-looking perspective. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Organic Matter and Tillage—2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 1950 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Irrigation Methods on Root Distribution, Water Uptake Patterns, and Water Use Efficiency in Transplanted vs. Direct-Seeded Cotton

by Xuan Guo, Shunsheng Wang, Hao Zhang, Xinhao You, Bo Zhao, Yurong Zheng and Zuji Wang

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 273; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020273 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

The transplanted cotton–wheat rotation enables dual cropping but alters root system architecture, typically suppressing taproot growth and promoting shallow lateral and fibrous roots, with unclear implications for irrigation response and water use efficiency (WUE). Field experiments were conducted in 2021 and 2022 to [...] Read more.

The transplanted cotton–wheat rotation enables dual cropping but alters root system architecture, typically suppressing taproot growth and promoting shallow lateral and fibrous roots, with unclear implications for irrigation response and water use efficiency (WUE). Field experiments were conducted in 2021 and 2022 to investigate root growth, spatial distribution, and water uptake sources, using a minirhizotron system and stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes. The study examined the effects of two cultivation modes (direct seeding and transplanting) and three irrigation methods (border irrigation, micro-spray tape irrigation, and surface drip irrigation) on cotton root traits and WUE. Results showed that transplanted cotton roots were predominantly concentrated in the 0–30 cm soil layer (75.35–77.13% of total root length), significantly higher than those of direct-seeded cotton (63.10–74.71%). Under micro-spray tape and drip irrigation, the root length density (RLD) of transplanted cotton was 18.55% and 23.46% higher, respectively, than that of direct-seeded cotton, whereas under border irrigation it was 5.09% lower. Transplanted cotton mainly extracted water from the 0–40 cm soil layer (utilization rate: 65.49%), while direct-seeded cotton primarily relied on water from the 20–60 cm layer (53.20%). Although no statistically significant difference in yield was observed between the two cultivation modes, transplanted cotton exhibited a 15.37% higher WUE than direct-seeded cotton. Moreover, surface drip irrigation substantially enhanced WUE, exceeding that under border irrigation and micro-spray tape irrigation by 37.35% and 14.07%, respectively. This study enhances understanding of root traits in transplanted cotton and demonstrates that irrigation methods regulate WUE by modifying root distribution and water uptake patterns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

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18 pages, 2924 KB

Open AccessArticle

Path Planning for a Cartesian Apple Harvesting Robot Using the Improved Grey Wolf Optimizer

by Dachen Wang, Huiping Jin, Chun Lu, Xuanbo Wu, Qing Chen, Lei Zhou, Xuesong Jiang and Hongping Zhou

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 272; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020272 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

As a high-value fruit crop grown worldwide, apples require efficient harvesting solutions to maintain a stable supply. Intelligent harvesting robots represent a promising approach to address labour shortages. This study introduced a Cartesian robot integrated with a continuous-picking end-effector, providing a cost-effective and [...] Read more.

As a high-value fruit crop grown worldwide, apples require efficient harvesting solutions to maintain a stable supply. Intelligent harvesting robots represent a promising approach to address labour shortages. This study introduced a Cartesian robot integrated with a continuous-picking end-effector, providing a cost-effective and mechanically simpler alternative to complex articulated arms. The system employed a hand–eye calibration model to enhance positioning accuracy. To overcome the inefficiencies resulting from disordered harvesting sequences and excessive motion trajectories, the harvesting process was treated as a travelling salesman problem (TSP). The conventional fixed-plane return trajectory of Cartesian robots was enhanced using a three-dimensional continuous picking path strategy based on a fixed retraction distance (H). The value of H was determined through mechanical characterization of the apple stem’s brittle fracture, which eliminated redundant horizontal displacements and improved operational efficiency. Furthermore, an improved grey wolf optimizer (IGWO) was proposed for multi-fruit path planning. Simulations demonstrated that the IGWO achieved shorter path lengths compared to conventional algorithms. Laboratory experiments validated that the system successfully achieved vision-based localization and fruit harvesting through optimal path planning, with a fruit picking success rate of 89%. The proposed methodology provides a practical framework for automated continuous harvesting systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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17 pages, 3878 KB

Open AccessArticle

Phenological Development and Growth Responses of Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) to Sowing Dates and Climatic Conditions in Elvas, Portugal

by Andreia Saragoça, Catarina Manuelito, Juan Carlos Alías Gallego, Natividad Chaves Lobón, Alfonso Ortega Garrido and Ana Isabel Cordeiro

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 271; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020271 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a multipurpose crop with growing interest due to its environmental adaptability, low input requirements, and potential contribution to sustainable agricultural systems. This study evaluated the agronomic performance of four industrial hemp varieties grown under the edaphoclimatic [...] Read more.

Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a multipurpose crop with growing interest due to its environmental adaptability, low input requirements, and potential contribution to sustainable agricultural systems. This study evaluated the agronomic performance of four industrial hemp varieties grown under the edaphoclimatic conditions of the Alentejo region over two consecutive growing seasons (2024 and 2025) using different sowing dates. Phenological stages, plant height and growth parameters were monitored, complemented by meteorological data obtained from IPMA. The results revealed clear differences between years. The later sowing date in 2024 promoted greater vegetative growth, resulting in taller plants, while the earlier sowing in 2025 extended the vegetative phase and delayed flowering. Varietal differences were also observed, particularly for Fibror 79, which flowered slightly later, suggesting greater photoperiod sensitivity. These patterns confirm that both thermal environment and sowing date play a decisive role in hemp phenological development. The findings also highlight the high plasticity of the crop, which demonstrated strong adaptation to the hot and dry Mediterranean summers. Overall, appropriate selection of variety and sowing date can optimize vegetative and reproductive development, representing an important strategy for sustainable agricultural systems in the Alentejo region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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29 pages, 3094 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Saline Irrigation and Genotype on Yield, Grain Quality and Physiological Ideotypic Indicators of Bread Wheat in Hot Arid Zones

by Ayesha Rukhsar, Osama Kanbar, Henda Mahmoudi, Salima Yousfi, Maria Dolors Serret and José Luis Araus

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020270 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a strategic food crop for arid, hot regions such as the Arabian Peninsula, the Middle East, and North Africa. In these areas, production is limited by extreme environmental and agronomic conditions, leading to heavy dependence on imported [...] Read more.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a strategic food crop for arid, hot regions such as the Arabian Peninsula, the Middle East, and North Africa. In these areas, production is limited by extreme environmental and agronomic conditions, leading to heavy dependence on imported wheat. Irrigation is often essential for successful cultivation, but available water sources are frequently saline. This study evaluated the comparative effects of irrigation salinity and genotype on agronomic performance, physiological responses, and grain quality. Nine Syrian wheat genotypes and one French bread-making cultivar, Florence Aurora, were grown in sandy soil under three irrigation salinity levels (2.6, 10, and 15 dS m⁻¹) across two seasons at the International Center for Biosaline Agriculture (Dubai, UAE). Salinity strongly negatively impacted yield, which decreased by 61% from the control to 15 dS m⁻¹, along with key yield components such as thousand grain weight and total biomass. Physiological traits, including carbon isotope composition (δ¹³C) and Na concentrations in roots, shoots and grains, increased significantly with salinity, while chlorophyll content showed a modest decline. Effects on grain quality were relatively minor: total nitrogen concentration and most mineral levels increased slightly, mainly due to a passive concentration effect associated with reduced TGW. Genotypes varied significantly in yield, biomass, TGW, physiological traits, and grain quality. The highest-yielding genotypes under control conditions (ACSAD 981 and ACSAD 1147) also performed best under saline conditions, and no trade-off was observed between yield and grain quality parameters (TGW, nitrogen, zinc, and iron concentrations). Separate analyses conducted for control and saline treatments identified different drivers of genotypic variability. Under control conditions, chlorophyll content, closely linked with δ¹³C, was the best predictor of genotypic differences and was positively correlated with yield across genotypes. Under salinity stress, grain magnesium (Mg) concentration was the strongest predictor, followed by grain δ¹³C, with both traits positively correlated with yield. These findings highlight key physiological traits linked to salinity tolerance and offer insights into the mechanisms underlying genotypic variability under both optimal and saline irrigation conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stress Responses and Resistance Mechanisms in Plants: Physiology, Genetics, and Molecular Pathways)

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18 pages, 1625 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Evaluation of Foliar-Applied Selenium Biofortification in Different Rice Genotypes

by Pitchaporn Inton, Jeeraporn Veeradittakit and Chanakan Prom-u-thai

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020269 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Selenium (Se) biofortification in rice presents a promising strategy to address Se deficiency in populations relying on rice as a staple food. This study evaluated the impact of foliar Se application on Se accumulation, its distribution in unpolished and polished rice grains, grain [...] Read more.

Selenium (Se) biofortification in rice presents a promising strategy to address Se deficiency in populations relying on rice as a staple food. This study evaluated the impact of foliar Se application on Se accumulation, its distribution in unpolished and polished rice grains, grain yield, and antioxidant capacity across 21 rice genotypes. Foliar Se application significantly improved grain yield, with increases ranging from 5.7 to 67.5% compared to non-foliar Se application. Se concentrations in both unpolished and polished grains were notably enhanced by foliar application, reaching 41.1–543.9 µg kg⁻¹, whereas non-foliar treatments resulted in much lower concentrations (0–30.5 µg kg⁻¹). Foliar Se also altered Se partitioning, decreasing Se retention in unpolished grains (from 9.8–100% under non-foliar application to 19.7–66.1% with foliar Se application) and increasing its proportion in polished rice. Se loss during polishing was genotype-dependent and generally reduced by foliar Se application (9.4–72.3%). Antioxidant capacity was highest in unpolished rice and varied among genotypes, increasing further with foliar Se. A positive correlation between grain antioxidant capacity and Se concentration was observed in unpolished, but not polished rice. Overall, these findings demonstrate the effectiveness of foliar Se biofortification in enhancing Se content and antioxidant properties, emphasizing the importance of genotype selection such as RD16, RD79, KDML105, K2, KJ CMU 107, and HMD to maximize biofortification benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrient Enrichment and Crop Quality in Sustainable Agriculture)

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20 pages, 3818 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanistic Shifts in Organic Carbon Stabilization in a Black Soil Driven by Nitrogen Fertilization

by Yantian Cui, Qi Li, Hongyan Chang, Yanan Li, Chengyu Wang, Rong Jiang, Shuxia Liu and Wentian He

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 268; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020268 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

The phaeozem in Northeast China is rich in soil organic carbon (SOC). However, the excessive and inefficient application of chemical fertilizers, particularly nitrogen fertilizers, has primarily led to a decrease in soil pH in this region. Currently, the relationship between soil pH and [...] Read more.

The phaeozem in Northeast China is rich in soil organic carbon (SOC). However, the excessive and inefficient application of chemical fertilizers, particularly nitrogen fertilizers, has primarily led to a decrease in soil pH in this region. Currently, the relationship between soil pH and the stability of soil organic carbon (SOC) remains ambiguous. This study, conducted over 13 years of field experiments, focused on soils exhibiting varying degrees of pH resulting from different nitrogen application rates. The research employed aggregate classification, ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and analysis of microbial community composition to investigate the alterations in the SOC stabilization mechanisms under varying nitrogen application levels. Our results demonstrated that the decline in soil pH led to reductions in macroaggregates (>2 mm) and the soil aggregate destruction rate (PAD) by 4.8–14.6%, and in soil aggregate unstable agglomerate index (E_LT) by 9.7–13.4%. The mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric mean diameter (GMD) exhibited significant declines (p < 0.05) with decreasing pH levels. According to the ¹³C NMR analysis, the SOC was predominantly composed of O-alkyl carbon and aromatic carbon. At a pH of 5.32, the Alip/Arom values decreased, while the molecular structure of SOC became more complex under different levels of pH. In addition, the increase in [Fe(Al)-OC] (31.4–71.9%) complex indicates a shift in the stability of organic carbon from physical protection to organic mineral binding. Declining soil pH significantly reduced the diversity of soil microbial communities and promoted a shift toward copiotrophic microbial groups. Overall, declining soil pH resulted in a decline in soil aggregate stability and an increase in SOC aromaticity. This drove the shift in the stabilization mechanism of SOC in the black soil ecosystem of meadows in Northeast China from physical protection to chemical stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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20 pages, 1314 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Regulatory Role of Biochar in the Fate of Potassium Fertilizer and Potassium Uptake in Soybean Grown in Diverse Soils

by Liqun Xiu, Junqi Zhang, Lidan Wang, Sijia Wu, Yanan Chang, Xu Yang and Kai Guo

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020267 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Biochar is known to enhance soil potassium (K) availability and promote plant K uptake; however, its influence on the transformation pathways of fertilizer potassium and the mechanisms regulating crop potassium accumulation remains insufficiently understood. This study conducted a pot experiment using three soil [...] Read more.

Biochar is known to enhance soil potassium (K) availability and promote plant K uptake; however, its influence on the transformation pathways of fertilizer potassium and the mechanisms regulating crop potassium accumulation remains insufficiently understood. This study conducted a pot experiment using three soil types—Albic, Brown, and Sandy soils—with different biochar application rates (0, 10, and 20 g·kg⁻¹) in combination with potassium fertilizer, to systematically evaluate the regulation of soil K forms, K fertilizer transformation rates, K use efficiency, and K uptake and accumulation in soybeans. The results demonstrated that the combined application of biochar and K fertilizer significantly increased the contents of available, water-soluble, exchangeable, and non-exchangeable K across all three soils. At the highest biochar application rate (20 g·kg⁻¹), available K increased by 15.37%, 16.78%, and 11.77% in the Albic, Sandy, and Brown soils, respectively, compared to the control. Furthermore, biochar altered the transformation pathways of fertilizer K; it consistently reduced the conversion rate of fertilizer K into exchangeable K across all soils, redirecting it toward the water-soluble and non-exchangeable K pools, thus functioning as a potassium “scheduling center”. Adsorption–desorption experiments revealed that biochar exhibits a strong multilayer adsorption capacity for K ions, with most of the adsorbed K not easily desorbed, providing mechanistic support for the observed shift in transformation pathways. In terms of K use efficiency, biochar reduced the K of agronomic efficiency (KAE) due to a “dilution effect” from its inherent K content. Under the high application rate (20 g·kg⁻¹), the KAE decreased by 11.79% in Albic soil, 88.48% in Sandy soil, and 71.73% in Brown soil, while significantly increasing the partial factor productivity of K (PFPK) and apparent recovery efficiency of K (AREK). Ultimately, the co-application of biochar and K fertilizer significantly enhanced total K accumulation and seed yield in soybeans by increasing K concentrations in various plant parts and promoting dry matter accumulation. At the biochar application rate of 20 g·kg⁻¹, the potassium accumulation and soybean yield under biochar treatment reached maximum increases of 70.77% (in Brown soil) and 42.63% (in Albic soil), respectively. This study demonstrates that biochar can synergistically reduce potassium (K) leaching and improve fertilizer use efficiency by regulating K transformation pathways. This provides a practical guideline for utilizing biochar as a dual-function amendment, which acts as both a supplemental K source and a soil conditioner, thereby supporting the development of more sustainable potassium management practices in diverse cropping systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Agricultural Strategies: Win–Win Solutions for Climate Change Challenges)

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14 pages, 2018 KB

Open AccessArticle

Leaf Removal Enhances Tuber Yield in Jerusalem Artichoke by Modulating Rhizosphere Nutrient Availability

by Meijiao Ge, Kai Gao, Yadong Wang, Mingxiu Ju, Ziwei Li, Xinwei Hai and Xiaoyang Liu

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020266 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Leaves, as the primary “source” organ for photosynthesis, directly influence plant yield. However, it remains unclear whether leaf removal affects Jerusalem artichoke yield by altering rhizosphere nutrient availability. This study evaluated the effects of different leaf removal intensities on tuber yield and rhizosphere [...] Read more.

Leaves, as the primary “source” organ for photosynthesis, directly influence plant yield. However, it remains unclear whether leaf removal affects Jerusalem artichoke yield by altering rhizosphere nutrient availability. This study evaluated the effects of different leaf removal intensities on tuber yield and rhizosphere nutrient characteristics of Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.). Results from two consecutive field experiments demonstrated that removal of the lower leaves (Q2) significantly increased tuber yield in both years, with gains of 93.7% in 2022 and 282% in 2023 compared with the control. Although other leaf removal treatments also showed yield increases, these were not statistically significant. Principal component analysis revealed that rhizosphere soils associated with tubers and taproots contained higher concentrations of ammonium nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium than bulk soils. Among these nutrients, tuber yield was significantly and positively correlated with available potassium (r = 0.57). These findings indicate that moderate removal of lower leaves enhances rhizosphere nutrient conditions and promotes higher tuber yield in Jerusalem artichoke. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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15 pages, 2115 KB

Open AccessArticle

Calcium and Selenium Synergistically Decrease Cadmium Content in Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) by Modulating Key Genes Involved in Cadmium Absorption and Translocation

by Yan Hu, Hua Yang, Xingwang Chen, Jie Li, Jian Long, Sen Li and Xiongfei Cai

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020265 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Calcium (Ca) and selenium (Se) are garnering growing interest because of their capacity to boost crop yields and minimize cadmium (Cd) concentration within edible parts. However, whether Ca and Se can synergistically inhibit Cd accumulation in crops and its mechanism remains poorly understood. [...] Read more.

Calcium (Ca) and selenium (Se) are garnering growing interest because of their capacity to boost crop yields and minimize cadmium (Cd) concentration within edible parts. However, whether Ca and Se can synergistically inhibit Cd accumulation in crops and its mechanism remains poorly understood. A hydroponic experiment was conducted under Cd exposure with the combined supplementation of Ca and Se, specifically focused on Cd accumulation and its mechanism. The results revealed that Ca and Se synergistically enhanced growth and photosynthetic content, whereas they inhibited Cd accumulation in the roots, stems, and leaves of peppers. Ca and Se also synergistically reduced the content of Cd in the cell wall, organelle fraction, and soluble fraction of the roots, as well as in pectin, hemicellulose I, hemicellulose II, and cellulose. Ca and Se supplementation synergistically downregulated the expression levels of CaNramp1, CaNramp5, CaHMA1, and CaHMA2. These results revealed that Ca and Se synergistically reduced Cd accumulation in peppers by modulating targeted gene downregulation involved in Cd absorption and translocation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improving Nutritional and Functional Quality of Horticultural Crops Through Biofortification Approaches)

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14 pages, 5171 KB

Open AccessArticle

Field Cultivation of Medicinal Earthworms Increases Soil Large Macroaggregates and Subsurface Organic Carbon Storage

by Lingyou Zhu, Menghao Zhang, Yiying Wang, Yuanye Xiao, Hesen Zhong, Weiqing Xu, Jialong Wu, Qi Chao and Chi Zhang

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020264 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Field cultivation of medicinal earthworms is a distinctive agricultural practice in South China, characterized by large-scale rearing of the anecic earthworm species through substantial organic matter input. However, the effects of varying cultivation durations on soil organic carbon (SOC) distribution across aggregates and [...] Read more.

Field cultivation of medicinal earthworms is a distinctive agricultural practice in South China, characterized by large-scale rearing of the anecic earthworm species through substantial organic matter input. However, the effects of varying cultivation durations on soil organic carbon (SOC) distribution across aggregates and soil layers remain unclear. This study compared commercial cultivation plots with adjacent controls at two sites with different cultivation histories: Yangshan (6 months) and Yingde (12 months). Soil samples from three layers (0–20, 20–40, 40–60 cm) were wet-sieved into aggregate fractions for SOC and labile organic carbon (LOC) analysis. Results indicated that earthworm cultivation significantly enhanced the proportion of water-stable large macroaggregates, increased the organic carbon content within them, and elevated the overall SOC storage, particularly in subsurface layers (20–60 cm). The responses of LOC exhibited temporal variation, with a significant reduction observed only at the sites with longer cultivation duration. Overall, cultivation duration modulates the responses of labile carbon pools, whereas field cultivation of medicinal earthworms consistently promotes large macroaggregate formation and their carbon enrichment, increases total SOC stocks, drives subsurface carbon sequestration, and improves aggregate stability. These findings offer a practical strategy for enhancing soil carbon sinks in subtropical red soil ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Agrotechnical Factors and Farming Systems on Soil Properties and Plant Productivity—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 4528 KB

Open AccessReview

Response of Root Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Colonization Rate to Biochar, Compost, and Manure: A Global Meta-Analysis

by Haidong Wang, Zheng Yang, Minghui Cheng, Qiliang Yang and Huanhao Han

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020263 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form symbiotic interactions with most terrestrial plants, enhancing nutrient uptake and stress resilience. Organic amendments like biochar, compost, and manure are advocated to improve soil health and promote AMF symbiosis. However, empirical evidence of their effects on root AMF [...] Read more.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form symbiotic interactions with most terrestrial plants, enhancing nutrient uptake and stress resilience. Organic amendments like biochar, compost, and manure are advocated to improve soil health and promote AMF symbiosis. However, empirical evidence of their effects on root AMF colonization is inconsistent, and a systematic understanding of the governing factors is lacking. Here, we synthesized the responses of root AMF colonization in agricultural systems to biochar, compost, and manure input from 85 studies (663 pairs of observations) globally based on a meta-analysis. Overall, biochar and compost/manure significantly increased root AMF colonization. However, these effects were highly context-dependent. Biochar most strongly promoted colonization in coarse-textured soils with low total potassium (TK ≤ 25 g kg⁻¹) and high total carbon (TC ≥ 11 g kg⁻¹), particularly for fruit and tuber crops. In contrast, compost/manure were most effective in fine-textured soils with high TK (≥25 g kg⁻¹) and low bulk density (BD ≤ 1.3 g cm⁻³). Notably, compost/manure suppressed colonization in neutral pH (6.5 < pH < 7.5) and high BD soils (>1.3 g cm⁻³). Key amendment properties drove these responses: biochar with low electrical conductivity (EC < 5 dS m⁻¹), high sodium and low macronutrient content was most beneficial, whereas compost/manure with high total nitrogen (TN > 9 g kg⁻¹) and low organic carbon (OC ≤ 500 g kg⁻¹) performed best. The efficacy of organic amendments in enhancing AMF symbiosis is not universal but dictated by a complex interplay of soil properties and amendment characteristics. Our findings provide a robust, quantitative framework for tailoring amendment strategies to specific agro-ecological contexts, enabling farmers and land managers to selectively use biochar or compost/manure to harness AMF benefits for sustainable crop production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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15 pages, 2470 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Different Organic Amendment Supply on Young Bearing Walnut Trees Nutritional Status and Soil Fertility

by Elena Baldi, Maurizio Quartieri, Maddalena Messini, Adriele Tassinari, Fatih Buyukfiliz and Moreno Toselli

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020262 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Fertilization management is crucial mainly during the walnut training phase in order to obtain good plant formation, which is essential for guaranteeing future optimal yield. The aim of the present experiment was to evaluate the effect of different organic amendments on plant nutritional [...] Read more.

Fertilization management is crucial mainly during the walnut training phase in order to obtain good plant formation, which is essential for guaranteeing future optimal yield. The aim of the present experiment was to evaluate the effect of different organic amendments on plant nutritional status and soil fertility in young bearing walnut trees. The experiment was conducted in 2023 and 2024 on walnut trees of the cultivar Chandler grafted on Juglans regia, planted in 2021. Since 2023, plants were yearly treated as follows: 1. non-fertilized control; 2. mineral fertilization; 3. application of municipal solid waste compost; and 4. application of compost from agri-food chain scraps. Soil amendments were supplied at the same rate as mineral fertilizer (120 kg N ha⁻¹) in spring on the tree row on a 1.5 m wide strip, while mineral fertilizer was split in two applications (50% in spring and 50% in summer). Plant growth, measured with trunk diameter and pruning wood weight, was enhanced by mineral fertilization, followed by compost, in comparison to the control. Soil mineral N was too high in relation to plant needs, with a consequent increase in the risk of nitrate leaching. Organic amendments increased soil nutrient availability, microbial activity, and carbon concentration, which, in the long term, could provide a positive environmental effect related to its sequestration into the soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Organic Amendments in Agricultural Production—3rd Edition)

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13 pages, 404 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Potential of Lignocellulosic Biomass from Horticultural Production for Sustainable Energy Production

by Edyta Wrzesińska-Jędrusiak, Grzegorz Zając, Łukasz Kopiński, Agnieszka Najda and Michał Czarnecki

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020261 - 22 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Agricultural production residues are an easily accessible raw material for energy recovery in a circular economy. Therefore, the possibility of biogas production from herb processing waste, namely common thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), peppermint (Mentha × piperita L.), curled mint (Mentha [...] Read more.

Agricultural production residues are an easily accessible raw material for energy recovery in a circular economy. Therefore, the possibility of biogas production from herb processing waste, namely common thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), peppermint (Mentha × piperita L.), curled mint (Mentha crispa L.), and currants (woody stems and leaves), was investigated. In this study, the evaluation of the natural biodegradability of plant waste under conditions typical for an agricultural biogas plant was consciously carried out without the application of pre-treatment processes (shredding, steam hydrolysis, chemical treatment) to facilitate the methane fermentation process. The average values of biogas production efficiency ranged from 75 to 320 m³/mg DM for herb species and from 152 to 209 m³/mg DM for currant varieties under normal conditions. As part of laboratory tests, the elemental composition, i.e., C, H, N, S, O, was determined. Moreover, the analysis showed the energy potential of the tested waste in thermochemical processes (combustion). Garden thyme residues have particularly high energy potential, as indicated by the high calorific value, low nitrogen and sulfur content, and low ash content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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19 pages, 2136 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Different Crop Production Systems on Seed Germination and Longevity in Winter Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

by Monika Agacka-Mołdoch, Krzysztof Jończyk, Jan Bocianowski and Andreas Börner

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020260 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Seed germination performance and storability are fundamental components of seed quality and critical for successful crop establishment. However, information on the impact of different crop production systems on the quality and storability of seed material is still limited. Therefore, the aim of this [...] Read more.

Seed germination performance and storability are fundamental components of seed quality and critical for successful crop establishment. However, information on the impact of different crop production systems on the quality and storability of seed material is still limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of different crop production systems (ecological, integrated, conventional, and monoculture) on seed germination and predisposition for storage. The research was carried out on four varieties of winter wheat. Seed material was produced within a two-year period, during which different weather conditions occurred. Four germination-related traits were assessed: germination capacity NS (%), total germination (TG%), time to reach 50% germination (t50) and the area under the germination curve (AUC). The results demonstrated that the cultivar, the cultivation system and the year of study had a significant impact on germination characteristics. The ecological system ensured the highest germination rate in fresh seeds. However, in the CD test, the conventional system demonstrated the highest levels of stress resistance and stability, suggesting the best storage potential. The significant system × variety interaction demonstrates the importance of accurate matching of the genotype to the growing conditions to ensure optimal seed quality. Furthermore, the data demonstrated a strong influence of climatic conditions in the year of production, which is crucial for seed vigor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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19 pages, 2836 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research and Application of Pre-Emergence Flame Control of Direct-Seeding Rice

by Zhengbo Zhu, Xinghao Song, Fan Bu and Xiaobo Xi

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020259 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Pre-emergence control is one of the critical steps in the agricultural production of direct-seeding rice. To investigate the mechanism of pre-emergence flame control, a flame control test bench and a flame control and sowing integrated operation machine were designed and made. The experimental [...] Read more.

Pre-emergence control is one of the critical steps in the agricultural production of direct-seeding rice. To investigate the mechanism of pre-emergence flame control, a flame control test bench and a flame control and sowing integrated operation machine were designed and made. The experimental results demonstrate that tall fescue seeds achieved complete inactivation (100% rate) when exposed to a target temperature of 140 °C for 1 min. A temperature distribution analysis revealed that the 1 mm soil layer exhibited a lower temperature rise compared with the surface layer, while the 2 mm layer recorded the minimum temperature elevation. Among the tested nozzle–soil distances, 150 mm significantly improved the soil-heating efficacy over 200 mm, with 100 mm yielding the optimal performance. Statistical analysis confirmed that the nozzle–soil distance, seed burial depth, and operating speed exerted highly significant (p < 0.01) effects on the tall fescue seed inactivation rate. The seed burial depth emerged as the most influential factor, followed by the operating speed and nozzle–soil distance. Data from the field experiment further revealed a speed-dependent decline in the inactivation rates: 80.27% at 3 km·h⁻¹, 66.30% at 4 km·h⁻¹, and 46.10% at 5 km·h⁻¹, and SPSS analysis indicated that there were extremely significant differences between every pair of groups of data (p < 0.01). This study verified that pre-emergence flame control technology can effectively eliminate grass seeds on the soil surface and has a certain inhibitory effect on shallow-buried seeds, which contributes to the advancement of pre-emergence control technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI, Machine Vision, and Navigation Technologies for Rice and Wheat Cultivation)

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17 pages, 873 KB

Open AccessArticle

Water-Use Efficiency and Responsiveness of a Popcorn Panel Grown Under Different Water Regimes and Cropping Seasons

by Monique de Souza Santos, Samuel Henrique Kamphorst, Antônio Teixeira do Amaral Junior, Jhean Torres Leite, Valter Jário de Lima, Uéliton Alves de Oliveira, Christiane Mileib Vasconcelos, Flávia Nicácio Viana, Talles de Oliveira Santos, Gabriella Rodrigues Gonçalves, Rogério Figueiredo Daher, Cosme Damião Cruz and Eliemar Campostrini

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020258 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Climate change has intensified drought events, compromising popcorn production, particularly in tropical regions. This study aimed to identify popcorn inbred lines with superior water-use efficiency and responsiveness, and to examine the relationships among morpho-agronomic traits associated with expanded popcorn volume per hectare (VP). [...] Read more.

Climate change has intensified drought events, compromising popcorn production, particularly in tropical regions. This study aimed to identify popcorn inbred lines with superior water-use efficiency and responsiveness, and to examine the relationships among morpho-agronomic traits associated with expanded popcorn volume per hectare (VP). Fifty inbred lines were evaluated under well-watered (WW) and water-stressed (WS) conditions across two cropping seasons (2020 and 2021). Water deficit was imposed at pre-anthesis, with the permanent wilting point occurring during early reproductive stages in 2020 and during grain filling in 2021. Principal component analysis and efficiency/responsiveness classification were used to characterize line performance. Significant genotype × water condition × season interactions affected all traits. Water stress reduced VP by 75% in 2020 and 46% in 2021, reflecting the differing timing of stress. Line L477 showed high efficiency and responsiveness, while genotypes such as L213, L221, and L222 were inefficient and non-responsive in both years. Under WW, VP was mainly associated with hundred-grain weight, ear length, and grain number per row, whereas under WS, ear diameter and number of rows per ear were the strongest contributors, indicating that the available genetic variability is more effectively exploited through selective morpho-agronomic criteria tailored to each water scenario. Contrasting crosses between efficient and non-responsive lines (L325 and L481) and inefficient but responsive lines (L513, L625, and L689) are recommended to support the development of hybrids that combine high yield under irrigation with resilience under water-stress conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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21 pages, 2210 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mulching and Time of Planting Impact on Southern Blight Disease and Industrial Hemp Production

by Sai Suvidh Maddela, Emmanuel C. Omondi, Margaret T. Mmbaga, Anand Kumar, Mitchell Dale Richmond, Philip O. Hinson and Bharat Pokharel

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020257 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 199

Abstract

Southern blight, a disease caused by the soil-borne fungus Sclerotium rolfsii (S. rolfsii), is favored by the hot and humid conditions of the southeastern United States, posing a significant challenge to hemp production in Tennessee. Black plastic mulch (BPM), commonly used [...] Read more.

Southern blight, a disease caused by the soil-borne fungus Sclerotium rolfsii (S. rolfsii), is favored by the hot and humid conditions of the southeastern United States, posing a significant challenge to hemp production in Tennessee. Black plastic mulch (BPM), commonly used for weed control, can exacerbate the disease. There is limited information on the effects of straw mulch (SM), known to moderate soil temperatures and moisture, or planting time in disease management. Field studies were conducted in 2022 and 2023 at Tennessee State University to evaluate the effects of planting time, mulch type, and biofungicide application on disease severity, weed suppression, plant growth, and cannabinoid production in floral hemp. SM significantly reduced southern blight severity and moderated soil temperature, while BPM increased both. Early planting reduced disease severity by 28% in 2022 and by 53% and 34% in 2023 for first and second planting dates. SM lowered soil temperature by 6%, enhanced chlorophyll content by 30%, and increased plant height and biomass by 20% and 25%, respectively. Early planting increased cannabidiol (CBD) concentration by 0.4%, while late planting increased tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) by 0.25%. These findings demonstrate that integrating straw mulch with early planting can reduce disease severity, stabilize soil microclimate, and enhance hemp productivity under warm, humid conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

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19 pages, 3691 KB

Open AccessArticle

Drip Irrigation Coupled with Wide-Row Precision Seeding Enhances Winter Wheat Yield and Water Use Efficiency by Optimizing Canopy Structure and Photosynthetic Performance

by Shengfeng Wang, Enlai Zhan, Zijun Long, Guowei Liang, Minjie Gao and Guangshuai Wang

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020256 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 177

Abstract

To address the bottlenecks of low water and fertilizer utilization efficiency and limited yield potential inherent in Henan Province’s traditional winter wheat cultivation model of “furrow irrigation + conventional row seeding”, this study delved into the synergistic regulatory mechanisms of drip irrigation combined [...] Read more.

To address the bottlenecks of low water and fertilizer utilization efficiency and limited yield potential inherent in Henan Province’s traditional winter wheat cultivation model of “furrow irrigation + conventional row seeding”, this study delved into the synergistic regulatory mechanisms of drip irrigation combined with wide-row precision seeding. It focused on their effects on the physiological ecology and yield-quality traits of winter wheat. A two-factor experiment, encompassing “sowing method × irrigation method” will be carried out during the 2024–2025 wheat growing season, featuring four treatments: furrow irrigation + conventional row seeding (QT), drip irrigation + conventional row seeding (DT), furrow irrigation + wide-row precision seeding (QK), and drip irrigation + wide-row precision seeding (DK). Results reveal that wide-row precision seeding optimized the canopy structure, raising the leaf area index (LAI) at the heading stage by 20.19% compared to QT, thereby enhancing ventilation and light penetration and reducing plant competition. Drip irrigation, with its precise water delivery, boosted the net photosynthetic rate of the flag leaf 35 days after flowering by 62.99% relative to QT, stabilizing root water uptake and significantly delaying leaf senescence. The combined effect of the two treatments (DK treatment) synergistically improved the canopy structure and photosynthetic performance of winter wheat, prolonging the functional period of green leaves by 29.41%. It established a highly efficient photosynthetic cycle, marked by “high stomatal conductance-low intercellular CO₂ concentration-high net photosynthetic rate”. The peak net photosynthetic rate (P_n) 13 days post-flowering rose by 23.9% compared to QT. Moreover, while reducing total water consumption by 21.4%, it substantially increased water use efficiency (WUE) and irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) by 43.2% and 14.2%, respectively, compared to the QT control. Ultimately, the DK treatment achieved a synergistic enhancement in both yield and quality: grain yield increased by 14.7% compared to QT, wet gluten content reached 35.5%, and total protein yield per unit area rose by 13.1%. This study demonstrates that coupling drip irrigation with wide-row precision seeding is an effective strategy for achieving water-saving, high-yield, and high-quality winter wheat cultivation in the Huang-Huai-Hai region. This is achieved through the synergistic optimization of canopy structure, enhanced photosynthetic efficiency, and improved WUE. These findings provide a mechanistic basis and a scalable agronomic solution for sustainable intensification of winter wheat production under water-limited conditions in major cereal-producing regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water and Fertilizer Regulation Theory and Technology in Crops)

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17 pages, 883 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Organic Waste and Hydrogel on the Yield and P, Ca, and Mg Content of Selected Grass Species with the C4 Photosynthesis Pathway in the First Three Years of Cultivation

by Elżbieta Malinowska and Urszula Ostaszewska

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020255 - 21 Jan 2026

Viewed by 168

Abstract

The aim of the experiment was to assess the effects of municipal sewage sludge, mushroom substrate, and hydrogel on the quality of energy grass species and their biomass yield. The experiment was conducted in the climatic conditions of central-eastern Poland between 2020 and [...] Read more.

The aim of the experiment was to assess the effects of municipal sewage sludge, mushroom substrate, and hydrogel on the quality of energy grass species and their biomass yield. The experiment was conducted in the climatic conditions of central-eastern Poland between 2020 and 2022. Two perennial grass species were used: Miscanthus giganteus (giant miscanthus) M 19 and Panicum virgatum L. (rod millet) var. Northwind. Sewage sludge and mushroom substrate doses, each corresponding to 170 kg N·ha⁻¹, were applied in the spring of the first year. The experiment was established on microplots with four replications. Each year, biomass was harvested in January, and the yield of fresh and dry matter was determined. Then plant material was adequately prepared, and the total content of P, Ca, and Mg was measured with the ICP-OES method. The application of hydrogel resulted in a significant increase in the yield of each grass species: giant miscanthus by 11.87% and rod millet by 8.28%. Organic waste applied in combination with hydrogel increased the yield of energy plants and improved their chemical composition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Fertilizers and Soil Health: Innovations for Nutrient Recycling and Environmental Protection)

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17 pages, 4803 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Efficient and Green Ag/AgCl Nanoparticle Derived from Ginger Straw Waste Against Crop Soil-Borne Pathogens

by Zhuhua Gong, Mingwan Liu, Qi Zhang, Yu Yu, Qinhong Liao, Lihui Jiang, Honglei Li, Zhexin Li, Ke Huang, Wenlin Zhang and Yiqing Liu

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020254 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Soil-borne pathogens significantly threaten crop production and global food security, while high-performance antipathogenic materials are scarce. In this study, green and efficient Ag/AgCl nanoparticles (Ag/AgCl-NPs) were developed using an aqueous extract of ginger-straw waste as the raw material. The synthesized Ag/AgCl-NPs exhibited a [...] Read more.

Soil-borne pathogens significantly threaten crop production and global food security, while high-performance antipathogenic materials are scarce. In this study, green and efficient Ag/AgCl nanoparticles (Ag/AgCl-NPs) were developed using an aqueous extract of ginger-straw waste as the raw material. The synthesized Ag/AgCl-NPs exhibited a spherical morphology with an average size of approximately 40 nm, good crystal structure, and abundant surface groups. Additionally, they exhibited excellent antimicrobial activity against representative soil-borne pathogens, including Ralstonia solanacearum (MIC = 20 μg/mL; MBC = 40 μg/mL) and Fusarium oxysporum (spore MIC = 20 μg/mL; mycelial EC₅₀ = 64.596 μg/mL). The antimicrobial mechanism was attributed to cell membrane disruption and oxidative stress induction. This study provides an excellent antimicrobial agent for controlling crop soil-borne pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Nanomaterials for Diseases and Pest Control in Agriculture)

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24 pages, 6765 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Reference Evapotranspiration Estimation in Data-Scarce Regions Using ERA5 Reanalysis and Machine Learning

by Emre Tunca, Václav Novák, Petr Šařec and Eyüp Selim Köksal

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020253 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

This study aims to optimize the estimation of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) in data-scarce regions by integrating ERA5-Land reanalysis data with machine learning (ML) models. Daily meteorological data from 33 stations across Turkey’s diverse climate zones (1981–2010) were utilized to train and validate three [...] Read more.

This study aims to optimize the estimation of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) in data-scarce regions by integrating ERA5-Land reanalysis data with machine learning (ML) models. Daily meteorological data from 33 stations across Turkey’s diverse climate zones (1981–2010) were utilized to train and validate three ML models: Random Forest (RF), Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), and Extreme Learning Machine (ELM). The methodology involved rigorous quality control of ground-based observations, spatial correlation of ERA5-Land grids to station locations, and performance evaluation under various data-limited scenarios. Results indicate that while ERA5-Land provides highly accurate solar radiation (R_s) and temperature (T) data, variables like wind speed (U₂) and relative humidity (RH) exhibit systematic biases. Among the used models, XGBoost demonstrated superior performance (R² = 0.95, RMSE = 0.43 mm day⁻¹, and MAE = 0.30 mm day⁻¹) and computational efficiency. This study provides a robust, regionally calibrated framework that corrects reanalysis biases using ML, offering a reliable alternative for ETo estimation in areas where local measurements are insufficient for sustainable water management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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16 pages, 2350 KB

Open AccessArticle

New Type of Superabsorbent Polymer Reinforced with Vermicompost and Biochar to Enhance Salt Tolerance of Sesbania cannabina in Severely Saline-Alkali Soils

by Hongji Ding, Haoyue Qin, Mengli Liu and Chong Wang

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020252 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

In severely saline-alkali soils, surface salt accumulation caused by intense water evaporation results in elevated salinity, low organic matter content, and suppressed microbial activity, collectively impairing plant physiological metabolism and growth. Superabsorbent polymers hold significant potential for ameliorating saline-alkali soils by regulating soil [...] Read more.

In severely saline-alkali soils, surface salt accumulation caused by intense water evaporation results in elevated salinity, low organic matter content, and suppressed microbial activity, collectively impairing plant physiological metabolism and growth. Superabsorbent polymers hold significant potential for ameliorating saline-alkali soils by regulating soil water–salt dynamics. Biochar, a carbon-rich organic material, plays a pivotal role in enhancing soil organic matter storage, whereas vermicompost, a microbiologically active organic amendment, contributes substantially to improving soil microbial functions. Therefore, this study developed a novel superabsorbent polymer reinforced with vermicompost and biochar (VB-SAP) and further investigated its effects on metabolic pathways associated with enhanced S. cannabina stress resistance in severely saline-alkali soils. The results showed that VB-SAPs significantly increased soil water and organic matter contents by 10.9% and 38.7% (p < 0.05), respectively, and decreased topsoil salinity of saline soils by 44.9% (p < 0.05). The application of VB-SAP altered the soil bacterial community structure and increased the complexity of the bacterial co-occurrence network, specifically enriching members of the phylum Pseudomonadota, which are widely recognized as common plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Moreover, VB-SAPs significantly upregulated root-associated salt tolerance genes involved in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, tryptophan metabolism, and arginine–proline pathways, thereby enhancing root biomass accumulation, nutrient uptake, and shoot growth of S. cannabina. Collectively, these findings reveal that the new type of superabsorbent polymer reinforced with vermicompost and biochar may enhance the salt tolerance and growth of S. cannabina by reshaping the rhizosphere microenvironment, including reducing soil salinity, increasing soil water and organic matter contents, and promoting beneficial bacteria in severely saline-alkali soil, thereby providing novel strategies for the integrated improvement of saline soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)

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25 pages, 8296 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Manure and Biochar on Community Assembly and Co-Occurrence Patterns of Abundant and Rare Microbial Taxa in Border-Row Rhizosphere

by Hui Liu, Wenlong Zhang, Rongce Ma, Yutao Li, Guoxin Shi and Wei Pei

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020251 - 21 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Although biochar and manure have been shown in many studies to influence abundant microbial communities, their differential effects on the rare and abundant microbial communities in soybean–corn intercropping systems remain poorly understood. Understanding how biochar and manure differentially shape these unique communities is [...] Read more.

Although biochar and manure have been shown in many studies to influence abundant microbial communities, their differential effects on the rare and abundant microbial communities in soybean–corn intercropping systems remain poorly understood. Understanding how biochar and manure differentially shape these unique communities is critical to optimizing the sustainability and productivity of intercropping systems. Therefore, this study employed ITS and 16S rRNA sequencing to obtain the relative ASV abundance and thereby investigated how partial substitution of inorganic fertilizer with pig manure and corn stalk biochar influences the diversity, structure, assembly, and co-occurrence patterns of abundant and rare microbiota in border-row rhizospheres. Diversity analysis revealed that biochar and manure significantly increased the richness and evenness of rare fungal communities compared with conventional fertilization. In contrast, the richness and evenness of rare bacterial communities and abundant fungal communities remained stable. Null model analysis revealed that assembly processes shifted toward determinism for rare bacterial communities and toward stochasticity for rare fungal, abundant bacterial, and abundant fungal communities. Co-occurrence network analysis revealed that biochar and manure synergistically reduced the complexity and interaction strength of the rare bacterial network, whereas increasing the complexity and connectivity of the rare fungal network. These results demonstrate that biochar and manure promote distinct community assembly processes in border rows, thereby reshaping the ecological networks of rare and abundant taxa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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20 pages, 4141 KB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification, Characterization and Expression Profiles of the CCD Gene Family in Potato

by Hai Shen, Qianyu Zhang, Ningjing Tang, Peihua Li, Kaimei Zhang, Zhangshuyi Wang, Xiaoting Fang, Chao Wu, Fang Wang, Xueli Huang, Cuiqin Yang, Hong Zhai, Shunlin Zheng and Zhitong Ren

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020250 - 20 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Carotenoids are a class of C40 isoprenoid-derived fat-soluble pigments that play vital roles in plant physiology and human health and serve as precursors for several biologically critical regulatory molecules. Carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases (CCDs) are key enzymes that catalyze the selective oxidative cleavage of [...] Read more.

Carotenoids are a class of C40 isoprenoid-derived fat-soluble pigments that play vital roles in plant physiology and human health and serve as precursors for several biologically critical regulatory molecules. Carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases (CCDs) are key enzymes that catalyze the selective oxidative cleavage of carotenoids into apocarotenoids, thereby significantly influencing plant development and responses to abiotic stress. Although extensive research has been conducted on many model species, comprehensive studies on the StCCD gene family in potato remain limited. In this study, we conducted a genome-wide analysis to identify and characterize the CCD gene family in potato. Phylogenetic and structural analyses classified the 17 StCCD genes into six distinct subfamilies, which are distributed across five chromosomes of the genome. Analysis of cis-acting regulatory elements revealed that the promoters of most StCCD genes contain various elements associated with light responsiveness, stress signaling, and phytohormone regulation. Molecular docking analysis indicated that CCD proteins exhibit distinct substrate specificity in their binding to carotenoids and intermediate products. The expression profiling of StCCD genes uncovered pronounced specificity in their expression, which was evident across tissues, throughout tuber maturation, and following exposure to abiotic stresses and hormonal applications. This specificity strongly implicates these genes in the regulation of developmental processes and stress adaptation mechanisms. This study provides a comprehensive genomic and transcriptomic overview of the CCD gene family in potato, establishing a foundation for functional characterization of individual genes in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Breeding of Novel Potato/Sweet Potato/Cassava Cultivars and the Application of New Technologies)

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20 pages, 11466 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Driver Pathways of Soil Erosion in Qilian Mountain National Park (1990–2022) Under Ecological Restoration

by Xuexia Liu, Yuanyuan Hao, Zhe Meng and Limin Hua

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020249 - 20 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Soil erosion in alpine ecosystems threatens biodiversity, ecosystem services, and SDGs, yet its spatiotemporal dynamics and drivers remain unclear. Using multi-source remote sensing (1990–2022), deep learning, and Random Forest, we assessed soil erosion in Qilian Mountain National Park, an ecotone between the Qinghai–Tibet [...] Read more.

Soil erosion in alpine ecosystems threatens biodiversity, ecosystem services, and SDGs, yet its spatiotemporal dynamics and drivers remain unclear. Using multi-source remote sensing (1990–2022), deep learning, and Random Forest, we assessed soil erosion in Qilian Mountain National Park, an ecotone between the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau and northwestern arid regions, offering a natural laboratory for advancing understanding of water erosion in fragile alpine–arid ecosystems. Results show a mean annual erosion of 2.77 × 10² t·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹ across the whole national park. Over the past three decades, the conversion of bare land to vegetated ecosystems (5355 km²) has reduced soil erosion by approximately 5.36 × 10⁸ t. Bare land had the highest annual mean erosion (100.17 t·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹), followed by cropland (10.03 t·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹) and shrubland (7.58 t·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹), while forest and grassland were <2.55 t·ha⁻¹·yr⁻¹. Slope and precipitation (contributing over 49.85% and 6.80% across ecosystems, respectively) were the dominant drivers of soil erosion, whereas vegetation covers consistently migrated erosion (−0.04 ≤ r ≤ −0.01). Human activity reduced vegetation cover (−0.15 ≤ r ≤ −0.08), thereby intensifying erosion. Overall, erosion intensity declined by 17.04% over the past three decades, yet management should prioritize bare land, cropland, and sensitive zones to strengthen restoration and prevent soil erosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Soil Management and Ecological Restoration)

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15 pages, 930 KB

Open AccessReview

The Regulation Effects and Associated Physiological Mechanisms of Exogenous Melatonin on Sorghum Under Drought Stress

by Guanglong Zhu, Hao Wu, Weicheng Bu, Zhiqiang Ren, Haibo Hu, Irshad Ahmad, Muhi Eldeen Hussien Ibrahim and Guisheng Zhou

Agronomy 2026, 16(2), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16020248 - 20 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is a vital crop for both grain production and forage, playing a critical role in ensuring global food security and sustainable livestock production. Drought stress represents one of the most severe abiotic constraints in sorghum cultivation, adversely affecting [...] Read more.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is a vital crop for both grain production and forage, playing a critical role in ensuring global food security and sustainable livestock production. Drought stress represents one of the most severe abiotic constraints in sorghum cultivation, adversely affecting plant growth and development, and ultimately leading to significant reductions in yield and quality. Melatonin has emerged as a multifaceted plant growth regulator that enhances plant growth and confers tolerance to various abiotic stresses. It actively participates in regulating key physiological processes, including seed germination, seedling establishment, cellular development, and metabolic homeostasis. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the impacts of drought stress on sorghum growth and physiological metabolism, with a specific focus on the protective role of melatonin under water-deficit conditions. The underlying physiological and molecular mechanisms are comprehensively discussed, encompassing ion homeostasis, nutrient metabolism, reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging, photosynthetic efficiency, energy metabolism, phytohormone crosstalk, signal transduction, and associated gene expression. Finally, we outline future research directions to advance our understanding of melatonin-mediated drought tolerance in sorghum, providing insights for breeding drought-resilient varieties and developing high-yielding cultivation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants: Towards a Sustainable Agriculture)

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Agronomy, Volume 16, Issue 2 (January-2 2026) – 140 articles

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