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Agronomy
Volume 16
Issue 4
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Agronomy, Volume 16, Issue 4 (February-2 2026) – 90 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Despite their typically dry summers, Mediterranean regions generally present favorable conditions for orange cultivation. The use of desalinated seawater (DSW) can substantially alleviate summer water scarcity. However, DSW often has relatively high boron (B) content, while oranges are among the crops with the lowest B tolerance. Appropriate rootstock selection may help to overcome this issue. Accordingly, this study evaluated the effect of the ‘Forner-Alcaide 5’ (FA5) rootstock on B tolerance compared with the commonly used ‘Carrizo’ citrange (CC). FA5 conferred greater B tolerance to orange seedlings, as indicated by the greater increase in biomass. However, no differences in B uptake capacity were observed between rootstocks, suggesting an attenuation effect, likely associated with B-induced stomatal closure, that could compromise this apparent advantage under field conditions. View this paper
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22 pages, 9889 KB  
Article
Hyperspectral Estimation of Apple Canopy SPAD Values Based on Optimized Spectral Indices and CEO-LSSVM
by Kaiyao Hou, Ziyan Shi, Wei Lou, Bo Xiao and Xu Li
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 490; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040490 - 23 Feb 2026
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 758
Abstract
Leaf chlorophyll content (LCC) is a key physiological parameter affecting plant growth and development. Rapid and non-destructive monitoring of LCC using hyperspectral remote sensing is crucial for promoting precision agriculture. In this study, hyperspectral data of apple canopy leaves at different phenological stages [...] Read more.
Leaf chlorophyll content (LCC) is a key physiological parameter affecting plant growth and development. Rapid and non-destructive monitoring of LCC using hyperspectral remote sensing is crucial for promoting precision agriculture. In this study, hyperspectral data of apple canopy leaves at different phenological stages were collected alongside their corresponding SPAD values (representing LCC) to construct a dataset. Two types of spectral features were extracted: (1) optimized spectral index combinations; and (2) feature bands selected using the Successive Projections Algorithm (SPA). Based on these features, three machine learning models—Support Vector Machine (SVM), Least Squares Support Vector Machine (LSSVM), and Chaos Evolution Optimization-enhanced LSSVM (CEO-LSSVM)—were developed to estimate SPAD values. The results indicate that the constructed optimal spectral index combinations exhibit superior sensitivity in SPAD estimation compared to the feature bands selected by SPA. Specifically, during the physiological fruit drop stage, the CEO-LSSVM model based on spectral indices achieved a test set R2 of 0.851, surpassing the SPA-based model (R2 = 0.813). Regarding model performance, the CEO-LSSVM demonstrated the highest accuracy and robustness across all stages. In the fruit drop period, using optimized spectral indices, it achieved an RMSE of 1.338, significantly outperforming the LSSVM (RMSE = 1.703) and SVM (RMSE = 2.409) models. This superiority was further evident in the fruit enlargement stage, where the CEO-LSSVM model reached a peak test set R2 of 0.868 and the lowest RMSE of 1.254. The integrated model combining optimized spectral indices and CEO-LSSVM provides an efficient and high-precision approach for hyperspectral SPAD estimation in apple canopies, effectively addressing the challenges of inversion modeling in arid oasis environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)
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25 pages, 5640 KB  
Article
Estimation of Winter Wheat SPAD Values by Integrating Spectral Feature Optimization and Machine Learning Algorithms
by Yufei Wang, Xuebing Wang, Jiang Sun, Zeyang Wen, Haoyong Wu, Lujie Xiao, Meichen Feng, Yu Zhao and Xianjie Gao
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 489; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040489 - 22 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1012
Abstract
The chlorophyll content of plant leaves measured by the soil plant analysis development (SPAD) is an important indicator for measuring crop growth status and irrigation effect. The rapid, non-destructive and efficient estimation of crop SPAD values is of great significance to the field [...] Read more.
The chlorophyll content of plant leaves measured by the soil plant analysis development (SPAD) is an important indicator for measuring crop growth status and irrigation effect. The rapid, non-destructive and efficient estimation of crop SPAD values is of great significance to the field management of crops. In this study, the canopy hyperspectral reflectance and SPAD values of winter wheat were obtained, and the spectral curve was changed through four spectral processing methods, including first-order differential (FD), second-order differential (SD), multivariate scattering correction (MSC), and Savitzky–Golay smoothing (SG) to improve the correlation between canopy spectral reflectance and SPAD. Furthermore, to investigate and evaluate the performance of various vegetation indices (VIs) in estimating SPAD values for winter wheat, existing published indices were optimized using random band combinations derived from multiple canopy spectral transformations. The optimized vegetation index was used as the input variable of the model, and six machine learning algorithms, including random forest (RF), long short-term memory network (LSTM), multilayer perceptron (MLP), deep recurrent neural network (Deep-RNN), gated recurrent unit (GRU), and convolutional neural network (CNN), were used to construct the winter wheat SPAD values estimation model, and the model was verified. The experimental results demonstrate that, when utilizing an equivalent number of optimized vegetation indices as input, the GRU-based model achieves higher estimation accuracy compared to other models. Specifically, the coefficient of determination (R2) is improved by 0.12 compared to the RF model, by 0.03 compared to the LSTM model, by 0.12 compared to the MLP model, by 0.02 compared to the Deep-RNN model, and by 0.02 compared to the CNN model. At the same time, the GRU model also has a lower root mean square error (RMSE) and relative error (RE) of 7.37 and 24.90%, respectively. This study provides valuable hyperspectral remote sensing technology support for the implementation of winter wheat SPAD values estimation in the field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)
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16 pages, 1227 KB  
Article
Effects of Co-Application of Superabsorbent Polymer and Phosphorus Fertilizer on Water and Phosphorus Use Efficiency in Drip-Irrigated Maize
by Zaixin Li, Weidong Ma, Xinjiang Zhang, Guoyong Chen, Xuezhi Zhang, Guojiang Yang and Changzhou Wei
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 488; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040488 - 22 Feb 2026
Viewed by 731
Abstract
In drip-irrigated maize of arid Xinjiang, seedling hardening (withholding irrigation) is used to induce deep rooting, but the conventional practice of banding phosphorus (P) fertilizer without basal application creates a spatial mismatch—roots are forced downward while P remains trapped in drying topsoil. We [...] Read more.
In drip-irrigated maize of arid Xinjiang, seedling hardening (withholding irrigation) is used to induce deep rooting, but the conventional practice of banding phosphorus (P) fertilizer without basal application creates a spatial mismatch—roots are forced downward while P remains trapped in drying topsoil. We hypothesized that co-applying superabsorbent polymer (SAP) with banded P fertilizer can form a localized, persistently hydrated P-enriched patch that synchronizes root–resource distribution. A two-year field experiment (2024–2025) was conducted with three treatments: no P (P0), banded monoammonium phosphate (B-MAP, 120 kg P2O5 ha−1), and B-MAP + SAP (15 kg ha−1). Soil properties, root growth, canopy physiology, dry matter accumulation, nutrient uptake, and grain yield were measured. Results: At the V4 stage, B-MAP + SAP increased available P and soil water content in the 0–10 cm layer by 9.4% and 16.1%, respectively, relative to B-MAP. This patch triggered vigorous root proliferation: topsoil root length at V4 rose by 23.9%, and root length density in the 30–40 cm subsoil at V9 and R1 increased by 59.0% and 36.5%. Consequently, B-MAP + SAP sustained the highest leaf area index, net photosynthetic rate, and biomass accumulation. Two-year average grain yield reached 18.2 t ha−1, 9.7% and 20.7% higher than B-MAP and P0. Crucially, P use efficiency (PUE) and water productivity (WP) under B-MAP + SAP improved by 76.2% and 9.8% over B-MAP. Co-applying SAP with banded P fertilizer resolves the spatial mismatch in hardening systems, optimizes root architecture, and synergistically boosts yield, PUE, and WP. This one-time amendment offers a simple, scalable strategy for efficient P management in arid drip-irrigated maize. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)
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20 pages, 4098 KB  
Article
Effects of Fertilizer Types on Molybdenum Loss Characteristics in Purple Soil Sloping Cropland
by Xueqin Li, Xiaolin Sun, Chunpei Li and Gangcai Liu
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 487; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040487 - 22 Feb 2026
Viewed by 710
Abstract
Fertilization plays an important role in soil nutrient loss from sloping croplands. However, the effect of fertilization on Molybdenum (Mo) loss remains unknown. The aims of this study were to explore the effects of different fertilizers of purple soil on the characteristics of [...] Read more.
Fertilization plays an important role in soil nutrient loss from sloping croplands. However, the effect of fertilization on Molybdenum (Mo) loss remains unknown. The aims of this study were to explore the effects of different fertilizers of purple soil on the characteristics of soil molybdenum loss in surface, subsurface runoff and sediments. Five fertilizers treatments (3 replicates) were designed as following: no fertilizer (CK); conventional nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizer (NPK); organic fertilizers with livestock manure (OM); nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizer plus organic fertilizers with livestock manure (OMNPK); and straw turnover plus nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizer (RSDNPK). The changes of runoff-related Molybdenum loss from June to September 2025 were studied. Results showed that fertilization significantly reduced surface runoff and sediment yield compared with CK (p < 0.05). The RSDNPK treatment exhibited the lowest surface runoff, while OM and OMNPK treatments most effectively decreased sediment loss. Dissolved Mo (DMo) was the predominant form of Mo loss across all treatments (50~70% of total loss), significantly higher than particulate Mo (PMo, 25~40%) and Mo of soil sediments (SEMo, 6.5~12.9%). Notably, the OM treatment uniquely shifted Mo loss toward subsurface flow (47.2% of total), whereas other treatments were dominated by surface runoff. Total Mo loss amount varied significantly among treatments (p < 0.05): CK (795 μg/m2) > OM (685 μg/m2) > NPK (596 μg/m2) > OMNPK (533 μg/m2) > RSDNPK (373 μg/m2). The RSDNPK treatment achieved the optimal performance, reducing total Mo loss by 53.1% compared with CK. Structural equation modeling revealed that soil organic matter indirectly controlled Mo loss by modifying soil physical properties and hydrological processes. The findings demonstrate that RSDNPK represents the most effective strategy for minimizing Mo loss in purple soil sloping croplands, outperforming sole organic manure application. This study highlights the importance of organic amendment and management in Mo loss control and provides a scientific basis for sustainable nutrient management in erosion-prone agricultural systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Soil Management and Ecological Restoration)
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17 pages, 893 KB  
Article
Effects of Nitrogen Reduction Under Limited Water Micro-Sprinkler Irrigation on Yield, Nitrogen Absorption and Utilization, and Nitrogen Apparent Balance of Winter Wheat
by Mingda Yang, Jiaju Dong, Suyu Zhang, Yahui Cheng, Shuai Li, Shenjiao Yang, Yumei Wang, Jinping Chen and Shoutian Ma
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040486 - 21 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 623
Abstract
Reconciling high crop productivity with reduced resource inputs is a primary challenge for sustainable agriculture in water-scarce regions. This study evaluated the feasibility of reducing nitrogen (N) fertilizer application for winter wheat under limited micro-sprinkler irrigation in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, China. A field [...] Read more.
Reconciling high crop productivity with reduced resource inputs is a primary challenge for sustainable agriculture in water-scarce regions. This study evaluated the feasibility of reducing nitrogen (N) fertilizer application for winter wheat under limited micro-sprinkler irrigation in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, China. A field experiment compared five treatments: a non-fertilized and non-irrigated control (CK), conventional flood irrigation with standard N (FI), and limited micro-sprinkler irrigation (80 mm) with standard N (MI), a 20% N reduction (MI1), and a 40% N reduction (MI2). We analyzed grain yield, water and N use efficiency (WUE and NUE) and the apparent soil N balance. WUE in this study was expressed as grain yield per seasonal evapotranspiration (ET), and NUE was evaluated using agronomic indices. The results showed that the MI1 treatment maintained a high grain yield that was not significantly different from the high-input FI and MI treatments. This high yield was sustained by a compensatory mechanism involving enhanced post-anthesis N assimilation and increased extraction of deep soil water, which offset the reduced inputs. Consequently, MI1 significantly improved WUE, irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE), and NUE, while reducing the apparent soil N surplus by 74.5% compared to FI. In contrast, the greater N reduction (MI2) led to a significant yield penalty. In conclusion, a moderate (20%) reduction in N top-dressing under limited micro-sprinkler irrigation presents a viable strategy to maintain high wheat yield, simultaneously enhance resource-use efficiency, and markedly reduce environmental N losses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop Management in Water-Limited Cropping Systems)
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14 pages, 2722 KB  
Article
From Field to Lab: Exploring the Phytochemical Potential of Calabrian Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Biowaste
by Adriano Patriarca, Marcella Saccoccio, Martina Bortolami, Chiara Toniolo, Giorgia Vicario, Ilaria Serafini, Antonio Attisani, Michele De Rosa, Mariangela Spagnoli, Daniela De Vita, Luca Santi and Fabio Sciubba
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040485 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1265
Abstract
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is widely cultivated for the spice obtained from the stigmas, while the remaining floral biomass is discarded as biowaste. Accessing the phytochemical composition of these residues could enable their valorization as a low-cost and sustainable resource for nutraceutical [...] Read more.
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is widely cultivated for the spice obtained from the stigmas, while the remaining floral biomass is discarded as biowaste. Accessing the phytochemical composition of these residues could enable their valorization as a low-cost and sustainable resource for nutraceutical applications. In this context, a quantitative 1H NMR-based metabolite profiling approach, complemented by HPLC-DAD and LC-MS, was employed to comprehensively characterize saffron biowaste. A total of 40 metabolites were identified and quantified by NMR, including amino acids (611.1 ± 36.5 mg/100 g FW), carbohydrates (2801.4 ± 33.7 mg/100 g FW), lipids (702.7 ± 28.2 mg/100 g FW), and saffron-specific compounds such as crocin (596.6 ± 21.5 mg/100 g FW), picrocrocin (1126.3 ± 18.9 mg/100 g FW), safranal (398.4 ± 14.8 mg/100 g FW), and crocetin (13.4 ± 0.4 mg/100 g FW). Targeted fractionation further allowed the identification of kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside (15.44 ± 0.61% w/w in dry ethanolic extract) and 3-hydroxy-γ-butyrolactone. Overall, the results highlight the rich metabolite composition of saffron production waste and support its potential reuse as a valuable source of functional ingredients within a circular economy framework. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cultivation Advances and Agronomic Approaches to Enhance the Phytochemical, Nutraceutical, and Pharmacological Value of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants)
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15 pages, 534 KB  
Article
Effects of Bacillus halotolerans as a Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacterium and Root Phytopathogen Biocontrol Agent in Solanum lycopersicum Under Field Conditions
by María Del Carmen Gonzáles-Miranda, Patricia Verastegui, Katty Ogata-Gutiérrez and Doris Zúñiga-Dávila
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040484 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 833
Abstract
Tomato is the most widely consumed vegetable worldwide and serves as an important source of vitamins and minerals. Using the Bacillus species as biocontrol agents and plant growth promoters is a sustainable approach to optimize production and mitigate the effects of root-infecting phytopathogenic [...] Read more.
Tomato is the most widely consumed vegetable worldwide and serves as an important source of vitamins and minerals. Using the Bacillus species as biocontrol agents and plant growth promoters is a sustainable approach to optimize production and mitigate the effects of root-infecting phytopathogenic fungi, thereby reducing reliance on chemical inputs. This study evaluated the effectiveness of a Bacillus sp.-based bioinoculant, produced in a 7 L bioreactor, for controlling root phytopathogens and enhancing tomato yields under field conditions. The trial was conducted at an experimental field of the Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (Lima, Peru) using a randomized complete block design with four blocks. Treatment means were compared using Tukey’s multiple range test (α = 0.05) to evaluate treatment effects. The treatments included three concentrations of the bioinoculant (10%, 20%, and 30%) derived from an initial concentration of 1 × 108 CFU/mL of a Bacillus halotolerans IcBac2.1 strain sourced from the LEMyB laboratory strain collection, a commercial biological product (1 × 109 CFU/g), and uninoculated control. Applications were made for the following four key stages of crop development: 10 days after germination, when transplanting through root dipping, 7 days after transplanting, and at the onset of flowering. In all treated groups, applications were directed to the plant crown, whereas the control group received no treatment. The evaluated variables included plant height (cm), stem diameter (mm), root disease incidence (%), chlorophyll index (SPAD), °Brix, pH, vitamin C (mg/100 g), total protein (mg/100 g) and crop yield (t/ha). The greatest plant growth-promoting effects were observed in plants inoculated with the 20% bioinoculant and in the commercial product treatment, as evidenced by increased plant height, greater fruit diameter, caliber, and length, as well as lower root disease incidence (2.86% and 1.43%, respectively). In addition, yields were highest in these treatments (29.9 and 25.2 t ha−1, respectively) compared with 14.5 t ha−1 in the control. These results indicate that a 20% B. halotolerans-based bioformulation, similar to the commercial formulation, promotes plant growth, improves agronomic performance, and reduces root disease incidence in tomato crops. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Sustainable Agriculture: Biopesticides and the Biological Control for Pest Management)
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44 pages, 2652 KB  
Review
Strategies for Controlling Acidity of Arable Soils—Sustainable Liming Systems
by Witold Grzebisz, Jean Diatta, Cezary Kaźmierowski and Witold Szczepaniak
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040483 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1425
Abstract
Stabilizing soil pH is not only a production effect, but mainly an environmental effect that requires a holistic approach and action. Current liming practices in arable soils are limited solely to mitigating and potentially eliminating the negative effects of acidification. An effective strategy [...] Read more.
Stabilizing soil pH is not only a production effect, but mainly an environmental effect that requires a holistic approach and action. Current liming practices in arable soils are limited solely to mitigating and potentially eliminating the negative effects of acidification. An effective strategy for controlling arable soil acidification must address not only crop-related challenges but also environmental issues, with atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations being a key factor. The effects of acidification resulting from proton imbalance in soil require a two-pronged approach. As presented and supported by available data, the first is prevention, which involves increasing soil resilience to the accumulation of protons in the soil solution. Increasing the buffering capacity of the soil against acidification (pH-BC) involves primarily increasing the resources of organic matter, introducing some environmentally neutral substances into the soil, such as gypsum, and even remineralizing highly weathered soils. The second area is the need for a systemic change in the approach to liming. The prevailing system, which can be called regenerative–cyclic, requires a transition to a soil pH stabilization system. This approach to liming should both meet production objectives and limit the spread of nitrogen into the environment. Production objectives stem from the sensitivity of crops plants, regardless of the world region, to acidification. Environmental challenges arise from increasing N efficiency, i.e., reducing the share of nitrous N in the pool of N denitrification products. Maintaining soil pH within a range that meets both these goals also increases the role of carbonates in carbon dioxide sequestration. Equally important in controlling soil acidity is the ability to determine the dose of lime fertilizer based on the exchangeable calcium balance in cation exchange complex (CEC). This is crucial for soils that not only suffer from calcium deficiency, but are also susceptible to acidification, both horizontally and vertically. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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19 pages, 4971 KB  
Article
Combined Straw and Plastic Film Mulching Enhances Cauliflower Yield, Quality, and Irrigation Water Use Efficiency in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions
by Yandong Xie, Jian Lyu, Shuya Wang, Li Jin, Ning Jin, Guobin Zhang and Jihua Yu
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040482 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1012
Abstract
Although plastic film mulching enhances crop yield, it impedes water infiltration, potentially restricting agricultural productivity. To address this issue, we evaluated the effects of different mulching methods on cauliflower growth, yield performance, quality traits, soil properties, and irrigation water use efficiency. We implemented [...] Read more.
Although plastic film mulching enhances crop yield, it impedes water infiltration, potentially restricting agricultural productivity. To address this issue, we evaluated the effects of different mulching methods on cauliflower growth, yield performance, quality traits, soil properties, and irrigation water use efficiency. We implemented three mulching treatments and two control groups: combined straw and plastic film mulching (T1), partial straw mulching (T2), full straw mulching (T3), no mulching (CK1), and plastic film mulching alone (CK2). These treatments were applied to two consecutive crops of cauliflower over a two-year period (2019–2020) in the arid and semi-arid regions of Gansu Province, China. Our findings revealed that T1 significantly enhanced plant height, stem diameter, and both above- and belowground fresh biomass compared to CK2. Moreover, T1, T2, and T3 promoted the accumulation of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in the roots, stems, and leaves, as well as the concentrations of macro- (N and K), meso- (Ca and Mg), and micro-elements (Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn) in the cauliflower heads. Compared to CK2, the soluble sugar and vitamin C contents increased by 17.43% and 8.68% in T1, and the soluble protein contents increased by 13.10% and 9.50% in T2 and T3 compared to CK2. Conversely, the nitrate content decreased by 28.28%, 42.06%, and 31.54% in T1, T2, and T3, respectively. Additionally, T1 increased economic yield and irrigation water use efficiency by 16.36–23.80% and 23.94–36.88% in the two years, along with notable improvements in the soil’s total nitrogen, total phosphorus, available phosphorus, and organic matter content. Multivariate classification modeling using principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) further indicated that T1 enhanced cauliflower quality, yield, and irrigation water use efficiency and boosted soil fertility. These findings provide valuable insights for sustainable agricultural practices in arid and semi-arid regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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22 pages, 4604 KB  
Article
Physiological and Rhizosphere Microbial Community Responses of Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) to Antimony Stress: Implications for Phytoremediation and Seed Safety
by Juan Wan, Wenqian Li, Jingyi Guo, Mingyu Zhou, Yu Zhang, Huayi Chen, Jing Bai and Yu Zheng
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040481 - 20 Feb 2026
Viewed by 856
Abstract
Antimony (Sb) contamination in agricultural soils threatens the safety of rapeseed production, yet the mechanisms driving cultivar differences in seed Sb accumulation remain unclear. A pot experiment was conducted with two Sb-tolerant cultivars showing contrasting accumulation patterns, Nanyouza 1 (high-accumulating) and Fengyou 958 [...] Read more.
Antimony (Sb) contamination in agricultural soils threatens the safety of rapeseed production, yet the mechanisms driving cultivar differences in seed Sb accumulation remain unclear. A pot experiment was conducted with two Sb-tolerant cultivars showing contrasting accumulation patterns, Nanyouza 1 (high-accumulating) and Fengyou 958 (low-accumulating), grown under increasing Sb levels. (1) Sb stress inhibited growth and reduced photosynthetic performance in both cultivars; antioxidant enzymes showed a “low stimulation–high inhibition” response and MDA increased under high Sb, indicating aggravated oxidative damage beyond the tolerance threshold. (2) Nanyouza 1 accumulated more Sb in vegetative tissues and exhibited stronger root-to-shoot translocation than Fengyou 958, whereas seed Sb remained relatively low in both cultivars and bioconcentration/translocation efficiencies declined with increasing Sb. (3) At maturity, rhizosphere bacterial communities shifted along the Sb gradient, and taxa associated with Sb differed, with Ramlibacter and Bacillus positively correlated. These findings provide mechanistic insights supporting the integration of cultivar selection and rhizosphere regulation to achieve both safe production and phytoremediation in Sb-contaminated farmland. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution in Farmland Soil)
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18 pages, 1650 KB  
Article
Influence of Sequential Harvest on Chemical Composition of Merlot Wines
by Anastazija Jež Krebelj, Katja Šuklje, Andreja Škvarč, Mateja Potisek and Franc Čuš
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040480 - 20 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1108
Abstract
The influence of grape maturity over three consecutive years (2020–2022) on Merlot (Vitis vinifera L.) juice and wine chemical composition was investigated. Grapes were harvested at three time points (H1, H2, and H3) in weekly intervals. Despite the fact that vintage (environmental [...] Read more.
The influence of grape maturity over three consecutive years (2020–2022) on Merlot (Vitis vinifera L.) juice and wine chemical composition was investigated. Grapes were harvested at three time points (H1, H2, and H3) in weekly intervals. Despite the fact that vintage (environmental conditions) had a predominant effect on juice and wine chemical composition, clear separation of samples according to the harvest date was observed in all three vintages. Compounds with the highest contribution towards harvest date separation were common maturity-related juice and wine variables (titratable acidity, pH) as well as some volatiles, whereas differences in total soluble solids between dates were minor and often insignificant. In particular, concentrations of 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine (IBMP), (Z)-3-hexenol, and 1-hexenol in wines decreased with delayed harvest. All the more, concentrations of 3-mercaptohexanol (3MH) were the lowest in wines from H3 in all three years, whereas concentrations of 3-mercaptohexyl acetate (3MHA) and 4-mercapto-4-methylpentan-2-ol (4MMP) were not influenced by harvest date. Other compounds, such as esters and higher alcohols, with the exception of 1-propanol, did not exhibit a common trend related to the harvest date across three vintages. These results indicate that, during late ripening, harvest-related shifts in juice and wine composition occur even when differences in berry sugar concentration (TSS) at harvest are minor. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Viticulture and Winemaking: Adapting to a Changing Climate)
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26 pages, 1699 KB  
Review
New and Emerging Diseases of Temperate Grain Legumes in the Nile Valley and Red Sea Region: Faba Bean Gall and Virus Diseases: A Review
by Seid Ahmed Kemal, Safaa G. Kumari, P. Lava Kumar, Ming Pei You, Joop van Leur and Martin J. Barbetti
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040479 - 20 Feb 2026
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 949
Abstract
Temperate grain legumes, including faba bean, field pea, chickpea, lentil, and grass pea, are important food and forage crops in the cereal-based cropping system in the Nile Valley and Red Sea region countries. Despite their importance, local production remains insufficient, and the countries [...] Read more.
Temperate grain legumes, including faba bean, field pea, chickpea, lentil, and grass pea, are important food and forage crops in the cereal-based cropping system in the Nile Valley and Red Sea region countries. Despite their importance, local production remains insufficient, and the countries are forced to import to narrow the demand gaps. Emerging diseases, such as faba bean gall disease and several viruses (Chickpea chlorotic dwarf virus, Chickpea chlorotic stunt virus, Faba bean necrotic yellows virus, and Pea seed-borne mosaic virus), are on the rise due to climate variability, changes in farming systems such as monocropping, reduced crop rotations, limited knowledge about the pathogens, and absence of varieties with good levels of resistance. This review synthesizes research achievements in the region and identifies focus areas, primarily resistance breeding, characterization of pathogen populations, developing efficient screening techniques, investigations of mixed virus infections, advancement of pathogen diagnostic techniques, and developing agroecologically based disease management strategies to reduce economic impacts of new and re-emerging diseases. Moreover, research collaboration and information exchange among countries in the region are essential to mitigate the growing threat of emerging legume diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)
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22 pages, 1358 KB  
Article
Screening Almond Cultivars for Water Stress Tolerance Using Multiple Diagnostic Parameters
by Joan Ramon Gispert, Neus Marimon, Agustí Romero and Xavier Miarnau
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040478 - 20 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2018
Abstract
Climate change influences the agronomic behaviour of fruit trees. It is necessary to determine which cultivars adapt best to conditions in which water supplies are becoming increasingly scarce. This study analyses different phenological, morphological, physiological, agronomic and productive parameters to evaluate water stress [...] Read more.
Climate change influences the agronomic behaviour of fruit trees. It is necessary to determine which cultivars adapt best to conditions in which water supplies are becoming increasingly scarce. This study analyses different phenological, morphological, physiological, agronomic and productive parameters to evaluate water stress tolerance in six late-blooming almond cultivars widely grown in Spain (‘Ferragnès’, ’Francolí’, ‘Masbovera’, ‘Glorieta’, ’Guara’ and ‘Lauranne’). Two different plots were analysed: one under regulated deficit irrigation, at Les Borges Blanques, Lleida, with a water deficit (146.2 mm/year) and the other under rainfed conditions, at Mas Bové, Constantí, Tarragona, with a water deficit (284.5 mm/year). Parameters, including an increase in canopy volume, leaf-to-air thermal gradient, and slope between leaf water potential and level of leaf saturation, have proven to be good indicators of resistance to water stress. Yield variation and leaf temperature variation between rainfed and irrigated conditions also perform quite well. An assessment of leaf chlorophyll content, measured using SPAD-502, suggested the presence of a collateral effect resulting from the opacity of the biomass, as well as to chlorophyll-related cuticular colouring. Finally, under the experimental conditions, ‘Guara’ and ‘Masbovera’ proved the most resistant cultivars; ‘Glorieta’ and ‘Francolí’ exhibited an intermediate level, and ‘Lauranne’ and ‘Ferragnès’ were the least resistant cultivars. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influence of Irrigation and Water Use on Agronomic Traits of Crops—2nd Edition)
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22 pages, 4200 KB  
Article
Seasonal Fluctuations and Ecological Resilience: Grassland-Type-Specific Responses of Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Transformations in a Forest–Steppe Ecotone Under Global Change
by Haoyan Li, Wenchao Yang, Kaiyuan Li, Chuan Lu, Yifan Wang, Chuanhao Xing, Jiahuan Li, Long Bai and Baihui Ren
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040477 - 19 Feb 2026
Viewed by 930
Abstract
Against the backdrop of global climate change, climate warming and increasing nitrogen addition are profoundly altering carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling in terrestrial ecosystems. Short-term observations are critical for capturing the initial response trajectories of soil C-N dynamics to environmental stress, providing [...] Read more.
Against the backdrop of global climate change, climate warming and increasing nitrogen addition are profoundly altering carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling in terrestrial ecosystems. Short-term observations are critical for capturing the initial response trajectories of soil C-N dynamics to environmental stress, providing timely insights into early-stage adaptation mechanisms that underpin long-term ecosystem stability. This study investigated the interactive effects of these drivers on soil C and N transformation rates, component dynamics, and their coupling relationships in a warm steppe and a warm shrub grassland within the forest–steppe ecotone of northwestern Liaoning Province. We employed field-controlled experiments using open-top chambers for warming in combination with four nitrogen addition gradients. Results showed warming plus high N addition increased soil total N but reduced net N mineralization, supporting the “N saturation hypothesis”. Though N addition generally suppressed the C conversion rate, low-level N (5 g N m−2 a−1) mitigated C loss and enhanced it under warming. Soil organic C and microbial biomass C drove C transformation. Warm shrub grassland’s stable mineral-associated organic C pool rose 640.5% (stronger resilience), while warm steppe’s C/N turnover depended on seasons (greater vulnerability); C/N transformations were synchronized in the steppe but independent in shrubland. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Carbon Sequestration for Mitigating Climate Change in Grasslands)
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12 pages, 928 KB  
Article
Comparative Study on Plant Water-Use Efficiency Under Different Forest-Medicinal Plant Intercropping Systems in Karst Regions
by Juntong Yan, Rong Zou, Yingying Wu, Yunsheng Jiang, Guowang Wei, Liangju Wei, Fuke Huang, Jianmin Tang and Xiao Wei
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040476 - 19 Feb 2026
Viewed by 645
Abstract
To investigate the rationality of water-use efficiency in agroforestry systems within this region, this study utilised the medicinal and edible plant Sophora japonica cv.jinhuai as a foundation. Five mixed planting models were established, incorporating Ardisia gigantifolia, Melicope pteleifolia, Camellia limonia, Belamcanda chinensis, [...] Read more.
To investigate the rationality of water-use efficiency in agroforestry systems within this region, this study utilised the medicinal and edible plant Sophora japonica cv.jinhuai as a foundation. Five mixed planting models were established, incorporating Ardisia gigantifolia, Melicope pteleifolia, Camellia limonia, Belamcanda chinensis, Isatidis radix, and Pilea basicordata. Water-use efficiency (WUE) was analysed by measuring the carbon-stable isotope composition (δ13C) of plant leaves. Compared to previous studies that primarily focused on δ13C in single species or simple composite systems, this research innovatively evaluates the water-use efficiency (WUE) performance of different composite patterns and their impact on system stability at both the species and system levels, integrating the theory of fitness differentiation. Results indicate that the ranges of δ13C and WUE for the five mixed cropping systems were −27.0633‰ to 31.2188‰ and 27.7191 to 50.0365 μmol/mol, respectively. WUE ranking was: Sophora japonica cv.jinhuai—Camellia limonia—Pilea basicordata (SCP) > Sophora japonica cv.jinhuai—Camellia limonia (SC) > Sophora japonica cv.jinhuai—Belamcanda chinensis + Isatidis radix (SBI) > Sophora japonica cv.jinhuai—Melicope pteleifolia (SM) > Sophora japonica cv.jinhuai—Ardisia gigantifolia (SA). At the species level, the Sophora japonica cv.jinhuai—Camellia limonia—Pilea basicordata (SCP) composite planting model is better suited to karst arid environments, while the Sophora japonica cv.jinhuai—Ardisia gigantifolia (SA) composite planting model exhibits lower overall plant water-use efficiency (WUE) and weaker drought resistance. At the system level, Sophora japonica cv. jinhuai exhibited significantly higher water-use efficiency (WUE) than understory medicinal plants in most composite patterns, with pronounced differences in species fitness and poor system stability. The Sophora japonica cv.jinhuai—Camellia limonia—Pilea basicordata (SCP) model exhibited the highest WUE. Furthermore, no significant difference in WUE was observed between Sophora japonica cv.jinhuai and Pilea basicordata, indicating relatively high fitness matching and good coordination in water use. These species can coexist stably, suggesting promising application potential in karst arid environments. Therefore, this study not only evaluated the water-use performance of each species within the composite model but also identified SCP as the most suitable agroforestry configuration for karst regions from a system stability perspective. This provides a scientifically grounded basis for optimising agroforestry practices in these areas, integrating both species-level and system-level perspectives. It should be clarified that the WUE calculated based on δ13C in this study is a relative indicator rather than an absolute physiological measurement. Its reliability depends on the core assumptions and parameter settings of the isotope model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)
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18 pages, 2283 KB  
Article
Thymol Detoxifies and Reduces Cadmium Accumulation in Vegetables by Activating Multiple Antioxidative Systems and Regulating Cadmium Transport
by Ye Hong, Wuqing Zhang, Liping Yang, Yaoyao Cao, Hongjie Sheng, Jian Chen and Xiangyang Yu
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040475 - 19 Feb 2026
Viewed by 591
Abstract
Toxic Cd (cadmium) pollution in agricultural soil has been drawing global attention. Using exogenous regulators to detoxify Cd in crops is a promising approach to alleviate Cd stress and prevent Cd accumulation in human bodies through the food chain. Natural compounds show great [...] Read more.
Toxic Cd (cadmium) pollution in agricultural soil has been drawing global attention. Using exogenous regulators to detoxify Cd in crops is a promising approach to alleviate Cd stress and prevent Cd accumulation in human bodies through the food chain. Natural compounds show great potential due to their environmentally friendly properties. We have found that thymol (a plant-derived natural compound) protects plants from Cd stress. To extend the application of thymol in agriculture, further studies are needed to understand the detailed mechanism by which thymol induces Cd tolerance and limits Cd accumulation in crops. In this study, hydroponic experiments using the roots of Brassica rapa L. exposed to a nutrient solution containing Cd (3 µM) and thymol (15 µM) were conducted to investigate the mechanism of thymol-induced Cd tolerance. Pot experiments with different vegetables (B. rapa, water spinach, and pepper) growing in Cd-polluted soil (0.5 µM Cd) were carried out to investigate the role of foliar spraying of thymol (15 µM) in decreasing the Cd content in vegetables. In the hydroponic study, thymol enhanced the shoot fresh weight and root fresh weight of B. rapa by 313% and 125%, respectively, upon Cd exposure. Thymol detoxifies Cd-induced ROS accumulation by increasing the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT) in B. rapa by 8.9–33.6%, 12.9–31.6%, and 57.8–135%, respectively. The thymol-activated AsA-GSH (ascorbic acid-glutathione) cycle also contributed to the decrease in ROS level. Thymol also reduced the Cd content in the shoots and roots of B. rapa by 55.7% and 46.6%, respectively, which was associated with the modulation of the expression of a set of genes accounting for Cd accumulation and transport. In the pot study, foliar spraying of thymol significantly decreased the Cd content in various vegetables, including leafy vegetables (B. rapa and two water spinach varieties, with leaf Cd decreasing by 40.5–45.9%) and solanaceous fruits and vegetables (three pepper varieties, with fruit Cd decreasing by 26.9–35.8%), which was accompanied by a growth-promoting effect. The results from this study elucidate the multifaceted function of thymol in helping vegetables detoxify Cd and decrease Cd bioaccumulation, shedding new light on developing thymol as a potential plant regulator to safeguard agroproduct security in Cd-polluted environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)
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15 pages, 6390 KB  
Article
Screening of Salt-Tolerant Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Their Effects on the Growth of Two Leguminous Forage Grasses
by Xinyu Xu, Xiaoyu Zheng, Xinyu Zhao, Wenying Hao, Yujie Zhang, Shubin Zhang and Jingping Gai
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040474 - 19 Feb 2026
Viewed by 725
Abstract
Frequent agricultural and pastoral activities in northern China’s agro-pastoral ecotone have resulted in severe soil salinization. Although phytoremediation is currently the recommended remediation strategy, plant growth is often hindered by microbial deficiencies, nutrient limitations, and high salt content. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are [...] Read more.
Frequent agricultural and pastoral activities in northern China’s agro-pastoral ecotone have resulted in severe soil salinization. Although phytoremediation is currently the recommended remediation strategy, plant growth is often hindered by microbial deficiencies, nutrient limitations, and high salt content. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are prevalent in saline soils and have been shown to facilitate the growth of various forage grasses. However, highly efficient “AMF strain–leguminous forage grass” remediation systems are currently lacking in this area. This study examined the impact of nine AMF strains sourced from the Bank of Glomeromycota in China (BGC) on the growth and salt tolerance mechanisms of Medicago sativa and Astragalus adsurgens via pot experiment. The results showed that all the strains, except Funneliformis mosseae BGC NM04A (Fm-2), exhibited significant promotion of the growth of both leguminous forage species. Specifically, the growth of M. sativa increased by 157% to 354%, and that of A. adsurgens increased by 15.2% to 252%. The impact of different strains on plant-soluble sugar and protein content was found to vary, with Rhizophagus intraradices BGC BJ09 (Rin) and Rhizophagus irregularis MUCL 43194 (Rir-1) having particularly pronounced effects. Most of the AMF strains enhanced the uptake of phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) in the shoots of both plant species. Additionally, all strains except for Fm-2 exhibited a significant increase in the K+/Na+ ratio in M. sativa shoots. In contrast, only Claroideoglomus etunicatum BGC GZ03C (Ce-1) and Rir-1 demonstrated a substantial increase in the K+/Na+ ratio in A. adsurgens. Following a comprehensive assessment, several highly effective combinations were identified: M. sativa in combination with Ce-1, F. mosseae BGC HUN01A (Fm-1), or Rir-1; and A. adsurgens with Rir-1 or Fm-1. These “forage–AMF strain” combinations have been demonstrated to alleviate salt stress by enhancing mycorrhizal effects, regulating ion homeostasis, and optimizing osmotic regulatory substances. Our findings have clarified the intraspecific and interspecific differences in AMF in mitigating salt stress, emphasizing the potential of AMF as a sustainable strategy to improve the stress resistance and productivity of leguminous forages in the saline agro-pastoral ecotone. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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23 pages, 1746 KB  
Article
Composting and Vermicomposting of Fish Sludge with Egg Boxes and Lettuce Wastes with the Addition of Eggshells: Impacts on Chemical Properties, Nutrient Availability, and Safety
by Maha Hleibieh, Ales Hanc, Pavel Michal and Tereza Hrebeckova
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040473 - 19 Feb 2026
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1288
Abstract
This study compared the composting and vermicomposting of fish sludge amended with egg boxes, lettuce residues, and eggshells, over a five-month period. Eight treatments (T1–T8) differing in fish sludge content and the presence or absence of earthworms (Eisenia andrei) were evaluated. [...] Read more.
This study compared the composting and vermicomposting of fish sludge amended with egg boxes, lettuce residues, and eggshells, over a five-month period. Eight treatments (T1–T8) differing in fish sludge content and the presence or absence of earthworms (Eisenia andrei) were evaluated. Monitored parameters included pH, electrical conductivity, earthworm biomass and abundance, concentrations of available elements (P, K, Mg, S, Fe, Cu, Zn and Mn), volatile solids and C/N ratio. Final total levels of potentially toxic elements (PTEs), such as Cr, Ni, Pb and As were also measured. The results demonstrated that fish sludge, egg boxes, and lettuce at a 4:5:1 ratio plus eggshells with earthworms (T8) enhanced nutrient transformation and earthworm activity. Fish sludge and egg boxes at 1:3 plus eggshells (T2) and the same mixture with earthworms (T6) produced compost with PTEs concentrations within safe limits. Final concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, and Pb in T2, T6, and T8 remained below European regulatory thresholds. T8 showed significantly higher concentrations of available K and Mg compared to T2 and T6. T8 was identified as the most effective treatment for processing fish sludge while producing a safe, nutrient-rich product suitable for use as a high-quality organic fertilizer in sustainable agriculture. These findings support vermicomposting as an efficient and environmental strategy for fish sludge utilization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Composting for Soil Improvement and Removal of Soil Contaminants)
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21 pages, 3753 KB  
Article
Enhanced PAH Degradation in Freeze–Thaw Farmland Soil Using Composite Biochar-Immobilized Cold-Tolerant Microbial Consortium
by Dan Su, Ruohong Shang, Huaipeng Zhai, Yushan Dong and Sunan Xu
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040472 - 19 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1062
Abstract
This study focused on slightly to moderately PAH-contaminated farmland soils in freeze–thaw regions of Northeast China, aiming to fill the research gap in the in situ remediation mechanisms of PAHs under natural freeze–thaw conditions. A 12-month in situ experiment was conducted with four [...] Read more.
This study focused on slightly to moderately PAH-contaminated farmland soils in freeze–thaw regions of Northeast China, aiming to fill the research gap in the in situ remediation mechanisms of PAHs under natural freeze–thaw conditions. A 12-month in situ experiment was conducted with four treatments—blank control (CK), biochar (BC), microbial agent (MA), and immobilized microorganisms (IM)—to verify that biochar-loaded IM alleviates temperature stress and sustains efficient PAH removal by regulating soil and microbial properties. PAH removal efficiency and soil chemical properties were monitored during both normal-temperature and freeze–thaw periods, and the soil bacterial community structure was analyzed at the end of the experiment. Results showed that IM achieved the optimal remediation performance with a total PAH removal rate of 72.53%, was least affected by temperature fluctuations, and maintained stable remediation during the freeze–thaw period. IM increased soil nutrient contents, with available potassium and nitrogen exerted positive effects on PAH degradation; it also enriched the functional genes K00626 and K00457 and comprehensively optimized the bacterial community. This study clarified the core remediation mechanism and provided scientific, technical, and theoretical support for related in situ remediation practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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23 pages, 689 KB  
Review
Alleviating Effect of Silicon on Aluminum Toxicity in Plants
by Angélica Cristina Fernandes Deus, Ana Paula Rodrigues da Silva, Rosemary Marques de Almeida Bertani, Anelisa de Aquino Vidal Lacerda Soares, Dirceu Maximino Fernandes and Leonardo Theodoro Büll
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040471 - 19 Feb 2026
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2536
Abstract
Aluminum (Al) toxicity is a major constraint on crop growth and productivity in acidic soils, affecting root development, nutrient uptake, and photosynthetic performance. The use of Si is a promising strategy to overcome the adverse effects of Al toxicity on species of agronomic [...] Read more.
Aluminum (Al) toxicity is a major constraint on crop growth and productivity in acidic soils, affecting root development, nutrient uptake, and photosynthetic performance. The use of Si is a promising strategy to overcome the adverse effects of Al toxicity on species of agronomic interest. Between 2020 and 2026, 15 studies across nine species consistently demonstrated that silicon mitigated aluminum toxicity, regardless of their classification as silicon accumulators. In plants, Si mitigates Al toxicity through a combination of physical, chemical, and biochemical mechanisms that operate simultaneously. In the rhizosphere, Si interacts directly with Al3+ ions, favoring the formation of hydroxyaluminosilicates (HASs), which reduces the bioavailable fraction of Al. Evidence indicates that solution pH is a critical factor governing HAS formation, with minimal attenuation of Al toxicity observed at pH values below 4.5. Within the plant, Si modulates the antioxidant defense system by enhancing the activity of enzymes such as catalase, peroxidase, and ascorbate peroxidase, thereby reducing oxidative stress typically triggered by Al toxicity. Moreover, Si influences the biosynthesis of lignin and phenolic compounds with Al-chelating capacity, contributing to detoxification at the cellular level. In soybean and rice, Si supply substantially reduced Al deposition in the root apical cell wall, with decreases of approximately 52% and 41.3%, respectively. This reduction was consistently associated with improved root elongation, maintenance of root structural integrity, mitigation of cellular deformation, and preservation of root thickness and vascular organization. Although these mechanisms have been described, a comprehensive synthesis of studies published from 2020 to 2026 has been lacking, particularly regarding the integration of in-plant processes and species-specific responses. This review fills this gap by critically examining recent findings, highlighting the multifaceted role of Si in alleviating Al stress, and discussing implications for agronomic applications in acidic soils. Collectively, the evidence underscores Si as an effective tool to enhance plant tolerance to Al; however, most available evidence is derived from early plant developmental stages and hydroponic or highly controlled systems, which limits the direct extrapolation of these findings to soil and field conditions. Future advances will require studies under soil environments, accounting for species-specific responses, soil properties, management systems, and plant developmental stages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Silicon in Crop Stress Tolerance)
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25 pages, 4989 KB  
Article
Ecological Trade-Offs of Plastic Film and Straw Mulching: Mechanistic Insights from Soil Structure and Carbon–Nitrogen
by Nannan Hu, Xiaoyan Wang, Lei Pang, Jianlong Lu, Jin Yang, Xinyue Xiao and Khuram Shehzad Khan
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040470 - 18 Feb 2026
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1283
Abstract
Mulching practices are key technologies for addressing soil degradation and increasing crop yields in the dryland farming regions of the Loess Plateau. However, it remains unclear how they synergistically influence soil health and sustainability by regulating soil physical, moisture, and nutrient processes while [...] Read more.
Mulching practices are key technologies for addressing soil degradation and increasing crop yields in the dryland farming regions of the Loess Plateau. However, it remains unclear how they synergistically influence soil health and sustainability by regulating soil physical, moisture, and nutrient processes while ensuring yield improvement. In particular, the ecological trade-off effects between crop yield enhancement and soil fertility improvement under different mulching measures still require further research. This study was conducted in 2022 at the Dryland Agriculture Experimental Station of Gansu Academy of Agricultural Sciences to evaluate the effect of straw strip mulching (TSM), straw crushed mulching (TSR), and plastic film mulching (TPM), with flat planting without mulching (TCK) as the control. The investigation focuses on soil moisture distribution, aggregate composition, soil carbon and nitrogen contents, and yield components in maize fields. The sStudy results showed that all mulching treatments reduced soil bulk density, increased soil porosity, and enhanced soil water content and water storage while reducing evapotranspiration. TSM most effectively increased soil organic carbon and total nitrogen contents. All mulching treatments improved soil aggregate stability, with TSM achieving the most significant reduction in soil erodibility by 40%. Compared with TCK, TPM, TSR, and TSM increased maize grain yield by 71.26%, 44.67%, and 38.04%, respectively. The most influential factors contributing to maize yield are soil water content, soil erodibility, mechanically stable micro-aggregates, and water-stable macro-aggregates. Analysis of the fitting relationship between key influencing factors and yield indicates that soil erodibility demonstrates the optimal fit with yield (R2 = 0.73), followed by the fit between soil water content and yield (R2 = 0.69). Overall, plastic film mulching primarily enhances short-term yield, while straw strip mulching ensures stable maize production and promotes soil health and sustainable development in dryland farming systems of the Loess Plateau, thus providing a clear theoretical basis for selecting mulching practices based on ecological trade-offs in the Loess Plateau region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)
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29 pages, 3564 KB  
Article
Optimized Phosphorus Inputs Enhances Maize Yield and Humus Stabilization in Albic Soils of Northeast China: Evidence from Three-Year Field Trial
by Jingwei Gao, Houfu Chen, Donghui Dai, Haoyu Gao, Jingjing Wang, Mingshuo Wang, Jiawen Peng and Nan Wang
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040469 - 18 Feb 2026
Viewed by 799
Abstract
Maize is a globally significant cereal crop, while Albic soils in Northeast China are characterized by low available phosphorus (P), poor humus (HS) quality, and constrained maize yield. The synergistic effects of P fertilization on maize yield and HS quality in these soils [...] Read more.
Maize is a globally significant cereal crop, while Albic soils in Northeast China are characterized by low available phosphorus (P), poor humus (HS) quality, and constrained maize yield. The synergistic effects of P fertilization on maize yield and HS quality in these soils remain poorly understood. This three-year field experiment was conducted to determine the optimal P application rate for concurrently enhancing crop productivity and HS quality. Four P application rates were established: 0 kg P2O5 ha−1 (no P application, P0), 40 kg P2O5 ha−1 (low P application, LP), 80 kg P2O5 ha−1 (moderate P application, MP), and 120 kg P2O5 ha−1 (high P application, HP). Soil nutrients status, HS fractions, dissolved organic matter (DOM) fluorescence characteristics, and structural properties of humic acid (HA) were systematically analyzed following standard analytical procedures. Principal component analysis (PCA) and Pearson correlation analysis were integrated to facilitate comprehensive data interpretation. Results indicated that the MP treatment achieved the highest maize yield (12,257.1 kg ha−1) and soil organic matter (SOM, 14.8 g kg−1) content, with no further yield improvement observed under HP. The MP treatment significantly increased DOM carbon content (CDOM, 0.350 mg L−1) and its humification index (HIX, 6.80), promoting the transformation of labile DOM into stable HS. HA under MP treatment exhibited enhanced structural stability, as evidenced by a lower H/C ratio (1.72), a higher O/C ratio (0.880), and a reduced E4/E6 ratio, reflecting increased aromatic condensation and a greater abundance of oxygen-containing functional groups. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and differential thermal analysis (DTA) confirmed that MP improved the structural complexity and thermal stability of HA. In contrast, P0 and LP restricted nutrient availability and HS formation, whereas HP induced soil acidification (pH 5.68) and disrupted HS equilibrium. Principal component analysis (PCA) and correlation analysis revealed significant positive associations between the MP treatment and SOM, CDOM, and maize yield. This implied that moderate P input promoted stable soil organic carbon accumulation and nutrient availability, synergistically enhancing maize productivity—consistent with the study’s core goal of optimizing P management for concurrent yield and HS quality improvement in Albic soils. Accordingly, this study concluded that moderate P application (80 kg P2O5 ha−1) was optimal for Albic soils, synergistically enhancing both maize productivity and HS quality. These findings provided theoretical support for precise P management in sustainable agricultural systems within the Albic soil regions of Northeast China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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17 pages, 2111 KB  
Article
Effects of Companion Crops on the Production Performance and Nutritional Quality of Alfalfa in Desertified Saline–Alkali Soils of the Qaidam Basin
by Na Du, Haiying Zhang, Xiaojian Pu, Chengti Xu and Yuanyuan Zhao
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040468 - 18 Feb 2026
Viewed by 823
Abstract
This study addresses the challenge of establishing alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) in the desertified saline–alkali region of the Qaidam Basin, where seedling survival and productivity are considerably constrained. A two-year field experiment was conducted to identify suitable companion crops by comparing an [...] Read more.
This study addresses the challenge of establishing alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) in the desertified saline–alkali region of the Qaidam Basin, where seedling survival and productivity are considerably constrained. A two-year field experiment was conducted to identify suitable companion crops by comparing an alfalfa monoculture (control) with alfalfa intercropped with oat (Avena sativa L.) (O+A), forage pea (Pisum sativum L.) (P+A), or triticale (xTriticale Wittmack) (T+A). Agronomic traits, yield, and nutritional quality were measured, and a comprehensive evaluation was performed using the TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution) model. The results indicated that intercropping with oat produced the highest fresh and dry matter yields in the establishment year, while triticale and pea treatments exhibited strong yield potential in the subsequent year. Triticale significantly enhanced alfalfa’s nutritional quality by increasing crude protein content and relative feed value (RFV) while reducing fiber content. The TOPSIS model ranked the oat treatment highest for overall performance, effectively balancing yield and quality. In conclusion, oats are recommended as a companion crop to enhance alfalfa establishment in this saline–alkali environment, whereas triticale offers distinct advantages for improving the nutritional value of the forage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Grassland and Pasture Science)
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16 pages, 929 KB  
Article
Physiological and Yield Productivity Responses of Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) to Exogenous Cytokinin and Girdling Treatments
by Khristopher Ogass, Cesar Acevedo-Opazo and Yerko Moreno-Simunovic
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040467 - 17 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1046
Abstract
Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) productivity may be constrained by source–sink imbalances. However, field-based evidence under commercial orchard conditions on the use of branch girdling and cytokinin sprays in hazelnut remains limited. This two-season study conducted in a commercial orchard evaluated the effects [...] Read more.
Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) productivity may be constrained by source–sink imbalances. However, field-based evidence under commercial orchard conditions on the use of branch girdling and cytokinin sprays in hazelnut remains limited. This two-season study conducted in a commercial orchard evaluated the effects of branch girdling (30 mm in October; 3 mm in November) and foliar 6-benzyladenine (6-BA; 30 or 60 mg L−1) applications on the physiology, yield, and nut quality of ‘Tonda di Giffoni’ under Mediterranean conditions. Treatments were evaluated in a randomized complete block design (eight trees per treatment) using linear mixed models. Neither girdling nor 6-BA significantly improved fruit set or estimated yield (p > 0.18) and branch productivity was primarily determined by the initial floral load. However, intense October girdling markedly reduced return bloom (p < 0.001) and impaired gas exchange. In contrast, late-season or split 6-BA applications (T7–T9) consistently increased kernel yield (%), although sometimes at the expense of fruit size and weight. These findings suggest that while the total yield remained unchanged, specific treatments modulated physiological and quality traits, with late 6-BA enhancing kernel fill and early girdling posing risks to subsequent reproductive performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Fruit Development and Quality: Genetic, Environmental, and Agronomic Insights)
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31 pages, 1188 KB  
Review
Impact of Anthropogenic Activities on Microbially Mediated Carbon Dioxide and Methane Emissions in Wetlands: A Review and Prospects
by Yunxuan Han, Lei Yu, Yanwei Zhao, Xia Gao, Xinyi Xu, Zihan Li, Xiuqin Sun, Bing Wu and Xiaoya Xu
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040466 - 17 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1046
Abstract
Global wetlands play a significant role as “blue carbon sinks”. Despite their relatively small coverage, they have enormous potential for carbon capture and sequestration, and also serve as an important natural source of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4 [...] Read more.
Global wetlands play a significant role as “blue carbon sinks”. Despite their relatively small coverage, they have enormous potential for carbon capture and sequestration, and also serve as an important natural source of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Wetland ecosystems are characterized by complex microbial interactions that mediate carbon (C) cycling processes, and also directly influence the dynamic changes of CO2 and CH4, underscoring the crucial role of microorganisms in these systems. Understanding the ecological significance of these gases and their response mechanisms to environmental changes is vital for mitigating the greenhouse effect and conserving ecosystems. This paper reviewed the major environmental challenges facing wetlands globally, such as salinization, over-fertilization, heavy metal input, and microplastic pollution, all influenced by human activities. Additionally, it examined their impact on microbial interactions that mediate the carbon cycle and related greenhouse gas emissions. This review highlighted the crucial role of microorganisms in these cycles and provided a microbial ecological perspective and theoretical foundation for promoting sustainable development and reducing greenhouse gas emissions in wetland areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)
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20 pages, 2120 KB  
Article
Quantifying the Carbon Footprint of Fuding White Tea Production: A Cradle-to-Grave Life Cycle Assessment
by Min Hao, Jihang He, Jianjing Dai, Liewei Cai, Claudien Habimana Simbi, Liyi Xu, Zhenli Wu, Shaobo Zhang and Xin Li
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040465 - 16 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1586
Abstract
Background: White tea, despite being one of the six major types of Chinese tea, has received relatively little attention regarding its production-related environmental impacts. This study employed a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) to quantify the carbon footprint of Fuding white tea production. [...] Read more.
Background: White tea, despite being one of the six major types of Chinese tea, has received relatively little attention regarding its production-related environmental impacts. This study employed a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) to quantify the carbon footprint of Fuding white tea production. Results: An integrated cradle-to-grave assessment, informed by field surveys, literature, and background databases (including complete life-cycle data from 15 tea enterprises), revealed an average carbon emission intensity of 16.94 ± 3.41 kg CO2 eq per kilogram of finished tea (crude). Major emission sources included electricity consumption (45–68% of total emissions), water usage (15–26%), and fertilizer application (7–22%), with major hotspots identified in the processing stage (4.10–12.73 kg CO2 eq/kg, primarily from energy-intensive drying and refining) and consumption stage (5.17–5.67 kg CO2 eq/kg, dominated by water heating). Analysis of 216 scenarios revealed production emissions ranged from 15.44 to 22.72 kg CO2 eq/kg. Notably, emissions could be reduced by up to 56% through integrated measures such as organic fertilization, natural withering, and short-chain distribution. When accounting for tea garden carbon sequestration (1.17–8.45 kg CO2 eq/kg), the production of Fuding white tea could potentially achieve net-negative emissions. Conclusions: To support decarbonization, we propose a tripartite strategy: adoption of green electricity and organic fertilizers during production, promotion of short-chain distribution systems and low-carbon consumer practices, and innovating carbon sink trading mechanisms. These findings offer a scientific foundation for reducing the carbon footprint per unit of tea and enhancing the green competitiveness of the tea industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agroecology Innovation: Achieving System Resilience)
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19 pages, 8239 KB  
Article
Delayed Panicle Nitrogen Application Enhances Stem Nonstructural Carbohydrate Accumulation in Large-Panicle Rice Through the Sucrose–Starch Metabolic Network
by Yonggan Shi, Tiezhong Zhu, Feilong Shen, Chuan Tu, Congshan Xu, Qiangqiang Zhang, Haibing He, Cuicui You, Liquan Wu and Jian Ke
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040464 - 16 Feb 2026
Viewed by 916
Abstract
Accumulation of stem non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) at heading is crucial for mitigating grain-setting defects in large-panicle rice. While traditional panicle nitrogen fertilizer application at the emergence of the fourth leaf from the flag leaf stage (TL4) may weaken stem sink strength, delaying application [...] Read more.
Accumulation of stem non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) at heading is crucial for mitigating grain-setting defects in large-panicle rice. While traditional panicle nitrogen fertilizer application at the emergence of the fourth leaf from the flag leaf stage (TL4) may weaken stem sink strength, delaying application to the emergence of the third leaf from the flag leaf stage (TL3) significantly enhances NSC accumulation. This study aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms through which TL3 remodels stem sink strength to promote NSC storage. Using two large-panicle rice varieties (Huiliangyou 280 and Yangliangyou 228), we compared stem NSC dynamics under TL4 and TL3 treatments and integrated sugar-related metabolite profiling with transcriptome analysis during the critical NSC accumulation phase. The results showed that TL3 treatment significantly increased stem NSC content and NSC per spikelet at heading, leading to a higher percentage of filled grains. The period from 5 days before heading (DBH) to heading showed the highest NSC accumulation rate. At the molecular level, TL3 treatment specifically up-regulated eight key genes in the sucrose–starch metabolism pathway, increasing the activities of sucrose phosphate synthase, sucrose synthase, and ADP–glucose pyrophosphorylase, and thereby promoting the accumulation of sucrose, trehalose, and D-fructose. In summary, delaying panicle nitrogen application to TL3 enhances stem NSC storage by remodeling sink strength via coordinated regulation of the sucrose–starch metabolic network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Management and Tillage Practice in Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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19 pages, 278 KB  
Article
Nitrogen Balance for Pulse Crops in Rotation with Spring Wheat
by Upendra M. Sainju
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040463 - 16 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1067
Abstract
Pulse crops, having the capacity for biological nitrogen (N) fixation, rarely receive N fertilizers, but information is scarce on N balance for pulse crops or pulse crop-spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotations. The objective of the study was to evaluate N balance [...] Read more.
Pulse crops, having the capacity for biological nitrogen (N) fixation, rarely receive N fertilizers, but information is scarce on N balance for pulse crops or pulse crop-spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) rotations. The objective of the study was to evaluate N balance based on N inputs and outputs and soil N sequestration rate for pulse crops and pulse crop-spring wheat rotations from 2021 to 2024 in the US northern Great Plains. Pulse crops (chickpea [Cicer arietinum L.], lentil [Lens culinaris Medik.], and pea [Pisum sativum L.]) were rotated with spring wheat to form four crop rotations (chickpea–spring wheat, lentil-spring wheat, pea–spring wheat, and spring wheat–spring wheat). Total N input from N fertilization, biological N fixation, soil N mineralization, crop seed, and precipitation was 9–27% greater for pea than for other crops and greater for pea–spring wheat than chickpea–spring wheat and continuous spring wheat. Total N output from grain N removal, ammonia volatilization, denitrification, plant senescence, leaching, surface runoff, and gaseous emissions was 20–62% greater for spring wheat than pulse crops. Nitrogen sequestration rate at 0–15 cm was 89% greater for spring wheat than lentil and 106–107% greater for pea-spring wheat and spring wheat–spring wheat than lentil–spring wheat. Nitrogen balance was 215–356% greater for chickpea and pea than lentil and spring wheat and 114–118% greater for chickpea–spring wheat and pea–spring wheat than lentil–spring wheat. Greater N input increased N surplus for pea or pea-spring wheat, and greater N output increased N deficit for spring wheat or spring-spring wheat compared to lentil or lentil–spring wheat, indicating that pea alone or in rotation with spring wheat reduced N loss to the environment by increasing soil N storage compared to continuous spring wheat. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nitrogen Cycling and Efficient Utilization Mechanisms in Agricultural Field Ecosystems)
16 pages, 1612 KB  
Article
Transformation of Divalent Manganese at Humic Acid–Calcite–Bacteria Interfaces: Kinetics, Thermodynamics, and Mechanisms
by Linkui Fan, Hongru Guo, Ruyue Liu, Sandres Sikhumbuzo Tshuma, Ting Wang, Yan Dou, Giuseppe Mele and Guoqiang Gan
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040462 - 16 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1057
Abstract
The immobilization and transformation of manganese in soil environments primarily depend on its interactions with soil mineral components, organic matter, and microorganisms. To investigate the migration and transformation of manganese in the water–soil system of loess regions, we used quartz sand (SiO2 [...] Read more.
The immobilization and transformation of manganese in soil environments primarily depend on its interactions with soil mineral components, organic matter, and microorganisms. To investigate the migration and transformation of manganese in the water–soil system of loess regions, we used quartz sand (SiO2) and calcite (CaCO3)—the main components of loess—as soil matrices, along with humic acid (HA) and a typical bacterium (Bacillus subtilis) as influencing factors. Laboratory experiments combined with instrumental characterization were employed to examine Mn transformation. The results indicate that the presence of humic acid and bacteria significantly inhibits the cation exchange reaction between Mn and Ca in calcite while enhancing the binding of Mn to organic functional groups (–OH and –COOH). In particular, biofilms formed by bacteria and their metabolites exhibited a more pronounced inhibitory effect on cation exchange and promoted Mn oxidation. The effects of pH and temperature were more evident in the composite systems (quartz sand–calcite–humic acid (QS-CL-HA) and quartz sand–calcite–humic acid–Bacillus subtilis (QS-CL-HA-B.S.)). Our thermodynamic results show that the transformation of Mn2+ in the composite systems best fits the pseudo-second-order kinetic model (chemical adsorption) and the Freundlich model (monolayer adsorption). The values of ΔH (15.22, 5.29 kJ·mol−1) and ΔG (0.82–2.76 kJ·mol−1) confirm that the transformation of Mn2+ in these composite systems is non-spontaneous and endothermic. This study demonstrates that, in addition to the effects of minerals, trace organic matter and microorganisms in soil significantly influence the transformation of metallic Mn. The findings also provide a theoretical basis for designing bio-enhanced soil remediation strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Approaches to the Successful Remediation of Soils Polluted with Metal: Progress, Obstacles, and Sustainability Implications)
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20 pages, 913 KB  
Review
From Byproduct to Breakthrough: Agronomic, Environmental, and Regulatory Aspects of Phosphogypsum Use in Agriculture
by Boutaina Yamani, Abdelhak Hamza, Abdelmounaim Yamani, Amine Batbat, Abdelmajid Zouahri, Mohammed El Guilli, Essaid Ait Barka and Mohammed Ibriz
Agronomy 2026, 16(4), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy16040461 - 15 Feb 2026
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1663
Abstract
Phosphogypsum (PG), a calcium sulfate-rich byproduct of phosphate fertilizer production, is generated in vast quantities worldwide and represents a major environmental management challenge. At the same time, its chemical composition makes PG a potentially valuable soil amendment, particularly for the reclamation of saline, [...] Read more.
Phosphogypsum (PG), a calcium sulfate-rich byproduct of phosphate fertilizer production, is generated in vast quantities worldwide and represents a major environmental management challenge. At the same time, its chemical composition makes PG a potentially valuable soil amendment, particularly for the reclamation of saline, sodic, and acidic soils. This review critically synthesizes current knowledge on PG generation processes, physicochemical properties, agronomic performance, and associated environmental and health risks. Evidence from peer-reviewed studies demonstrates that appropriately managed PG applications can improve soil structure, enhance water infiltration, reduce sodium toxicity, alleviate aluminum stress, and increase crop productivity. However, PG contains variable levels of impurities, including heavy metals and naturally occurring radionuclides, which raise concerns regarding soil contamination, groundwater pollution, food safety, and human health, especially under high or repeated application rates. Regulatory frameworks governing PG use differ substantially between regions, reflecting inconsistencies in waste classification, radiological thresholds, and leaching criteria. This review highlights key knowledge gaps related to contaminant mobility, bioavailability, and long-term ecological impacts and discusses mitigation strategies such as purification, controlled application rates, and integrated regulatory oversight. By balancing agronomic benefits against environmental risks, this work provides a comprehensive framework for the safe valorization of phosphogypsum in agriculture, supporting sustainable land management and circular economy objectives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition for Sustainable Agriculture—2nd Edition)
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