Marine Drugs

Research

Jump to: Review

10 pages, 1892 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carotenoid Nostoxanthin Production by Sphingomonas sp. SG73 Isolated from Deep Sea Sediment

by Hiroshi Kikukawa, Takuma Okaya, Takashi Maoka, Masayuki Miyazaki, Keita Murofushi, Takanari Kato, Yoko Hirono-Hara, Masahiro Katsumata, Shoichi Miyahara and Kiyotaka Y. Hara

Mar. Drugs 2021, 19(5), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/md19050274 - 14 May 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3759

Abstract

Carotenoids are used commercially for dietary supplements, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals because of their antioxidant activity. In this study, colored microorganisms were isolated from deep sea sediment that had been collected from Suruga Bay, Shizuoka, Japan. One strain was found to be a pure [...] Read more.

Carotenoids are used commercially for dietary supplements, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals because of their antioxidant activity. In this study, colored microorganisms were isolated from deep sea sediment that had been collected from Suruga Bay, Shizuoka, Japan. One strain was found to be a pure yellow carotenoid producer, and the strain was identified as Sphingomonas sp. (Proteobacteria) by 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis; members of this genus are commonly isolated from air, the human body, and marine environments. The carotenoid was identified as nostoxanthin ((2,3,2′,3′)-β,β-carotene-2,3,2′,3′-tetrol) by mass spectrometry (MS), MS/MS, and ultraviolet-visible absorption spectroscopy (UV-Vis). Nostoxanthin is a poly-hydroxy yellow carotenoid isolated from some photosynthetic bacteria, including some species of Cyanobacteria. The strain Sphingomonas sp. SG73 produced highly pure nostoxanthin of approximately 97% (area%) of the total carotenoid production, and the strain was halophilic and tolerant to 1.5-fold higher salt concentration as compared with seawater. When grown in 1.8% artificial sea salt, nostoxanthin production increased by 2.5-fold as compared with production without artificial sea salt. These results indicate that Sphingomonas sp. SG73 is an efficient producer of nostoxanthin, and the strain is ideal for carotenoid production using marine water because of its compatibility with sea salt. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 1636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Sorting of Fucoxanthin-Producing Phaeodactylum tricornutum Mutants by Flow Cytometry

by Yong Fan, Xiao-Ting Ding, Li-Juan Wang, Er-Ying Jiang, Phung Nghi Van and Fu-Li Li

Mar. Drugs 2021, 19(4), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/md19040228 - 17 Apr 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4122

Abstract

Fucoxanthin, which is widely found in seaweeds and diatoms, has many benefits to human health, such as anti-diabetes, anti-obesity, and anti-inflammatory physiological activities. However, the low content of fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms limits the commercialization of this product. In this study, [...] Read more.

Fucoxanthin, which is widely found in seaweeds and diatoms, has many benefits to human health, such as anti-diabetes, anti-obesity, and anti-inflammatory physiological activities. However, the low content of fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms limits the commercialization of this product. In this study, we introduced an excitation light at 488 nm to analyze the emitted fluorescence of Phaeodactylum tricornutum, a diatom model organism rich in fucoxanthin. We observed a unique spectrum peak at 710 nm and found a linear correlation between fucoxanthin content and the mean fluorescence intensity. We subsequently used flow cytometry to screen high-fucoxanthin-content mutants created by heavy ion irradiation. After 20 days of cultivation, the fucoxanthin content of sorted cells was 25.5% higher than in the wild type. This method provides an efficient, rapid, and high-throughput approach to screen fucoxanthin-overproducing mutants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 2081 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Supplementation of Astaxanthin Improved the Growth Performance, Antioxidant Ability and Immune Response of Juvenile Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) Fed High-Fat Diet

by Shiwei Xie, Peng Yin, Lixia Tian, Yingying Yu, Yongjian Liu and Jin Niu

Mar. Drugs 2020, 18(12), 642; https://doi.org/10.3390/md18120642 - 15 Dec 2020

Cited by 62 | Viewed by 4708

Abstract

High-fat diet (HFD) usually induces oxidative stress and astaxanthin is regarded as an excellent anti-oxidant. An 8-week feeding trial was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary astaxanthin supplementation on growth performance, lipid metabolism, antioxidant ability, and immune response of juvenile largemouth bass [...] Read more.

High-fat diet (HFD) usually induces oxidative stress and astaxanthin is regarded as an excellent anti-oxidant. An 8-week feeding trial was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary astaxanthin supplementation on growth performance, lipid metabolism, antioxidant ability, and immune response of juvenile largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) fed HFD. Four diets were formulated: the control diet (10.87% lipid, C), high-fat diet (18.08% lipid, HF), and HF diet supplemented with 75 and 150 mg kg⁻¹ astaxanthin (HFA1 and HFA2, respectively). Dietary supplementation of astaxanthin improved the growth of fish fed HFD, also decreased hepatosomatic index and intraperitoneal fat ratio of fish fed HFD, while having no effect on body fat. Malondialdehyde content and superoxide dismutase activity were increased in fish fed HFD, astaxanthin supplementation in HFD decreased the oxidative stress of fish. The supplementation of astaxanthin in HFD also reduced the mRNA levels of Caspase 3, Caspase 9, BAD, and IL15. These results suggested that dietary astaxanthin supplementation in HFD improved the growth performance, antioxidant ability and immune response of largemouth bass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

9 pages, 1431 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Intestinal Absorption of Dietary Halocynthiaxanthin, a Carotenoid from the Sea Squirt Halocynthia roretzi

by Chiaki Ikeda, Yuki Manabe, Nami Tomonaga, Tatsuya Wada, Takashi Maoka and Tatsuya Sugawara

Mar. Drugs 2020, 18(12), 588; https://doi.org/10.3390/md18120588 - 24 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2982

Abstract

Halocynthiaxanthin is an acetylenic carotenoid mainly found in Halocynthia roretzi. To date, several bioactivities of halocynthiaxanthin have been reported, but its mechanism of digestion and absorption in mammals has not been studied yet. In this study, we evaluated the intestinal absorption of [...] Read more.

Halocynthiaxanthin is an acetylenic carotenoid mainly found in Halocynthia roretzi. To date, several bioactivities of halocynthiaxanthin have been reported, but its mechanism of digestion and absorption in mammals has not been studied yet. In this study, we evaluated the intestinal absorption of halocynthiaxanthin in mice. The halocynthiaxanthin-rich fraction was prepared from the tunicate Halocynthia roretzi. Mice were orally administered the fraction at a dose of 5 mg/kg body weight. The halocynthiaxanthin levels in the plasma, liver, and small intestine, were quantified using HPLC-PDA, 1, 3, 6, and 9 h after ingestion. The halocynthiaxanthin-rich fraction mainly consisted of the all-trans form and a small amount of cis forms. These three isomers were detected in the plasma of mice 3 h after ingestion. Time-course changes after the ingestion of this fraction were found, with cis isomers being more abundant than the all-trans isomer in the mouse plasma and liver. In the small intestine, however, the all-trans isomer was primarily detected. The possibility that cis isomers might be absorbed rapidly from the small intestine cannot be denied, but our results suggest that dietary all-trans-halocynthiaxanthin might be isomerized to the cis isomer after intestinal absorption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2876 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stereochemistry of Astaxanthin Biosynthesis in the Marine Harpacticoid Copepod Tigriopus Californicus

by Alfonso Prado-Cabrero, Ganjar Saefurahman and John M. Nolan

Mar. Drugs 2020, 18(10), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/md18100506 - 5 Oct 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4158

Abstract

The harpacticoid copepod Tigriopus californicus has been recognized as a model organism for the study of marine pollutants. Furthermore, the nutritional profile of this copepod is of interest to the aquafeed industry. Part of this interest lies in the fact that Tigriopus produces [...] Read more.

The harpacticoid copepod Tigriopus californicus has been recognized as a model organism for the study of marine pollutants. Furthermore, the nutritional profile of this copepod is of interest to the aquafeed industry. Part of this interest lies in the fact that Tigriopus produces astaxanthin, an essential carotenoid in salmonid aquaculture. Here, we study for the first time the stereochemistry of the astaxanthin produced by this copepod. We cultured T. californicus with different feeding sources and used chiral high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) to determine that T. californicus synthesizes pure 3S,3’S-astaxanthin. Using meso-zeaxanthin as feed, we found that the putative ketolase enzyme from T. californicus can work with β-rings with either 3R- or 3S-oriented hydroxyl groups. Despite this ability, experiments in the presence of hydroxylated and non-hydroxylated carotenoids suggest that T. californicus prefers to use the latter to produce 3S,3’S-astaxanthin. We suggest that the biochemical tools described in this work can be used to study the mechanistic aspects of the recently identified avian ketolase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

14 pages, 1500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Absorption and Tissue Distribution of Siphonaxanthin from Green Algae

by Zhuosi Li, Jiawen Zheng, Xiaolin Luo, Yuki Manabe, Takashi Hirata and Tatsuya Sugawara

Mar. Drugs 2020, 18(6), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/md18060291 - 1 Jun 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3528

Abstract

Siphonaxanthin has been known to possess inhibitory effects against obesity, inflammation, and angiogenesis. However, little information on its in vivo bioavailability and biotransformation is available. To assess the bioavailability and metabolism of siphonaxanthin, its absorption and accumulation were evaluated using intestinal Caco-2 cells [...] Read more.

Siphonaxanthin has been known to possess inhibitory effects against obesity, inflammation, and angiogenesis. However, little information on its in vivo bioavailability and biotransformation is available. To assess the bioavailability and metabolism of siphonaxanthin, its absorption and accumulation were evaluated using intestinal Caco-2 cells and Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice. Siphonaxanthin was absorbed and exhibited non-uniform accumulation and distribution patterns in tissues of ICR mice. Notably, in addition to siphonaxanthin, three main compounds were detected following dietary administration of siphonaxanthin. Because the compounds showed changes on mass spectra compared with that of siphonaxanthin, they were presumed to be metabolites of siphonaxanthin in ICR mice. Siphonaxanthin mainly accumulated in stomach and small intestine, while putative metabolites of siphonaxanthin mainly accumulated in liver and adipose tissues. Furthermore, siphonaxanthin and its putative metabolites selectively accumulated in white adipose tissue (WAT), especially mesenteric WAT. These results provide useful evidence regarding the in vivo bioactivity of siphonaxanthin. In particular, the results regarding the specific accumulation of siphonaxanthin and its metabolites in WAT have important implications for understanding their anti-obesity effects and regulatory roles in lipid metabolism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 1651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Astaxanthin Suppresses Cigarette Smoke-Induced Emphysema through Nrf2 Activation in Mice

by Hiroaki Kubo, Kazuhisa Asai, Kazuya Kojima, Arata Sugitani, Yohkoh Kyomoto, Atsuko Okamoto, Kazuhiro Yamada, Naoki Ijiri, Tetsuya Watanabe, Kazuto Hirata and Tomoya Kawaguchi

Mar. Drugs 2019, 17(12), 673; https://doi.org/10.3390/md17120673 - 28 Nov 2019

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 6397

Abstract

Oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a key cellular defense mechanism against oxidative stress. Recent studies have shown that astaxanthin protects against oxidative [...] Read more.

Oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathogenesis of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a key cellular defense mechanism against oxidative stress. Recent studies have shown that astaxanthin protects against oxidative stress via Nrf2. In this study, we investigated the emphysema suppression effect of astaxanthin via Nrf2 in mice. Mice were divided into four groups: control, smoking, astaxanthin, and astaxanthin + smoking. The mice in the smoking and astaxanthin + smoking groups were exposed to cigarette smoke for 12 weeks, and the mice in the astaxanthin and astaxanthin + smoking groups were fed a diet containing astaxanthin. Significantly increased expression levels of Nrf2 and its target gene, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), were found in the lung homogenates of astaxanthin-fed mice. The number of inflammatory cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was significantly decreased, and emphysema was significantly suppressed. In conclusion, astaxanthin protects against oxidative stress via Nrf2 and ameliorates cigarette smoke-induced emphysema. Therapy with astaxanthin directed toward activating the Nrf2 pathway has the potential to be a novel preventive and therapeutic strategy for COPD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 5855 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protective Effects of Fucoxanthin against Alcoholic Liver Injury by Activation of Nrf2-Mediated Antioxidant Defense and Inhibition of TLR4-Mediated Inflammation

by Jiawen Zheng, Xiaoxiao Tian, Wen Zhang, Pingan Zheng, Fangfang Huang, Guofang Ding and Zuisu Yang

Mar. Drugs 2019, 17(10), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/md17100552 - 27 Sep 2019

Cited by 72 | Viewed by 5330

Abstract

Fucoxanthin (Fx) is a natural extract from marine seaweed that has strong antioxidant activity and a variety of other bioactive effects. This study elucidated the protective mechanism of Fx on alcoholic liver injury. Administration of Fx was associated with lower pathological effects in [...] Read more.

Fucoxanthin (Fx) is a natural extract from marine seaweed that has strong antioxidant activity and a variety of other bioactive effects. This study elucidated the protective mechanism of Fx on alcoholic liver injury. Administration of Fx was associated with lower pathological effects in liver tissue and lower serum marker concentrations for liver damage induced by alcohol. Fx also alleviated oxidative stress, and lowered the level of oxides and inflammation in liver tissue. Results indicate that Fx attenuated alcohol-induced oxidative lesions and inflammatory responses by activating the nuclear factor erythrocyte-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-mediated signaling pathway and down-regulating the expression of the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-mediated nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, respectively. Our findings suggest that Fx can be developed as a potential nutraceutical for preventing alcohol-induced liver injury in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 4072 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sublingual Delivery of Astaxanthin through a Novel Ascorbyl Palmitate-Based Nanoemulsion: Preliminary Data

by Andrea Fratter, Damiano Biagi and Arrigo F. G. Cicero

Mar. Drugs 2019, 17(9), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/md17090508 - 29 Aug 2019

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5667

Abstract

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid extracted from several seaweeds with ascertained therapeutic activity. With specific reference, astaxanthin is widely used in clinical practice to improve ocular tissue health and skin protection from UV ray damages. Despite its well-documented pleiotropic actions and demonstrated clinical efficacy, [...] Read more.

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid extracted from several seaweeds with ascertained therapeutic activity. With specific reference, astaxanthin is widely used in clinical practice to improve ocular tissue health and skin protection from UV ray damages. Despite its well-documented pleiotropic actions and demonstrated clinical efficacy, its bioavailability in humans is low and limited because of its hydrophobicity and poor dissolution in enteric fluids. Furthermore, astaxanthin is very unstable molecule and very sensitive to light exposure and thermal stress. Taken together, these pharmacological and chemical–physical features strongly limit pharmaceutical and nutraceutical development of astaxanthin-based products and as a consequence its full clinical usage. This work describes the preliminary in vitro investigation of sublingual absorption of astaxanthin through a novel ascorbyl palmitate (ASP) based nanoemulsion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

12 pages, 1425 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nutrient Deprivation-Associated Changes in Green Microalga Coelastrum sp. TISTR 9501RE Enhanced Potent Antioxidant Carotenoids

by Monrawat Rauytanapanit, Kantima Janchot, Pokchut Kusolkumbot, Sophon Sirisattha, Rungaroon Waditee-Sirisattha and Thanit Praneenararat

Mar. Drugs 2019, 17(6), 328; https://doi.org/10.3390/md17060328 - 1 Jun 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4175

Abstract

The utilization of microalgae as a source of carotenoid productions has gained increasing popularity due to its advantages, such as a relatively fast turnaround time. In this study, a newly discovered Coelastrum sp. TISTR 9501RE was characterized and investigated for its taxonomical identity [...] Read more.

The utilization of microalgae as a source of carotenoid productions has gained increasing popularity due to its advantages, such as a relatively fast turnaround time. In this study, a newly discovered Coelastrum sp. TISTR 9501RE was characterized and investigated for its taxonomical identity and carotenoid profile. To the best of our knowledge, this report was the first to fully investigate the carotenoid profiles in a microalga of the genus Coelastrum. Upon use of limited nutrients as a stress condition, the strain was able to produce astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, and lutein, as the major carotenoid components. Additionally, the carotenoid esters were found to be all astaxanthin derivatives, and β-carotene was not significantly present under this stress condition. Importantly, we also demonstrated that this practical stress condition could be combined with simple growing factors, such as ambient sunlight and temperature, to achieve even more focused carotenoid profiles, i.e., increased overall amounts of the aforementioned carotenoids with fewer minor components and chlorophylls. In addition, this green microalga was capable of tolerating a wide range of salinity. Therefore, this study paved the way for more investigations and developments on this fascinating strain, which will be reported in due course. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2491 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anti-Obesity Effect of Standardized Extract of Microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum Containing Fucoxanthin

by Song Yi Koo, Ji-Hyun Hwang, Seung-Hoon Yang, Jae-In Um, Kwang Won Hong, Kyungsu Kang, Cheol-Ho Pan, Keum Taek Hwang and Sang Min Kim

Mar. Drugs 2019, 17(5), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/md17050311 - 27 May 2019

Cited by 61 | Viewed by 7773

Abstract

Fucoxanthin (FX), a marine carotenoid found in macroalgae and microalgae, exhibits several beneficial effects to health. The anti-obesity activity of FX is well documented, but FX has not been mass-produced or applied extensively or commercially because of limited availability of raw materials and [...] Read more.

Fucoxanthin (FX), a marine carotenoid found in macroalgae and microalgae, exhibits several beneficial effects to health. The anti-obesity activity of FX is well documented, but FX has not been mass-produced or applied extensively or commercially because of limited availability of raw materials and complex extraction techniques. In this study, we investigated the anti-obesity effect of standardized FX powder (Phaeodactylum extract (PE)) developed from microalga Phaeodactylum tricornutum as a commercial functional food. The effects of PE on adipogenesis inhibition in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and anti-obesity in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed C57BL/6J mice were evaluated. PE and FX dose-dependently decreased intracellular lipid contents in adipocytes without cytotoxicity. In HFD-fed obese mice, PE supplementation for six weeks decreased body weight, organ weight, and adipocyte size. In the serum parameter analysis, the PE-treated groups showed attenuation of lipid metabolism dysfunction and liver damage induced by HFD. In the liver, uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1) upregulation and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPARγ) downregulation were detected in the PE-treated groups. Additionally, micro computed tomography revealed lower fat accumulation in PE-treated groups compared to that in the HFD group. These results indicate that PE exerts anti-obesity effects by inhibiting adipocytic lipogenesis, inducing fat mass reduction and decreasing intracellular lipid content, adipocyte size, and adipose weight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 2665 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phytoene Accumulation in the Novel Microalga Chlorococcum sp. Using the Pigment Synthesis Inhibitor Fluridone

by Kelly Laje, Mark Seger, Barry Dungan, Peter Cooke, Juergen Polle and F. Omar Holguin

Mar. Drugs 2019, 17(3), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/md17030187 - 22 Mar 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 5549

Abstract

Carotenoids are lipophilic pigments found in plants and algae, as well as some bacteria, archaea, and fungi that serve two functions—(1) as light harvesting molecules—primary carotenoids, and (2) as antioxidants, acting against reactive oxygen species–secondary carotenoids. Because of their strong antioxidant properties, they [...] Read more.

Carotenoids are lipophilic pigments found in plants and algae, as well as some bacteria, archaea, and fungi that serve two functions—(1) as light harvesting molecules—primary carotenoids, and (2) as antioxidants, acting against reactive oxygen species–secondary carotenoids. Because of their strong antioxidant properties, they are also valuable for the development of anti-aging and photo-protective cosmetic applications. Of particular interest is the carotenoid phytoene, for its colorless and UV absorption characteristics. In this study, we targeted a reduction of phytoene desaturase (PDS) activity with the pigment-inhibiting herbicide 1-methyl-3-phenyl-5-[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]pyridin-4-one (fluridone), which leads to the over-accumulation of phytoene in the recently characterized microalgal strain Chlorococcum sp. (UTEX B 3056). After post-incubation with fluridone, phytoene levels were measured at ~33 ug/mg cell tissue, as opposed to non-detectable levels in control cultures. Hence, the novel microalga Chlorococcum sp. is a viable candidate for the production of the high-value carotenoid phytoene and subsequent applications in cosmeceuticals, as well as more obvious nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

13 pages, 1591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Transcriptome Analyses Provide Potential Insights into the Molecular Mechanisms of Astaxanthin in the Protection against Alcoholic Liver Disease in Mice

by Huilin Liu, Huimin Liu, Lingyu Zhu, Ziqi Zhang, Xin Zheng, Jingsheng Liu and Xueqi Fu

Mar. Drugs 2019, 17(3), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/md17030181 - 19 Mar 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3864

Abstract

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a major cause of chronic liver disease worldwide. It is a complex process, including a broad spectrum of hepatic lesions from fibrosis to cirrhosis. Our previous study suggested that astaxanthin (AST) could alleviate the hepatic inflammation and lipid [...] Read more.

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a major cause of chronic liver disease worldwide. It is a complex process, including a broad spectrum of hepatic lesions from fibrosis to cirrhosis. Our previous study suggested that astaxanthin (AST) could alleviate the hepatic inflammation and lipid dysmetabolism induced by ethanol administration. In this study, a total of 48 male C57BL/6J mice were divided into 4 groups: a Con group (fed with a Lieber–DeCarli liquid diet), an AST group (fed with a Lieber–DeCarli liquid diet and AST), an Et group (fed with an ethanol-containing Lieber–DeCarli liquid diet), and a EtAST group (fed with an ethanol-containing Lieber–DeCarli liquid diet and AST). Then, comparative hepatic transcriptome analysis among the groups was performed by Illumina RNA sequencing. Gene enrichment analysis was conducted to identify pathways affected by the differentially expressed genes. Changes of the top genes were verified by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blot. A total of 514.95 ± 6.89, 546.02 ± 15.93, 576.06 ± 21.01, and 690.85 ± 54.14 million clean reads were obtained for the Con, AST, Et, and EtAST groups, respectively. Compared with the Et group, 1892 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) (including 351 upregulated and 1541 downregulated genes) were identified in the AST group, 1724 differentially expressed genes (including 233 upregulated and 1491 downregulated genes) were identified in the Con group, and 1718 DEGs (including 1380 upregulated and 338 downregulated genes) were identified in the EtAST group. The enrichment analyses revealed that the chemokine signaling, the antigen processing and presentation, the nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor signaling, and the Toll-like receptor signaling pathways enriched the most differentially expressed genes. The findings of this study provide insights for the development of nutrition-related therapeutics for ALD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

17 pages, 8434 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Astaxanthin Attenuates Environmental Tobacco Smoke-Induced Cognitive Deficits: A Critical Role of p38 MAPK

by Xia Yang, An-Lei Guo, Yi-Peng Pang, Xiao-Jing Cheng, Ting Xu, Xin-Rui Li, Jiao Liu, Yu-Yun Zhang and Yi Liu

Mar. Drugs 2019, 17(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/md17010024 - 3 Jan 2019

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5776

Abstract

Increasing evidence indicates that environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) impairs cognitive function and induces oxidative stress in the brain. Recently, astaxanthin (ATX), a marine bioactive compound, has been reported to ameliorate cognitive deficits. However, the underlying pathogenesis remains unclear. In this study, ATX administration [...] Read more.

Increasing evidence indicates that environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) impairs cognitive function and induces oxidative stress in the brain. Recently, astaxanthin (ATX), a marine bioactive compound, has been reported to ameliorate cognitive deficits. However, the underlying pathogenesis remains unclear. In this study, ATX administration (40 mg/kg and 80 mg/kg, oral gavage) and cigarette smoking were carried out once a day for 10 weeks to investigate whether the p38 MAPK is involved in cognitive function in response to ATX treatment in the cortex and hippocampus of ETS mice. Results indicated that ATX administration improved spatial learning and memory of ETS mice (p < 0.05 or p < 0.01). Furthermore, exposure to ATX prevented the increases in the protein levels of the p38mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK; p < 0.05 or p < 0.01) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB p65; p < 0.05 or p < 0.01), reversed the decreases in the mRNA and protein levels of synapsin I (SYN) and postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95) (all p < 0.05 or p < 0.01). Moreover, ATX significantly down-regulated the increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) (all p < 0.05 or p < 0.01). Meanwhile, the increased level of malondialdehyde (MDA) and the decreased activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), and catalase (CAT) were suppressed after exposure to ATX (all p < 0.05 or p < 0.01). Also, the results of the molecular docking study of ATX into the p38 MAPK binding site revealed that its mechanism was possibly similar to that of PH797804, a p38 MAPK inhibitor. Therefore, our results indicated that the ATX might be a critical agent in protecting the brain against neuroinflammation, synaptic plasticity impairment, and oxidative stress in the cortex and hippocampus of ETS mice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

13 pages, 1709 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Astaxanthin Prevents Human Papillomavirus L1 Protein Binding in Human Sperm Membranes

by Gabriella Donà, Alessandra Andrisani, Elena Tibaldi, Anna Maria Brunati, Chiara Sabbadin, Decio Armanini, Guido Ambrosini, Eugenio Ragazzi and Luciana Bordin

Mar. Drugs 2018, 16(11), 427; https://doi.org/10.3390/md16110427 - 2 Nov 2018

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4864

Abstract

Astaxanthin (Asta), red pigment of the carotenoid family, is known for its anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we evaluated the effects of Asta on isolated human sperm in the presence of human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 capsid protein, L1. Sperm, [...] Read more.

Astaxanthin (Asta), red pigment of the carotenoid family, is known for its anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we evaluated the effects of Asta on isolated human sperm in the presence of human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 capsid protein, L1. Sperm, purified by gradient separation, were treated with HPV16-L1 in both a dose and time-dependent manner in the absence or presence of 30 min-Asta pre-incubation. Effects of HPV16-L1 alone after Asta pre-incubation were evaluated by rafts (CTB) and Lyn dislocation, Tyr-phosphorylation (Tyr-P) of the head, percentages of acrosome-reacted cells (ARC) and endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Sperm membranes were also analyzed for the HPV16-L1 content. Results show that HPV16-L1 drastically reduced membrane rearrangement with percentage of sperm showing head CTB and Lyn displacement decreasing from 72% to 15.8%, and from 63.1% to 13.9%, respectively. Accordingly, both Tyr-P of the head and ARC decreased from 68.4% to 10.2%, and from 65.7% to 14.6%, respectively. Asta pre-incubation prevented this drop and restored values of the percentage of ARC up to 40.8%. No alteration was found in either the ROS generation curve or sperm motility. In conclusion, Asta is able to preserve sperm by reducing the amount of HPV16-L1 bound onto membranes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 3458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carotenoid Profiling of a Red Seaweed Pyropia yezoensis: Insights into Biosynthetic Pathways in the Order Bangiales

by Jiro Koizumi, Naoki Takatani, Noritoki Kobayashi, Koji Mikami, Kazuo Miyashita, Yumiko Yamano, Akimori Wada, Takashi Maoka and Masashi Hosokawa

Mar. Drugs 2018, 16(11), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/md16110426 - 1 Nov 2018

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5483

Abstract

Carotenoids are natural pigments that contribute to light harvesting and photo-protection in photosynthetic organisms. In this study, we analyzed the carotenoid profiles, including mono-hydroxy and epoxy-carotenoids, in the economically valuable red seaweed Pyropia yezoensis, to clarify the detailed biosynthetic and metabolic pathways [...] Read more.

Carotenoids are natural pigments that contribute to light harvesting and photo-protection in photosynthetic organisms. In this study, we analyzed the carotenoid profiles, including mono-hydroxy and epoxy-carotenoids, in the economically valuable red seaweed Pyropia yezoensis, to clarify the detailed biosynthetic and metabolic pathways in the order Bangiales. P. yezoensis contained lutein, zeaxanthin, α-carotene, and β-carotene, as major carotenoids in both the thallus and conchocelis stages. Monohydroxy intermediate carotenoids for the synthesis of lutein with an ε-ring from α-carotene, α-cryptoxanthin (β,ε-caroten-3’-ol), and zeinoxanthin (β,ε-caroten-3-ol) were identified. In addition, β-cryptoxanthin, an intermediate in zeaxanthin synthesis from β-carotene, was also detected. We also identified lutein-5,6-epoxide and antheraxanthin, which are metabolic products of epoxy conversion from lutein and zeaxanthin, respectively, by LC-MS and ¹H-NMR. This is the first report of monohydroxy-carotenoids with an ε-ring and 5,6-epoxy-carotenoids in Bangiales. These results provide new insights into the biosynthetic and metabolic pathways of carotenoids in red seaweeds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

9 pages, 867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Degradation of Fucoxanthin to Elucidate the Relationship between the Fucoxanthin Molecular Structure and Its Antiproliferative Effect on Caco-2 Cells

by Shiro Komba, Eiichi Kotake-Nara and Wakako Tsuzuki

Mar. Drugs 2018, 16(8), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/md16080275 - 6 Aug 2018

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4462

Abstract

Fucoxanthin has an antiproliferative effect on cancer cells, but its detailed structure–activity correlation has not yet been elucidated. To elucidate this correlation, fucoxanthin was degraded by ozonolysis. The degraded compounds of fucoxanthin obtained by ozonolysis were purified by HPLC and analyzed by NMR. [...] Read more.

Fucoxanthin has an antiproliferative effect on cancer cells, but its detailed structure–activity correlation has not yet been elucidated. To elucidate this correlation, fucoxanthin was degraded by ozonolysis. The degraded compounds of fucoxanthin obtained by ozonolysis were purified by HPLC and analyzed by NMR. The polyene chain of fucoxanthin was cleaved by ozonolysis, and the fucoxanthin was divided into two types of cyclohexyl derivatives, one with a β,γ-epoxy ketone group and the other with an allenic bond. In order to elucidate the structure–activity correlation, Caco-2 cells (human colorectal carcinoma) were treated with fucoxanthin degradation compounds. It was found that the entire structure of fucoxanthin is not essential for its antiproliferative effect and that even a partial structure exerts this effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

13 pages, 3661 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Rapid Method for the Determination of Fucoxanthin in Diatom

by Li-Juan Wang, Yong Fan, Ronald L. Parsons, Guang-Rong Hu, Pei-Yu Zhang and Fu-Li Li

Mar. Drugs 2018, 16(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/md16010033 - 22 Jan 2018

Cited by 60 | Viewed by 12343

Abstract

Fucoxanthin is a natural pigment found in microalgae, especially diatoms and Chrysophyta. Recently, it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-obesityactivity in humans. Phaeodactylum tricornutum is a diatom with high economic potential due to its high content of fucoxanthin and [...] Read more.

Fucoxanthin is a natural pigment found in microalgae, especially diatoms and Chrysophyta. Recently, it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-obesityactivity in humans. Phaeodactylum tricornutum is a diatom with high economic potential due to its high content of fucoxanthin and eicosapentaenoic acid. In order to improve fucoxanthin production, physical and chemical mutagenesis could be applied to generate mutants. An accurate and rapid method to assess the fucoxanthin content is a prerequisite for a high-throughput screen of mutants. In this work, the content of fucoxanthin in P. tricornutum was determined using spectrophotometry instead of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). This spectrophotometric method is easier and faster than liquid chromatography and the standard error was less than 5% when compared to the HPLC results. Also, this method can be applied to other diatoms, with standard errors of 3–14.6%. It provides a high throughput screening method for microalgae strains producing fucoxanthin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

2599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sequencing and Characterization of Novel PII Signaling Protein Gene in Microalga Haematococcus pluvialis

by Ruijuan Ma, Yan Li and Yinghua Lu

Mar. Drugs 2017, 15(10), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/md15100304 - 11 Oct 2017

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5145

Abstract

The PII signaling protein is a key protein for controlling nitrogen assimilatory reactions in most organisms, but little information is reported on PII proteins of green microalga Haematococcus pluvialis. Since H. pluvialis cells can produce a large amount of astaxanthin upon nitrogen [...] Read more.

The PII signaling protein is a key protein for controlling nitrogen assimilatory reactions in most organisms, but little information is reported on PII proteins of green microalga Haematococcus pluvialis. Since H. pluvialis cells can produce a large amount of astaxanthin upon nitrogen starvation, its PII protein may represent an important factor on elevated production of Haematococcus astaxanthin. This study identified and isolated the coding gene (HpGLB1) from this microalga. The full-length of HpGLB1 was 1222 bp, including 621 bp coding sequence (CDS), 103 bp 5′ untranslated region (5′ UTR), and 498 bp 3′ untranslated region (3′ UTR). The CDS could encode a protein with 206 amino acids (HpPII). Its calculated molecular weight (Mw) was 22.4 kDa and the theoretical isoelectric point was 9.53. When H. pluvialis cells were exposed to nitrogen starvation, the HpGLB1 expression was increased 2.46 times in 48 h, concomitant with the raise of astaxanthin content. This study also used phylogenetic analysis to prove that HpPII was homogeneous to the PII proteins of other green microalgae. The results formed a fundamental basis for the future study on HpPII, for its potential physiological function in Haematococcus astaxanthin biosysthesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1447 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metabolic Engineering of Escherichia coli for Producing Astaxanthin as the Predominant Carotenoid

by Qian Lu, Yi-Fan Bu and Jian-Zhong Liu

Mar. Drugs 2017, 15(10), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/md15100296 - 22 Sep 2017

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 7216

Abstract

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid of significant commercial value due to its superior antioxidant potential and wide applications in the aquaculture, food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. A higher ratio of astaxanthin to the total carotenoids is required for efficient astaxanthin production. β-Carotene ketolase and [...] Read more.

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid of significant commercial value due to its superior antioxidant potential and wide applications in the aquaculture, food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. A higher ratio of astaxanthin to the total carotenoids is required for efficient astaxanthin production. β-Carotene ketolase and hydroxylase play important roles in astaxanthin production. We first compared the conversion efficiency to astaxanthin in several β-carotene ketolases from Brevundimonas sp. SD212, Sphingomonas sp. DC18, Paracoccus sp. PC1, P. sp. N81106 and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii with the recombinant Escherichia coli cells that synthesize zeaxanthin due to the presence of the Pantoea ananatis crtEBIYZ. The B. sp. SD212 crtW and P. ananatis crtZ genes are the best combination for astaxanthin production. After balancing the activities of β-carotene ketolase and hydroxylase, an E. coli ASTA-1 that carries neither a plasmid nor an antibiotic marker was constructed to produce astaxanthin as the predominant carotenoid (96.6%) with a specific content of 7.4 ± 0.3 mg/g DCW without an addition of inducer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

2372 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Cloning and Functional Characterization of a Lycopene β-Cyclase from Macrophytic Red Alga Bangia fuscopurpurea

by Tian-Jun Cao, Xing-Qi Huang, Yuan-Yuan Qu, Zhong Zhuang, Yin-Yin Deng and Shan Lu

Mar. Drugs 2017, 15(4), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/md15040116 - 11 Apr 2017

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6439

Abstract

Lycopene cyclases cyclize the open ends of acyclic lycopene (ψ,ψ-carotene) into β- or ε-ionone rings in the crucial bifurcation step of carotenoid biosynthesis. Among all carotenoid constituents, β-carotene (β,β-carotene) is found in all photosynthetic organisms, except for purple bacteria and heliobacteria, suggesting a [...] Read more.

Lycopene cyclases cyclize the open ends of acyclic lycopene (ψ,ψ-carotene) into β- or ε-ionone rings in the crucial bifurcation step of carotenoid biosynthesis. Among all carotenoid constituents, β-carotene (β,β-carotene) is found in all photosynthetic organisms, except for purple bacteria and heliobacteria, suggesting a ubiquitous distribution of lycopene β-cyclase activity in these organisms. In this work, we isolated a gene (BfLCYB) encoding a lycopene β-cyclase from Bangia fuscopurpurea, a red alga that is considered to be one of the primitive multicellular eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms and accumulates carotenoid constituents with both β- and ε-rings, including β-carotene, zeaxanthin, α-carotene (β,ε-carotene) and lutein. Functional complementation in Escherichia coli demonstrated that BfLCYB is able to catalyze cyclization of lycopene into monocyclic γ-carotene (β,ψ-carotene) and bicyclic β-carotene, and cyclization of the open end of monocyclic δ-carotene (ε,ψ-carotene) to produce α-carotene. No ε-cyclization activity was identified for BfLCYB. Sequence comparison showed that BfLCYB shares conserved domains with other functionally characterized lycopene cyclases from different organisms and belongs to a group of ancient lycopene cyclases. Although B. fuscopurpurea also synthesizes α-carotene and lutein, its enzyme-catalyzing ε-cyclization is still unknown. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Production of the Marine Carotenoid Astaxanthin by Metabolically Engineered Corynebacterium glutamicum

by Nadja A. Henke, Sabine A. E. Heider, Petra Peters-Wendisch and Volker F. Wendisch

Mar. Drugs 2016, 14(7), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/md14070124 - 30 Jun 2016

Cited by 89 | Viewed by 13727

Abstract

Astaxanthin, a red C40 carotenoid, is one of the most abundant marine carotenoids. It is currently used as a food and feed additive in a hundred-ton scale and is furthermore an attractive component for pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications with antioxidant activities. Corynebacterium glutamicum [...] Read more.

Astaxanthin, a red C40 carotenoid, is one of the most abundant marine carotenoids. It is currently used as a food and feed additive in a hundred-ton scale and is furthermore an attractive component for pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications with antioxidant activities. Corynebacterium glutamicum, which naturally synthesizes the yellow C50 carotenoid decaprenoxanthin, is an industrially relevant microorganism used in the million-ton amino acid production. In this work, engineering of a genome-reduced C. glutamicum with optimized precursor supply for astaxanthin production is described. This involved expression of heterologous genes encoding for lycopene cyclase CrtY, β-carotene ketolase CrtW, and hydroxylase CrtZ. For balanced expression of crtW and crtZ their translation initiation rates were varied in a systematic approach using different ribosome binding sites, spacing, and translational start codons. Furthermore, β-carotene ketolases and hydroxylases from different marine bacteria were tested with regard to efficient astaxanthin production in C. glutamicum. In shaking flasks, the C. glutamicum strains developed here overproduced astaxanthin with volumetric productivities up to 0.4 mg·L⁻¹·h⁻¹ which are competitive with current algae-based production. Since C. glutamicum can grow to high cell densities of up to 100 g cell dry weight (CDW)·L⁻¹, the recombinant strains developed here are a starting point for astaxanthin production by C. glutamicum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

1005 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anti-Oxidative Activity of Mytiloxanthin, a Metabolite of Fucoxanthin in Shellfish and Tunicates

by Takashi Maoka, Azusa Nishino, Hiroyuki Yasui, Yumiko Yamano and Akimori Wada

Mar. Drugs 2016, 14(5), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/md14050093 - 11 May 2016

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 6751

Abstract

Anti-oxidative activities of mytiloxanthin, a metabolite of fucoxanthin in shellfish and tunicates, were investigated. Mytiloxanthin showed almost the same activities for quenching singlet oxygen and the inhibition of lipid peroxidation as those of astaxanthin, which is a well-known singlet oxygen quencher. Furthermore, mytiloxanthin [...] Read more.

Anti-oxidative activities of mytiloxanthin, a metabolite of fucoxanthin in shellfish and tunicates, were investigated. Mytiloxanthin showed almost the same activities for quenching singlet oxygen and the inhibition of lipid peroxidation as those of astaxanthin, which is a well-known singlet oxygen quencher. Furthermore, mytiloxanthin showed excellent scavenging activity for hydroxyl radicals and this activity was markedly higher than that of astaxanthin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

4195 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fucoxanthin, a Marine Carotenoid, Reverses Scopolamine-Induced Cognitive Impairments in Mice and Inhibits Acetylcholinesterase in Vitro

by Jiajia Lin, Ling Huang, Jie Yu, Siying Xiang, Jialing Wang, Jinrong Zhang, Xiaojun Yan, Wei Cui, Shan He and Qinwen Wang

Mar. Drugs 2016, 14(4), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/md14040067 - 25 Mar 2016

Cited by 108 | Viewed by 11762

Abstract

Fucoxanthin, a natural carotenoid abundant in edible brown seaweeds, has been shown to possess anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects. In this study, we report for the first time that fucoxanthin effectively protects against scopolamine-induced cognitive impairments in mice. In addition, fucoxanthin significantly [...] Read more.

Fucoxanthin, a natural carotenoid abundant in edible brown seaweeds, has been shown to possess anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, anti-obesity and anti-diabetic effects. In this study, we report for the first time that fucoxanthin effectively protects against scopolamine-induced cognitive impairments in mice. In addition, fucoxanthin significantly reversed the scopolamine-induced increase of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and decreased both choline acetyltransferase activity and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. Using an in vitro AChE activity assay, we discovered that fucoxanthin directly inhibits AChE with an IC₅₀ value of 81.2 μM. Molecular docking analysis suggests that fucoxanthin likely interacts with the peripheral anionic site within AChE, which is in accordance with enzymatic activity results showing that fucoxanthin inhibits AChE in a non-competitive manner. Based on our current findings, we anticipate that fucoxanthin might exhibit great therapeutic efficacy for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease by acting on multiple targets, including inhibiting AChE and increasing BDNF expression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

1117 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Isolation and Analysis of the Cppsy Gene and Promoter from Chlorella protothecoides CS-41

by Meiya Li, Yan Cui, Zhibing Gan, Chunlei Shi and Xianming Shi

Mar. Drugs 2015, 13(11), 6620-6635; https://doi.org/10.3390/md13116620 - 28 Oct 2015

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7423

Abstract

Phytoene synthase (PSY) catalyzes the condensation of two molecules of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate to form phytoene, the first colorless carotene in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway. So it is regarded as the crucial enzyme for carotenoid production, and has unsurprisingly been involved in genetic engineering [...] Read more.

Phytoene synthase (PSY) catalyzes the condensation of two molecules of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate to form phytoene, the first colorless carotene in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway. So it is regarded as the crucial enzyme for carotenoid production, and has unsurprisingly been involved in genetic engineering studies of carotenoid production. In this study, the psy gene from Chlorella protothecoides CS-41, designated Cppsy, was cloned using rapid amplification of cDNA ends. The full-length DNA was 2488 bp, and the corresponding cDNA was 1143 bp, which encoded 380 amino acids. Computational analysis suggested that this protein belongs to the Isoprenoid_Biosyn_C1 superfamily. It contained the consensus sequence, including three predicted substrate-Mg²⁺ binding sites. The Cppsy gene promoter was also cloned and characterized. Analysis revealed several candidate motifs for the promoter, which exhibited light- and methyl jasmonate (MeJA)-responsive characteristics, as well as some typical domains universally discovered in promoter sequences, such as the TATA-box and CAAT-box. Light- and MeJA treatment showed that the Cppsy expression level was significantly enhanced by light and MeJA. These results provide a basis for genetically modifying the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway in C. protothecoides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

1820 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Accumulation of Astaxanthin by a New Haematococcus pluvialis Strain BM1 from the White Sea Coastal Rocks (Russia)

by Konstantin Chekanov, Elena Lobakova, Irina Selyakh, Larisa Semenova, Roman Sidorov and Alexei Solovchenko

Mar. Drugs 2014, 12(8), 4504-4520; https://doi.org/10.3390/md12084504 - 15 Aug 2014

Cited by 103 | Viewed by 14986

Abstract

We report on a novel arctic strain BM1 of a carotenogenic chlorophyte from a coastal habitat with harsh environmental conditions (wide variations in solar irradiance, temperature, salinity and nutrient availability) identified as Haematococcus pluvialis Flotow. Increased (25‰) salinity exerted no adverse effect on [...] Read more.

We report on a novel arctic strain BM1 of a carotenogenic chlorophyte from a coastal habitat with harsh environmental conditions (wide variations in solar irradiance, temperature, salinity and nutrient availability) identified as Haematococcus pluvialis Flotow. Increased (25‰) salinity exerted no adverse effect on the growth of the green BM1 cells. Under stressful conditions (high light, nitrogen and phosphorus deprivation), green vegetative cells of H. pluvialis BM1 grown in BG11 medium formed non-motile palmelloid cells and, eventually, hematocysts capable of a massive accumulation of the keto-carotenoid astaxanthin with a high nutraceutical and therapeutic potential. Routinely, astaxanthin was accumulated at the level of 4% of the cell dry weight (DW), reaching, under prolonged stress, 5.5% DW. Astaxanthin was predominantly accumulated in the form of mono- and diesters of fatty acids from C16 and C18 families. The palmelloids and hematocysts were characterized by the formation of red-colored cytoplasmic lipid droplets, increasingly large in size and number. The lipid droplets tended to merge and occupied almost the entire volume of the cell at the advanced stages of stress-induced carotenogenesis. The potential application of the new strain for the production of astaxanthin is discussed in comparison with the H. pluvialis strains currently employed in microalgal biotechnology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

1463 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fucoxanthin Enhances the Level of Reduced Glutathione via the Nrf2-Mediated Pathway in Human Keratinocytes

by Jian Zheng, Mei Jing Piao, Ki Cheon Kim, Cheng Wen Yao, Ji Won Cha and Jin Won Hyun

Mar. Drugs 2014, 12(7), 4214-4230; https://doi.org/10.3390/md12074214 - 15 Jul 2014

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 8107

Abstract

Fucoxanthin, a natural carotenoid, is abundant in seaweed with antioxidant properties. This study investigated the role of fucoxanthin in the induction of antioxidant enzymes involved in the synthesis of reduced glutathione (GSH), synthesized by glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC) and glutathione synthetase (GSS), [...] Read more.

Fucoxanthin, a natural carotenoid, is abundant in seaweed with antioxidant properties. This study investigated the role of fucoxanthin in the induction of antioxidant enzymes involved in the synthesis of reduced glutathione (GSH), synthesized by glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC) and glutathione synthetase (GSS), via Akt/nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related (Nrf2) pathway in human keratinocytes (HaCaT) and elucidated the underlying mechanism. Fucoxanthin treatment increased the mRNA and protein levels of GCLC and GSS in HaCaT cells. In addition, fucoxanthin treatment promoted the nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of Nrf2, a transcription factor for the genes encoding GCLC and GSS. Chromatin immune-precipitation and luciferase reporter gene assays revealed that fucoxanthin treatment increased the binding of Nrf2 to the antioxidant response element (ARE) sequence and transcriptional activity of Nrf2. Fucoxanthin treatment increased phosphorylation of Akt (active form), an up-regulator of Nrf2 and exposure to LY294002, a phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt inhibitor, suppressed the fucoxanthin-induced activation of Akt, Nrf2, resulting in decreased GCLC and GSS expression. In accordance with the effects on GCLC and GSS expression, fucoxanthin induced the level of GSH. In addition, fucoxanthin treatment recovered the level of GSH reduced by ultraviolet B irradiation. Taken together, these findings suggest that fucoxanthin treatment augments cellular antioxidant defense by inducing Nrf2-driven expression of enzymes involved in GSH synthesis via PI3K/Akt signaling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Figure 1

716 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of (3S,3′S)- and meso-Stereoisomers of Alloxanthin and Determination of Absolute Configuration of Alloxanthin Isolated from Aquatic Animals

by Yumiko Yamano, Takashi Maoka and Akimori Wada

Mar. Drugs 2014, 12(5), 2623-2632; https://doi.org/10.3390/md12052623 - 8 May 2014

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7132

Abstract

In order to determine the absolute configuration of naturally occurring alloxanthin, a HPLC analytical method for three stereoisomers 1a–c was established by using a chiral column. Two authentic samples, (3S,3′S)- and meso-stereoisomers 1b and 1c, [...] Read more.

In order to determine the absolute configuration of naturally occurring alloxanthin, a HPLC analytical method for three stereoisomers 1a–c was established by using a chiral column. Two authentic samples, (3S,3′S)- and meso-stereoisomers 1b and 1c, were chemically synthesized according to the method previously developed for (3R,3′R)-alloxanthin (1a). Application of this method to various alloxanthin specimens of aquatic animals demonstrated that those isolated from shellfishes, tunicates, and crucian carp are identical with (3R,3′R)-stereoisomer 1a, and unexpectedly those from lake shrimp, catfish, biwa goby, and biwa trout are mixtures of three stereoisomers of 1a–c. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

528 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Peridinin from the Marine Symbiotic Dinoflagellate, Symbiodinium sp., Regulates Eosinophilia in Mice

by Ken-ichi Onodera, Yuko Konishi, Takahiro Taguchi, Sumio Kiyoto and Akira Tominaga

Mar. Drugs 2014, 12(4), 1773-1787; https://doi.org/10.3390/md12041773 - 27 Mar 2014

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 7712

Abstract

Peridinin and fucoxanthin, which are natural carotenoids isolated from a symbiotic dinoflagellate, Symbiodinium sp., and a brown alga, Petalonia fascia, respectively, were compared for inhibitory effects on delayed-type hypersensitivity in mice. The number of eosinophils at the site of inflammation and in [...] Read more.

Peridinin and fucoxanthin, which are natural carotenoids isolated from a symbiotic dinoflagellate, Symbiodinium sp., and a brown alga, Petalonia fascia, respectively, were compared for inhibitory effects on delayed-type hypersensitivity in mice. The number of eosinophils at the site of inflammation and in peripheral blood was compared for the administration of peridinin and fucoxanthin applied by painting and intraperitoneally. Peridinin, but not the structurally-related fucoxanthin, significantly suppressed the number of eosinophils in both the ear lobe and peripheral blood. Furthermore, peridinin applied topically, but not administered intraperitoneally, suppressed the level of eotaxin in the ears of sensitized mice. Fucoxanthin weakly suppressed the concentration of eotaxin in ears only by intraperitoneal administration. Although both carotenoids inhibited the migration of eosinophils toward eotaxin, the inhibitory effect of peridinin was higher than that of fucoxanthin. Peridinin may be a potential agent for suppressing allergic inflammatory responses, such as atopic dermatitis, in which eosinophils play a major role in the increase of inflammation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Figure 1

764 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carotenoids of Sea Angels Clione limacina and Paedoclione doliiformis from the Perspective of the Food Chain

by Takashi Maoka, Takashi Kuwahara and Masanao Narita

Mar. Drugs 2014, 12(3), 1460-1470; https://doi.org/10.3390/md12031460 - 13 Mar 2014

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 14204

Abstract

Sea angels, Clione limacina and Paedoclione doliiformis, are small, floating sea slugs belonging to Gastropoda, and their gonads are a bright orange-red color. Sea angels feed exclusively on a small herbivorous sea snail, Limacina helicina. Carotenoids in C. limacina, P. [...] Read more.

Sea angels, Clione limacina and Paedoclione doliiformis, are small, floating sea slugs belonging to Gastropoda, and their gonads are a bright orange-red color. Sea angels feed exclusively on a small herbivorous sea snail, Limacina helicina. Carotenoids in C. limacina, P. doliiformis, and L. helicina were investigated for comparative biochemical points of view. β-Carotene, zeaxanthin, and diatoxanthin were found to be major carotenoids in L. helicina. L. helicina accumulated dietary algal carotenoids without modification. On the other hand, keto-carotenoids, such as pectenolone, 7,8-didehydroastaxanthin, and adonixanthin were identified as major carotenoids in the sea angels C. limacina and P. doliiformis. Sea angels oxidatively metabolize dietary carotenoids and accumulate them in their gonads. Carotenoids in the gonads of sea angels might protect against oxidative stress and enhance reproduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1460 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Fucoxanthin Increases Metabolic Rate and Upregulated mRNA Expressions of the PGC-1alpha Network, Mitochondrial Biogenesis and Fusion Genes in White Adipose Tissues of Mice

by Meng-Ting Wu, Hong-Nong Chou and Ching-jang Huang

Mar. Drugs 2014, 12(2), 964-982; https://doi.org/10.3390/md12020964 - 14 Feb 2014

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 10549

Abstract

The mechanism for how fucoxanthin (FX) suppressed adipose accumulation is unclear. We aim to investigate the effects of FX on metabolic rate and expressions of genes related to thermogenesis, mitochondria biogenesis and homeostasis. Using a 2 × 2 factorial design, four groups of [...] Read more.

The mechanism for how fucoxanthin (FX) suppressed adipose accumulation is unclear. We aim to investigate the effects of FX on metabolic rate and expressions of genes related to thermogenesis, mitochondria biogenesis and homeostasis. Using a 2 × 2 factorial design, four groups of mice were respectively fed a high sucrose (50% sucrose) or a high-fat diet (23% butter + 7% soybean oil) supplemented with or without 0.2% FX. FX significantly increased oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production and reduced white adipose tissue (WAT) mass. The mRNA expressions of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), cell death-inducing DFFA-like effecter a (CIDEA), PPARα, PPARγ, estrogen-related receptor α (ERRα), β3-adrenergic receptor (β3-AR) and deiodinase 2 (Dio2) were significantly upregulated in inguinal WAT (iWAT) and epididymal WAT (eWAT) by FX. Mitochondrial biogenic genes, nuclear respiratory factor 1 (NRF1) and NRF2, were increased in eWAT by FX. Noticeably, FX upregulated genes of mitochondrial fusion, mitofusin 1 (Mfn1), Mfn2 and optic atrophy 1 (OPA1), but not mitochondrial fission, Fission 1, in both iWAT and eWAT. In conclusion, dietary FX enhanced the metabolic rate and lowered adipose mass irrespective of the diet. These were associated with upregulated genes of the PGC-1α network and mitochondrial fusion in eWAT and iWAT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Figure 1

232 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carotenoids in Marine Invertebrates Living along the Kuroshio Current Coast

by Takashi Maoka, Naoshige Akimoto, Miyuki Tsushima, Sadao Komemushi, Takuma Mezaki, Fumihito Iwase, Yoshimitsu Takahashi, Naomi Sameshima, Miho Mori and Yoshikazu Sakagami

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(8), 1419-1427; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9081419 - 22 Aug 2011

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 8937

Abstract

Carotenoids of the corals Acropora japonica, A. secale, and A. hyacinthus, the tridacnid clam Tridacna squamosa, the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci, and the small sea snail Drupella fragum were investigated. The corals and the tridacnid clam are filter [...] Read more.

Carotenoids of the corals Acropora japonica, A. secale, and A. hyacinthus, the tridacnid clam Tridacna squamosa, the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci, and the small sea snail Drupella fragum were investigated. The corals and the tridacnid clam are filter feeders and are associated with symbiotic zooxanthellae. Peridinin and pyrrhoxanthin, which originated from symbiotic zooxanthellae, were found to be major carotenoids in corals and the tridacnid clam. The crown-of-thorns starfish and the sea snail D. fragum are carnivorous and mainly feed on corals. Peridinin-3-acyl esters were major carotenoids in the sea snail D. fragum. On the other hand, ketocarotenoids such as 7,8-didehydroastaxanthin and astaxanthin were major carotenoids in the crown-of-thorns starfish. Carotenoids found in these marine animals closely reflected not only their metabolism but also their food chains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

493 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The New Carotenoid Pigment Moraxanthin Is Associated with Toxic Microalgae

by Olga Mangoni, Concetta Imperatore, Carmelo R. Tomas, Valeria Costantino, Vincenzo Saggiomo and Alfonso Mangoni

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(2), 242-255; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9020242 - 10 Feb 2011

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 11988

Abstract

The new pigment “moraxanthin” was found in natural samples from a fish mortality site in the Inland Bays of Delaware, USA. Pure cultures of the species, tentatively named Chattonella cf. verruculosa, and natural samples contained this pigment as a dominant carotenoid. The [...] Read more.

The new pigment “moraxanthin” was found in natural samples from a fish mortality site in the Inland Bays of Delaware, USA. Pure cultures of the species, tentatively named Chattonella cf. verruculosa, and natural samples contained this pigment as a dominant carotenoid. The pigment, obtained from a 10 L culture of C. cf. verruculosa, was isolated and harvested by HPLC and its structure determined from MS and 1D- and 2D-NMR. The data identified this pigment as a new acylated form of vaucheriaxanthin called moraxanthin after the berry like algal cell. Its presence in pure cultures and in natural bloom samples indicates that moraxanthin is specific to C. cf. verruculosa and can be used as a marker of its presence when HPLC is used to analyze natural blooms samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Productivity of a Lutein-Enriched Novel Acidophile Microalga Grown on Urea

by Carlos Casal, Maria Cuaresma, Jose Maria Vega and Carlos Vilchez

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(1), 29-42; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9010029 - 24 Dec 2010

Cited by 70 | Viewed by 13564

Abstract

Coccomyxa acidophila is an extremophile eukaryotic microalga isolated from the Tinto River mining area in Huelva, Spain. Coccomyxa acidophila accumulates relevant amounts of b-carotene and lutein, well-known carotenoids with many biotechnological applications, especially in food and health-related industries. The acidic culture medium (pH [...] Read more.

Coccomyxa acidophila is an extremophile eukaryotic microalga isolated from the Tinto River mining area in Huelva, Spain. Coccomyxa acidophila accumulates relevant amounts of b-carotene and lutein, well-known carotenoids with many biotechnological applications, especially in food and health-related industries. The acidic culture medium (pH < 2.5) that prevents outdoor cultivation from non-desired microorganism growth is one of the main advantages of acidophile microalgae production. Conversely, acidophile microalgae growth rates are usually very low compared to common microalgae growth rates. In this work, we show that mixotrophic cultivation on urea efficiently enhances growth and productivity of an acidophile microalga up to typical values for common microalgae, therefore approaching acidophile algal production towards suitable conditions for feasible outdoor production. Algal productivity and potential for carotenoid accumulation were analyzed as a function of the nitrogen source supplied. Several nitrogen conditions were assayed: nitrogen starvation, nitrate and/or nitrite, ammonia and urea. Among them, urea clearly led to the best cell growth (~4 ´ 10⁸ cells/mL at the end of log phase). Ammonium led to the maximum chlorophyll and carotenoid content per volume unit (220 mg·mL^-1 and 35 mg·mL^-1, respectively). Interestingly, no significant differences in growth rates were found in cultures grown on urea as C and N source, with respect to those cultures grown on nitrate and CO₂ as nitrogen and carbon sources (control cultures). Lutein accumulated up to 3.55 mg·g^{-1 in the mixotrophic cultures grown on urea. In addition, algal growth in a shaded culture revealed the first evidence for an active xanthophylls cycle operative in acidophile microalgae.} Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Review

Jump to: Research

17 pages, 923 KiB

Open AccessReview

Properties of Carotenoids in Fish Fitness: A Review

by Toshiki Nakano and Geert Wiegertjes

Mar. Drugs 2020, 18(11), 568; https://doi.org/10.3390/md18110568 - 19 Nov 2020

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 8841

Abstract

Carotenoids, one of the most common types of natural pigments, can influence the colors of living organisms. More than 750 kinds of carotenoids have been identified. Generally, carotenoids occur in organisms at low levels. However, the total amount of carotenoids in nature has [...] Read more.

Carotenoids, one of the most common types of natural pigments, can influence the colors of living organisms. More than 750 kinds of carotenoids have been identified. Generally, carotenoids occur in organisms at low levels. However, the total amount of carotenoids in nature has been estimated to be more than 100 million tons. There are two major types of carotenoids: carotene (solely hydrocarbons that contain no oxygen) and xanthophyll (contains oxygen). Carotenoids are lipid-soluble pigments with conjugated double bonds that exhibit robust antioxidant activity. Many carotenoids, particularly astaxanthin (ASX), are known to improve the antioxidative state and immune system, resulting in providing disease resistance, growth performance, survival, and improved egg quality in farmed fish without exhibiting any cytotoxicity or side effects. ASX cooperatively and synergistically interacts with other antioxidants such as α-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, and glutathione located in the lipophilic hydrophobic compartments of fish tissue. Moreover, ASX can modulate gene expression accompanying alterations in signal transduction by regulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Hence, carotenoids could be used as chemotherapeutic supplements for farmed fish. Carotenoids are regarded as ecologically friendly functional feed additives in the aquaculture industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 5540 KiB

Open AccessReview

Exploring the Valuable Carotenoids for the Large-Scale Production by Marine Microorganisms

by Javier Torregrosa-Crespo, Zaida Montero, Juan Luis Fuentes, Manuel Reig García-Galbis, Inés Garbayo, Carlos Vílchez and Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa

Mar. Drugs 2018, 16(6), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/md16060203 - 8 Jun 2018

Cited by 119 | Viewed by 8887

Abstract

Carotenoids are among the most abundant natural pigments available in nature. These pigments have received considerable attention because of their biotechnological applications and, more importantly, due to their potential beneficial uses in human healthcare, food processing, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. These bioactive compounds are [...] Read more.

Carotenoids are among the most abundant natural pigments available in nature. These pigments have received considerable attention because of their biotechnological applications and, more importantly, due to their potential beneficial uses in human healthcare, food processing, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. These bioactive compounds are in high demand throughout the world; Europe and the USA are the markets where the demand for carotenoids is the highest. The in vitro synthesis of carotenoids has sustained their large-scale production so far. However, the emerging modern standards for a healthy lifestyle and environment-friendly practices have given rise to a search for natural biocompounds as alternatives to synthetic ones. Therefore, nowadays, biomass (vegetables, fruits, yeast and microorganisms) is being used to obtain naturally-available carotenoids with high antioxidant capacity and strong color, on a large scale. This is an alternative to the in vitro synthesis of carotenoids, which is expensive and generates a large number of residues, and the compounds synthesized are sometimes not active biologically. In this context, marine biomass has recently emerged as a natural source for both common and uncommon valuable carotenoids. Besides, the cultivation of marine microorganisms, as well as the downstream processes, which are used to isolate the carotenoids from these microorganisms, offer several advantages over the other approaches that have been explored previously. This review summarizes the general properties of the most-abundant carotenoids produced by marine microorganisms, focusing on the genuine/rare carotenoids that exhibit interesting features useful for potential applications in biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and medicine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

31 pages, 2165 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of the Biological Activities of Microalgal Carotenoids and Their Potential Use in Healthcare and Cosmetic Industries

by Ramaraj Sathasivam and Jang-Seu Ki

Mar. Drugs 2018, 16(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/md16010026 - 12 Jan 2018

Cited by 359 | Viewed by 16260

Abstract

Carotenoids are natural pigments that play pivotal roles in many physiological functions. The characteristics of carotenoids, their effects on health, and the cosmetic benefits of their usage have been under investigation for a long time; however, most reviews on this subject focus on [...] Read more.

Carotenoids are natural pigments that play pivotal roles in many physiological functions. The characteristics of carotenoids, their effects on health, and the cosmetic benefits of their usage have been under investigation for a long time; however, most reviews on this subject focus on carotenoids obtained from several microalgae, vegetables, fruits, and higher plants. Recently, microalgae have received much attention due to their abilities in producing novel bioactive metabolites, including a wide range of different carotenoids that can provide for health and cosmetic benefits. The main objectives of this review are to provide an updated view of recent work on the health and cosmetic benefits associated with carotenoid use, as well as to provide a list of microalgae that produce different types of carotenoids. This review could provide new insights to researchers on the potential role of carotenoids in improving human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1522 KiB

Open AccessReview

Innovative Alternative Technologies to Extract Carotenoids from Microalgae and Seaweeds

by Mahesha M. Poojary, Francisco J. Barba, Bahar Aliakbarian, Francesco Donsì, Gianpiero Pataro, Daniel A. Dias and Pablo Juliano

Mar. Drugs 2016, 14(11), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/md14110214 - 22 Nov 2016

Cited by 242 | Viewed by 20216

Abstract

Marine microalgae and seaweeds (microalgae) represent a sustainable source of various bioactive natural carotenoids, including β-carotene, lutein, astaxanthin, zeaxanthin, violaxanthin and fucoxanthin. Recently, the large-scale production of carotenoids from algal sources has gained significant interest with respect to commercial and industrial applications for [...] Read more.

Marine microalgae and seaweeds (microalgae) represent a sustainable source of various bioactive natural carotenoids, including β-carotene, lutein, astaxanthin, zeaxanthin, violaxanthin and fucoxanthin. Recently, the large-scale production of carotenoids from algal sources has gained significant interest with respect to commercial and industrial applications for health, nutrition, and cosmetic applications. Although conventional processing technologies, based on solvent extraction, offer a simple approach to isolating carotenoids, they suffer several, inherent limitations, including low efficiency (extraction yield), selectivity (purity), high solvent consumption, and long treatment times, which have led to advancements in the search for innovative extraction technologies. This comprehensive review summarizes the recent trends in the extraction of carotenoids from microalgae and seaweeds through the assistance of different innovative techniques, such as pulsed electric fields, liquid pressurization, supercritical fluids, subcritical fluids, microwaves, ultrasounds, and high-pressure homogenization. In particular, the review critically analyzes technologies, characteristics, advantages, and shortcomings of the different innovative processes, highlighting the differences in terms of yield, selectivity, and economic and environmental sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

1851 KiB

Open AccessReview

Synthetic Biology and Metabolic Engineering for Marine Carotenoids: New Opportunities and Future Prospects

by Chonglong Wang, Jung-Hun Kim and Seon-Won Kim

Mar. Drugs 2014, 12(9), 4810-4832; https://doi.org/10.3390/md12094810 - 17 Sep 2014

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 14201

Abstract

Carotenoids are a class of diverse pigments with important biological roles such as light capture and antioxidative activities. Many novel carotenoids have been isolated from marine organisms to date and have shown various utilizations as nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. In this review, we summarize [...] Read more.

Carotenoids are a class of diverse pigments with important biological roles such as light capture and antioxidative activities. Many novel carotenoids have been isolated from marine organisms to date and have shown various utilizations as nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. In this review, we summarize the pathways and enzymes of carotenoid synthesis and discuss various modifications of marine carotenoids. The advances in metabolic engineering and synthetic biology for carotenoid production are also reviewed, in hopes that this review will promote the exploration of marine carotenoid for their utilizations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Figure 1

168 KiB

Open AccessReview

Siphonaxanthin, a Green Algal Carotenoid, as a Novel Functional Compound

by Tatsuya Sugawara, Ponesakki Ganesan, Zhuosi Li, Yuki Manabe and Takashi Hirata

Mar. Drugs 2014, 12(6), 3660-3668; https://doi.org/10.3390/md12063660 - 19 Jun 2014

Cited by 72 | Viewed by 9305

Abstract

Siphonaxanthin is a specific keto-carotenoid in green algae whose bio-functional properties are yet to be identified. This review focuses on siphonaxanthin as a bioactive compound and outlines the evidence associated with functionality. Siphonaxanthin has been reported to potently inhibit the viability of human [...] Read more.

Siphonaxanthin is a specific keto-carotenoid in green algae whose bio-functional properties are yet to be identified. This review focuses on siphonaxanthin as a bioactive compound and outlines the evidence associated with functionality. Siphonaxanthin has been reported to potently inhibit the viability of human leukemia HL-60 cells via induction of apoptosis. In comparison with fucoxanthin, siphonaxanthin markedly reduced cell viability as early as 6 h after treatment. The cellular uptake of siphonaxanthin was 2-fold higher than fucoxanthin. It has been proposed that siphonaxanthin possesses significant anti-angiogenic activity in studies using human umbilical vein endothelial cells and rat aortic ring. The results of these studies suggested that the anti-angiogenic effect of siphonaxanthin is due to the down-regulation of signal transduction by fibroblast growth factor receptor-1 in vascular endothelial cells. Siphonaxanthin also exhibited inhibitory effects on antigen-induced degranulation of mast cells. These findings open up new avenues for future research on siphonaxanthin as a bioactive compound, and additional investigation, especially in vivo studies, are required to validate these findings. In addition, further studies are needed to determine its bioavailability and metabolic fate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Figure 1

508 KiB

Open AccessReview

New and Rare Carotenoids Isolated from Marine Bacteria and Their Antioxidant Activities

by Kazutoshi Shindo and Norihiko Misawa

Mar. Drugs 2014, 12(3), 1690-1698; https://doi.org/10.3390/md12031690 - 24 Mar 2014

Cited by 70 | Viewed by 10219

Abstract

Marine bacteria have not been examined as extensively as land bacteria. We screened carotenoids from orange or red pigments-producing marine bacteria belonging to rare or novel species. The new acyclic carotenoids with a C₃₀ aglycone, diapolycopenedioc acid xylosylesters A–C and methyl 5-glucosyl-5,6-dihydro-apo-4,4′-lycopenoate, [...] Read more.

Marine bacteria have not been examined as extensively as land bacteria. We screened carotenoids from orange or red pigments-producing marine bacteria belonging to rare or novel species. The new acyclic carotenoids with a C₃₀ aglycone, diapolycopenedioc acid xylosylesters A–C and methyl 5-glucosyl-5,6-dihydro-apo-4,4′-lycopenoate, were isolated from the novel Gram-negative bacterium Rubritalea squalenifaciens, which belongs to phylum Verrucomicrobia, as well as the low-GC Gram-positive bacterium Planococcus maritimus strain iso-3 belonging to the class Bacilli, phylum Firmicutes, respectively. The rare monocyclic C₄₀ carotenoids, (3R)-saproxanthin and (3R,2′S)-myxol, were isolated from novel species of Gram-negative bacteria belonging to the family Flavobacteriaceae, phylum Bacteroidetes. In this review, we report the structures and antioxidant activities of these carotenoids, and consider relationships between bacterial phyla and carotenoid structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Figure 1

158 KiB

Open AccessReview

Marine Carotenoids and Cardiovascular Risk Markers

by Graziano Riccioni, Nicolantonio D’Orazio, Sara Franceschelli and Lorenza Speranza

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(7), 1166-1175; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9071166 - 27 Jun 2011

Cited by 71 | Viewed by 11256

Abstract

Marine carotenoids are important bioactive compounds with physiological activities related to prevention of degenerative diseases.found principally in plants, with potential antioxidant biological properties deriving from their chemical structure and interaction with biological membranes. They are substances with very special and remarkable properties that [...] Read more.

Marine carotenoids are important bioactive compounds with physiological activities related to prevention of degenerative diseases.found principally in plants, with potential antioxidant biological properties deriving from their chemical structure and interaction with biological membranes. They are substances with very special and remarkable properties that no other groups of substances possess and that form the basis of their many, varied functions and actions in all kinds of living organisms. The potential beneficial effects of marine carotenoids have been studied particularly in astaxanthin and fucoxanthin as they are the major marine carotenoids. Both these two carotenoids show strong antioxidant activity attributed to quenching singlet oxygen and scavenging free radicals. The potential role of these carotenoids as dietary anti-oxidants has been suggested to be one of the main mechanisms for their preventive effects against cancer and inflammatory diseases. The aim of this short review is to examine the published studies concerning the use of the two marine carotenoids, astaxanthin and fucoxanthin, in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

764 KiB

Open AccessReview

Carotenoids in Algae: Distributions, Biosyntheses and Functions

by Shinichi Takaichi

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(6), 1101-1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9061101 - 15 Jun 2011

Cited by 607 | Viewed by 29702

Abstract

For photosynthesis, phototrophic organisms necessarily synthesize not only chlorophylls but also carotenoids. Many kinds of carotenoids are found in algae and, recently, taxonomic studies of algae have been developed. In this review, the relationship between the distribution of carotenoids and the phylogeny of [...] Read more.

For photosynthesis, phototrophic organisms necessarily synthesize not only chlorophylls but also carotenoids. Many kinds of carotenoids are found in algae and, recently, taxonomic studies of algae have been developed. In this review, the relationship between the distribution of carotenoids and the phylogeny of oxygenic phototrophs in sea and fresh water, including cyanobacteria, red algae, brown algae and green algae, is summarized. These phototrophs contain division- or class-specific carotenoids, such as fucoxanthin, peridinin and siphonaxanthin. The distribution of α-carotene and its derivatives, such as lutein, loroxanthin and siphonaxanthin, are limited to divisions of Rhodophyta (macrophytic type), Cryptophyta, Euglenophyta, Chlorarachniophyta and Chlorophyta. In addition, carotenogenesis pathways are discussed based on the chemical structures of carotenoids and known characteristics of carotenogenesis enzymes in other organisms; genes and enzymes for carotenogenesis in algae are not yet known. Most carotenoids bind to membrane-bound pigment-protein complexes, such as reaction center, light-harvesting and cytochrome b₆f complexes. Water-soluble peridinin-chlorophyll a-protein (PCP) and orange carotenoid protein (OCP) are also established. Some functions of carotenoids in photosynthesis are also briefly summarized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

386 KiB

Open AccessReview

Absorption and Metabolism of Xanthophylls

by Eiichi Kotake-Nara and Akihiko Nagao

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(6), 1024-1037; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9061024 - 10 Jun 2011

Cited by 132 | Viewed by 14109

Abstract

Dietary carotenoids, especially xanthophylls, have attracted significant attention because of their characteristic biological activities, including anti-allergic, anti-cancer, and anti-obese actions. Although no less than forty carotenoids are ingested under usual dietary habits, only six carotenoids and their metabolites have been found in human [...] Read more.

Dietary carotenoids, especially xanthophylls, have attracted significant attention because of their characteristic biological activities, including anti-allergic, anti-cancer, and anti-obese actions. Although no less than forty carotenoids are ingested under usual dietary habits, only six carotenoids and their metabolites have been found in human tissues, suggesting selectivity in the intestinal absorption of carotenoids. Recently, facilitated diffusion in addition to simple diffusion has been reported to mediate the intestinal absorption of carotenoids in mammals. The selective absorption of carotenoids may be caused by uptake to the intestinal epithelia by the facilitated diffusion and an unknown excretion to intestinal lumen. It is well known that β-carotene can be metabolized to vitamin A after intestinal absorption of carotenoids, but little is known about the metabolic transformation of non provitamin A xanthophylls. The enzymatic oxidation of the secondary hydroxyl group leading to keto-carotenoids would occur as a common pathway of xanthophyll metabolism in mammals. This paper reviews the absorption and metabolism of xanthophylls by introducing recent advances in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

671 KiB

Open AccessReview

Carotenoid β-Ring Hydroxylase and Ketolase from Marine Bacteria—Promiscuous Enzymes for Synthesizing Functional Xanthophylls

by Norihiko Misawa

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(5), 757-771; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9050757 - 6 May 2011

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 10850

Abstract

Marine bacteria belonging to genera Paracoccus and Brevundimonas of the α-Proteobacteria class can produce C₄₀-type dicyclic carotenoids containing two β-end groups (β rings) that are modified with keto and hydroxyl groups. These bacteria produce astaxanthin, adonixanthin, and their derivatives, which [...] Read more.

Marine bacteria belonging to genera Paracoccus and Brevundimonas of the α-Proteobacteria class can produce C₄₀-type dicyclic carotenoids containing two β-end groups (β rings) that are modified with keto and hydroxyl groups. These bacteria produce astaxanthin, adonixanthin, and their derivatives, which are ketolated by carotenoid β-ring 4(4′)-ketolase (4(4′)-oxygenase; CrtW) and hydroxylated by carotenoid β-ring 3(3′)-hydroxylase (CrtZ). In addition, the genus Brevundimonas possesses a gene for carotenoid β-ring 2(2′)-hydroxylase (CrtG). This review focuses on these carotenoid β-ring-modifying enzymes that are promiscuous for carotenoid substrates, and pathway engineering for the production of xanthophylls (oxygen-containing carotenoids) in Escherichia coli, using these enzyme genes. Such pathway engineering researches are performed towards efficient production not only of commercially important xanthophylls such as astaxanthin, but also of xanthophylls minor in nature (e.g., β-ring(s)-2(2′)-hydroxylated carotenoids). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

299 KiB

Open AccessReview

Microalgae as Sources of Carotenoids

by Ana Catarina Guedes, Helena M. Amaro and Francisco Xavier Malcata

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(4), 625-644; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9040625 - 20 Apr 2011

Cited by 496 | Viewed by 25882

Abstract

Marine microalgae constitute a natural source of a variety of drugs for pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic applications—which encompass carotenoids, among others. A growing body of experimental evidence has confirmed that these compounds can play important roles in prevention (and even treatment) of human [...] Read more.

Marine microalgae constitute a natural source of a variety of drugs for pharmaceutical, food and cosmetic applications—which encompass carotenoids, among others. A growing body of experimental evidence has confirmed that these compounds can play important roles in prevention (and even treatment) of human diseases and health conditions, e.g., cancer, cardiovascular problems, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, muscular dystrophy, cataracts and some neurological disorders. The underlying features that may account for such favorable biological activities are their intrinsic antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antitumoral features. In this invited review, the most important issues regarding synthesis of carotenoids by microalgae are described and discussed—from both physiological and processing points of view. Current gaps of knowledge, as well as technological opportunities in the near future relating to this growing field of interest, are also put forward in a critical manner. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

225 KiB

Open AccessReview

Astaxanthin: A Potential Therapeutic Agent in Cardiovascular Disease

by Robert G. Fassett and Jeff S. Coombes

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(3), 447-465; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9030447 - 21 Mar 2011

Cited by 278 | Viewed by 26565

Abstract

Astaxanthin is a xanthophyll carotenoid present in microalgae, fungi, complex plants, seafood, flamingos and quail. It is an antioxidant with anti-inflammatory properties and as such has potential as a therapeutic agent in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Synthetic forms of astaxanthin have been manufactured. The [...] Read more.

Astaxanthin is a xanthophyll carotenoid present in microalgae, fungi, complex plants, seafood, flamingos and quail. It is an antioxidant with anti-inflammatory properties and as such has potential as a therapeutic agent in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Synthetic forms of astaxanthin have been manufactured. The safety, bioavailability and effects of astaxanthin on oxidative stress and inflammation that have relevance to the pathophysiology of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, have been assessed in a small number of clinical studies. No adverse events have been reported and there is evidence of a reduction in biomarkers of oxidative stress and inflammation with astaxanthin administration. Experimental studies in several species using an ischaemia-reperfusion myocardial model demonstrated that astaxanthin protects the myocardium when administered both orally or intravenously prior to the induction of the ischaemic event. At this stage we do not know whether astaxanthin is of benefit when administered after a cardiovascular event and no clinical cardiovascular studies in humans have been completed and/or reported. Cardiovascular clinical trials are warranted based on the physicochemical and antioxidant properties, the safety profile and preliminary experimental cardiovascular studies of astaxanthin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

241 KiB

Open AccessReview

Marine Carotenoids: Biological Functions and Commercial Applications

by Carlos Vílchez, Eduardo Forján, María Cuaresma, Francisco Bédmar, Inés Garbayo and José M. Vega

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(3), 319-333; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9030319 - 3 Mar 2011

Cited by 239 | Viewed by 19226

Abstract

Carotenoids are the most common pigments in nature and are synthesized by all photosynthetic organisms and fungi. Carotenoids are considered key molecules for life. Light capture, photosynthesis photoprotection, excess light dissipation and quenching of singlet oxygen are among key biological functions of carotenoids [...] Read more.

Carotenoids are the most common pigments in nature and are synthesized by all photosynthetic organisms and fungi. Carotenoids are considered key molecules for life. Light capture, photosynthesis photoprotection, excess light dissipation and quenching of singlet oxygen are among key biological functions of carotenoids relevant for life on earth. Biological properties of carotenoids allow for a wide range of commercial applications. Indeed, recent interest in the carotenoids has been mainly for their nutraceutical properties. A large number of scientific studies have confirmed the benefits of carotenoids to health and their use for this purpose is growing rapidly. In addition, carotenoids have traditionally been used in food and animal feed for their color properties. Carotenoids are also known to improve consumer perception of quality; an example is the addition of carotenoids to fish feed to impart color to farmed salmon. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

271 KiB

Open AccessReview

Carotenoids in Marine Animals

by Takashi Maoka

Mar. Drugs 2011, 9(2), 278-293; https://doi.org/10.3390/md9020278 - 22 Feb 2011

Cited by 317 | Viewed by 17476

Abstract

Marine animals contain various carotenoids that show structural diversity. These marine animals accumulate carotenoids from foods such as algae and other animals and modify them through metabolic reactions. Many of the carotenoids present in marine animals are metabolites of β-carotene, fucoxanthin, peridinin, diatoxanthin, [...] Read more.

Marine animals contain various carotenoids that show structural diversity. These marine animals accumulate carotenoids from foods such as algae and other animals and modify them through metabolic reactions. Many of the carotenoids present in marine animals are metabolites of β-carotene, fucoxanthin, peridinin, diatoxanthin, alloxanthin, and astaxanthin, etc. Carotenoids found in these animals provide the food chain as well as metabolic pathways. In the present review, I will describe marine animal carotenoids from natural product chemistry, metabolism, food chain, and chemosystematic viewpoints, and also describe new structural carotenoids isolated from marine animals over the last decade. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Carotenoids (Special Issue))

► Show Figures

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Marine Carotenoids

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editors

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Related Special Issue

Published Papers (49 papers)

Research

Review

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI