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Marine Drugs
Volume 23
Issue 9
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Mar. Drugs, Volume 23, Issue 9 (September 2025) – 25 articles

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18 pages, 5407 KB  
Article
Improvement Effect and Regulation Mechanism of Oyster Peptide on Dexamethasone-Induced Osteoporotic Rats
by Wei Yang, Wenyu Ma, Xiaoming Qin, Wenhong Cao and Haisheng Lin
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090356 - 11 Sep 2025
Abstract
The increasing global population of the elderly and rising life expectancy have made osteoporosis a more severe public health issue, necessitating the development of safer and more effective therapeutic strategies. This study investigated the osteoprotective effects of low, medium, and high doses of [...] Read more.
The increasing global population of the elderly and rising life expectancy have made osteoporosis a more severe public health issue, necessitating the development of safer and more effective therapeutic strategies. This study investigated the osteoprotective effects of low, medium, and high doses of oyster peptide (OP) in dexamethasone (DEX)-induced osteoporotic rats. Pathological analysis showed that OP treatment effectively mitigated bone loss and repaired bone microarchitecture deterioration caused by DEX administration. In the OP groups, levels of the osteogenic markers osteocalcin (OCN) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) were significantly higher than in the DEX group. Moreover, levels of the osteoclastic markers RANKL, Cathepsin K (Cath-K), MMP-9, C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX-1), and Deoxypyridine (DPD) were significantly lower. Bone proteomic analysis of the DEX and OP groups revealed that differentially expressed proteins were significantly enriched in pathways related to extracellular matrix and structural reorganization, ECM–receptor interaction, and PI3K-Akt signaling. Furthermore, virtual screening simulations indicated that peptides with lengths ranging from 11 to 20 amino acid residues were involved in modulating the activity of key receptors in these pathways, including Integrins α5β1, Integrins αvβ3, and EGFR. Collectively, these results demonstrate the significant potential of OP as a novel therapeutic agent for osteoporosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Bioactive Peptides: Structure, Function, and Therapeutic Potential, 5th Edition)
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15 pages, 807 KB  
Article
Phycobiliprotein Extract from Arthrospira platensis Boosts Immune Function in Pacific Oysters (Magallana gigas)
by Aleksandra Andreyeva, Tatyana Kukhareva, Anastasiya Tkachuk, Maria Podolskaya, Elina Chelebieva and Andrey Borovkov
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 355; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090355 - 10 Sep 2025
Abstract
The utilization of functional feeds in oyster hatcheries to reduce disease-related issues and improve health in the prespawning period is expected to become essential in the near future. In the present study, an aqueous extract of phycobiliproteins (CBPs) sourced from the cyanobacterium Arthrospira [...] Read more.
The utilization of functional feeds in oyster hatcheries to reduce disease-related issues and improve health in the prespawning period is expected to become essential in the near future. In the present study, an aqueous extract of phycobiliproteins (CBPs) sourced from the cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis was tested as an immunomodulatory agent in the Pacific oyster (Magallana gigas). Adult oysters were given three distinct treatments with the aqueous extract of CBPs (2, 20 or 80 μg/mL) for 24–96 h. In vivo analysis demonstrated that the extract of CBPs enhanced phagocytosis, lysosomal content and mitochondrial membrane potential levels, but inhibited the production of reactive oxygen species in hemocytes of oysters. Higher concentrations of the extract (80 μg/mL) had a more rapid effect on phagocytosis, with significant differences found after the first 24 h of the experiment. Lower concentrations of the extract (2 μg/mL) enhanced the phagocytic activity of hemocytes at later stages of its administration. Additionally, the expression profiles of the hsp70 and hsp90 genes were monitored in gills from oysters exposed to the extract at concentrations of 2, 20 and 200 μg/mL for 48 h, considering their roles in regulating the innate immune system in bivalves. The results show that hsp70 expression was down-regulated during the first 24 h of administration, whereas it recovered to control levels after 48 h. In contrast, the expression levels of hsp90 were up-regulated throughout the entire period of extract administration. Combined, the results of the present study show that the aqueous extract of CBPs from A. platensis can rapidly enhance the cellular immune response in Pacific oysters, and could potentially be used as an immunomodulator in bivalve hatcheries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immunomodulatory Activities of Marine Products)
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19 pages, 2207 KB  
Article
Salinity Modulates Carbon Flux to Promote Squalene and PUFA Biosynthesis in the Marine Protist Thraustochytrium
by Yuetong Zhao, Xingyu Zhu, Nimra Riaz, Xiuping Liu, Jiaqian Li and Guangyi Wang
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090354 - 30 Aug 2025
Viewed by 497
Abstract
Salinity is a key environmental factor regulating lipid metabolism in marine oleaginous protists. This study examined the impact of NaCl concentration on growth, glucose utilization, and lipid biosynthesis in Thraustochytrium sp. ATCC 26185. Moderate salinity (20 g/L) enhanced biomass and glucose uptake, while [...] Read more.
Salinity is a key environmental factor regulating lipid metabolism in marine oleaginous protists. This study examined the impact of NaCl concentration on growth, glucose utilization, and lipid biosynthesis in Thraustochytrium sp. ATCC 26185. Moderate salinity (20 g/L) enhanced biomass and glucose uptake, while high salinity (45 g/L) induced osmotic stress yet significantly promoted squalene accumulation (17.27 mg/g), a 3.26-fold increase compared with 0 g/L NaCl (5.29 mg/g). Integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses revealed that salinity-dependent activation of glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway increased cellular ATP, NADH, and NADPH levels. Under salt stress, the mevalonate (MVA) pathway was transcriptionally upregulated, with key enzymes, including ACAT, HMGR, and IDI, showing marked induction, which supports enhanced carbon flux toward squalene biosynthesis. Despite SQS downregulation, squalene accumulation increased, likely due to elevated precursor availability and reduced flux to downstream sterol pathways. Concurrently, high salinity repressed expression of ACC, FAS-α, and FAS-β, reducing saturated fatty acid levels, while upregulation of PKSB-favored polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) synthesis. These findings suggest that high-salt stress triggers transcriptional reprogramming, redirecting acetyl-CoA from fatty acid synthesis toward squalene and PUFA production. This study offers new insights into the metabolic plasticity of thraustochytrids and highlights salinity modulation as a promising strategy for enhancing high-value lipid yields in marine biotechnology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Natural Products of Marine Thraustochytrids)
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1 pages, 3790 KB  
Article
Secondary Metabolites of the Marine Sponge-Derived Fungus Aspergillus subramanianii 1901NT-1.40.2 and Their Antimicrobial and Anticancer Activities
by Olga O. Khmel, Anton N. Yurchenko, Phan Thi Hoai Trinh, Ngo Thi Duy Ngoc, Vo Thi Dieu Trang, Huynh Hoang Nhu Khanh, Alexandr S. Antonov, Konstantin A. Drozdov, Roman S. Popov, Natalya Y. Kim, Dmitrii V. Berdyshev, Ekaterina A. Chingizova, Ekaterina S. Menchinskaya and Ekaterina A. Yurchenko
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090353 - 30 Aug 2025
Viewed by 595
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the metabolites in Aspergillus subramanianii 1901NT-1.40.2 extract using UPLC-MS, isolate and elucidate the structure of individual compounds, and study the antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of the isolated compounds. The structures of two previously unreported ergostane [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to investigate the metabolites in Aspergillus subramanianii 1901NT-1.40.2 extract using UPLC-MS, isolate and elucidate the structure of individual compounds, and study the antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities of the isolated compounds. The structures of two previously unreported ergostane triterpenoid aspersubrin A (1) and pyrazine alkaloid ochramide E (2) were established using NMR and HR ESI-MS. The absolute configuration of 1 was determined using quantum chemical calculations. Moreover, the known polyketides sclerolide (3) and sclerin (4); the indolediterpene alkaloid 10,23-dihydro-24,25-dehydroaflavinine (5); the bis-indolyl benzenoid alkaloids kumbicin D (6), asterriquinol D dimethyl ether (7), petromurin C (8); and the cyclopentenedione asterredione (9) were isolated. The effects of compounds 3-9 on the growth and biofilm formation of the yeast-like fungus Candida albicans and the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were investigated. Compounds 5 and 6 inhibited C. albicans growth and biofilm formation at an IC50 of 7–10 µM. Moreover, the effects of compounds 3-9 on non-cancerous H9c2 cardiomyocytes, HaCaT keratinocytes, MCF-10A breast epithelial cells, and breast cancer MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells were also investigated. Compound 8 (10 µM) significantly decreased the viability of MCF-7 cells, inhibited colony formation, and arrested cell cycle progression and proliferation in monolayer culture. Moreover, 8 significantly decreased the area of MCF-7 3D spheroids by approximately 30%. A competitive test with 4-hydroxytamoxyfen and molecular docking showed that estrogen receptors (ERβ more than ERα) were involved in the anticancer effect of petromurin C (8). Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Marine Compounds and Cancer)
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46 pages, 879 KB  
Review
Analytical Approaches to the Rapid Characterisation of Marine Glycolipids in Bioproduct Discovery
by Sudarshan Dhakal, Tim D. Nalder, Susan N. Marshall and Colin J. Barrow
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 352; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090352 - 30 Aug 2025
Viewed by 479
Abstract
Glycolipids are structurally diverse amphiphilic molecules with potential as non-petrochemical-derived bioproducts, including surfactants, emulsifiers, and antioxidants. The different bioactivities associated with this range of glycolipid structures also present opportunities for dietary supplements, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Marine glycolipids are underexplored due to challenges with [...] Read more.
Glycolipids are structurally diverse amphiphilic molecules with potential as non-petrochemical-derived bioproducts, including surfactants, emulsifiers, and antioxidants. The different bioactivities associated with this range of glycolipid structures also present opportunities for dietary supplements, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Marine glycolipids are underexplored due to challenges with purification and structural characterisation. Analytical approaches enabling efficient sample purification, isolation, and identification of target glycolipids are crucial to determining the bioactivity and functions of organisms such as shellfish and seaweed. This review summarises advances in analytical methods applicable to marine glycolipids, including extraction and enrichment methods tailored to specific subclasses. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC)-based rapid detection techniques developed for specific subclasses in complex biological samples are discussed, alongside structure identification methods based on liquid chromatography (LC)–electrospray ionisation (ESI)–tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC), reverse-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC), and supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) coupled with MS detection are reviewed for their application to glycolipids. The application of two-dimensional liquid chromatography (2D-LC) and advanced MS-based approaches that facilitate both the rapid resolution and comprehensive characterisation of molecular species are also reviewed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Marine Natural Products to Marine Bioproducts)
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29 pages, 3932 KB  
Review
Overview of Primary and Secondary Metabolites of Rugulopteryx okamurae Seaweed: Assessing Bioactivity, Scalability, and Molecular Mechanisms
by Ana Minerva García-Cervantes, José A. M. Prates and José Luis Guil-Guerrero
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090351 - 30 Aug 2025
Viewed by 615
Abstract
Rugulopteryx okamurae is an invasive brown alga that has colonised Mediterranean and northeastern Atlantic coastlines, posing significant ecological and economic challenges. Its biomass is rich in structurally diverse metabolites—including polysaccharides (alginate, fucoidan, laminaran), phlorotannins, diterpenoids, fatty acids, and peptides—many of which exhibit notable [...] Read more.
Rugulopteryx okamurae is an invasive brown alga that has colonised Mediterranean and northeastern Atlantic coastlines, posing significant ecological and economic challenges. Its biomass is rich in structurally diverse metabolites—including polysaccharides (alginate, fucoidan, laminaran), phlorotannins, diterpenoids, fatty acids, and peptides—many of which exhibit notable antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. Comparative assessment of extraction yields, structural features, and bioactivity data highlights phlorotannins and diterpenoids as particularly promising, demonstrating low-micromolar potencies and favourable predicted interactions with key inflammatory and apoptotic targets. Algal polysaccharides exhibit various bioactivities but hold strong potential for scalable and sustainable industrial applications. Emerging compound classes such as fatty acids and peptides display niche bioactivities; however, their structural diversity and mechanisms of action remain insufficiently explored. Insights from in vitro and in silico studies suggest that phlorotannins may modulate NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways, while diterpenoids are implicated in the induction of mitochondrial apoptosis. Despite these findings, inconsistent extraction methodologies and a lack of in vivo pharmacokinetic and efficacy data limit translational potential. To overcome these limitations, standardized extraction protocols, detailed structure–activity relationship (SAR) and pharmacokinetic studies, and robust in vivo models are urgently needed. Bioactivity-guided valorisation strategies, aligned with ecological management, could transform R. okamurae biomass into a sustainable source for functional foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutritional Content, Biologically Active Compounds, and Correlated Health Impacts of Seaweed as a Resource for Nutraceutical, Cosmetic, and Pharmaceutical Applications)
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25 pages, 662 KB  
Review
Anti-Inflammatory and Neuroprotective Effects of Undaria pinnatifida Fucoidan
by Cheng Yang, Corinna Dwan, Barbara C. Wimmer, Sayed Koushik Ahamed, Fionnghuala James, Jigme Thinley, Richard Wilson, Luke Johnson and Vanni Caruso
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 350; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090350 - 29 Aug 2025
Viewed by 751
Abstract
Undaria pinnatifida fucoidan (UPF), a sulphated polysaccharide derived from brown seaweed, has attracted scientific and clinical interest for its wide-ranging anti-inflammatory and neurodegenerative properties. A growing body of research shows that UPF inhibits NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways, reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, [...] Read more.
Undaria pinnatifida fucoidan (UPF), a sulphated polysaccharide derived from brown seaweed, has attracted scientific and clinical interest for its wide-ranging anti-inflammatory and neurodegenerative properties. A growing body of research shows that UPF inhibits NF-κB and MAPK signalling pathways, reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), decreases ROS production, and suppresses iNOS and COX-2 activity, thereby mitigating oxidative and inflammatory damage in vitro. In vivo studies confirm these actions, demonstrating reduced systemic inflammation, promoted antioxidant defence, modulated gut microbiota composition, and improved production of beneficial microbial metabolites. In parallel, emerging evidence highlights UPF’s neuroprotective potential, characterised by protection against neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, the attenuation of amyloid-beta deposition, and improvement in neuronal function. Importantly, low- to medium-molecular-weight and highly sulphated UPF fractions consistently exhibit stronger bioactivities, suggesting a structural basis for its therapeutic potential. This review integrates mechanistic evidence from cellular, preclinical, and emerging clinical studies, highlighting UPF as a versatile marine-derived agent with therapeutic relevance for inflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases, and outlines future research directions toward clinical translation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Marine Natural Products in Brain Health and Metabolic Diseases)
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20 pages, 8884 KB  
Article
Haemostatic and Biocompatibility Evaluation of Alginate-Functionalized Polylactide Composite Containing Zinc Sulphide and Hardystonite
by Anna Kaczmarek, Zdzisława Mrozińska, Jerzy J. Chruściel, Michał Juszczak, Katarzyna Woźniak and Marcin H. Kudzin
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090349 - 29 Aug 2025
Viewed by 438
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the haemostatic potential and biocompatibility of a newly developed composite material for its use in blood-contacting applications. Based on promising reports on polylactide (PLA), sodium alginate (ALG), and bioactive additives such as hardystonite (HT) and [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the haemostatic potential and biocompatibility of a newly developed composite material for its use in blood-contacting applications. Based on promising reports on polylactide (PLA), sodium alginate (ALG), and bioactive additives such as hardystonite (HT) and zinc sulphide (ZnS), a melt-blown PLA nonwoven was modified via dip-coating using an ALG solution as a matrix for incorporating HT and ZnS particles, resulting in the PLA-ALG-ZnS-HT composite. The material was characterised in terms of surface morphology, specific surface area, pore volume, average pore size, and zeta potential (pH~7.4). Haemostatic activity was assessed by measuring blood coagulation parameters, while biocompatibility was evaluated through the viability of human peripheral blood mononuclear (PBM) cells and human foreskin fibroblasts (Hs68). Genotoxicity was analysed using the comet assay and plasmid relaxation test. Results confirmed a uniform alginate coating with dispersed HT and ZnS particles on PLA fibres. The modification increased the surface area and pore volume and caused a shift toward less negative zeta potential. Haemostatic testing showed prolonged activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), likely due to Zn2+ interactions with clotting factors. Biocompatibility tests showed high cell viability and no genotoxic effects. Our findings suggest that the PLA-ALG-ZnS-HT composite is safe for blood and skin cells and may serve as an anticoagulant material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biomaterials of Marine Origin)
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16 pages, 4141 KB  
Article
Selective Utilization of Polyguluronate by the Human Gut Bacteroides Species
by Nuo Liu, Ming Li, Xiangting Yuan, Tianyu Fu, Youjing Lv and Qingsen Shang
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090348 - 29 Aug 2025
Viewed by 557
Abstract
Human gut Bacteroides species play crucial roles in the metabolism of dietary polysaccharides. Polyguluronate (PG), a major component of alginate, has been widely used in the food and medical industries. However, how PG is utilized by human gut Bacteroides species has not been [...] Read more.
Human gut Bacteroides species play crucial roles in the metabolism of dietary polysaccharides. Polyguluronate (PG), a major component of alginate, has been widely used in the food and medical industries. However, how PG is utilized by human gut Bacteroides species has not been fully elucidated. Here, using a combination of culturomics, genomics, and state-of-the-art analytical techniques, we elucidated in detail the utilization profiles of PG by 17 different human gut Bacteroides species. Our results indicated that each Bacteroides species exhibited a unique capability for PG utilization. Among all species tested, Bacteroides xylanisolvens consumed the highest amount of PG and produced the greatest quantity of short-chain fatty acids, suggesting that it may be a keystone bacterium in PG utilization. Mass spectrometry showed that PG was degraded by B. xylanisolvens into a series of oligosaccharides. Genomic analyses confirmed that B. xylanisolvens possesses a large and divergent repertoire of carbohydrate-active enzymes. Moreover, genomic annotation identified two enzymes, PL17_2 and PL6_1, in B. xylanisolvens that are potentially responsible for PG degradation. Altogether, our study provides novel insights into PG utilization by human gut Bacteroides species, which has important implications for the development of carbohydrate-based drugs from marine resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Algae Benefits in Pharmaceuticals, Cosmeceuticals, and Nutraceuticals)
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23 pages, 3393 KB  
Review
Unlocking the Potential of Red Seaweeds: A Special Focus on Grateloupia turuturu Yamada and Porphyra umbilicalis Kütz
by João Ferreira, Mário Pacheco, Amélia M. Silva and Isabel Gaivão
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 347; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090347 - 29 Aug 2025
Viewed by 557
Abstract
Earth hosts a remarkable diversity of life, with oceans covering over 70% of its surface and supporting the greatest abundance and variety of species, including a vast range of seaweeds. Among these, red seaweeds (Rhodophyta) represent the most diverse group and are particularly [...] Read more.
Earth hosts a remarkable diversity of life, with oceans covering over 70% of its surface and supporting the greatest abundance and variety of species, including a vast range of seaweeds. Among these, red seaweeds (Rhodophyta) represent the most diverse group and are particularly rich in bioactive compounds. Grateloupia turuturu Yamada and Porphyra umbilicalis Kütz. are two species with significant biotechnological and functional food potential. They contain high levels of phycobiliproteins, sulfated polysaccharides (e.g., carrageenan, agar, porphyran), mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs), phenols, minerals, and vitamins, including vitamin B12 (rare among non-animal sources). Several analytical methods, such as spectrophotometry, chromatography, and mass spectrometry, have been used to characterize their chemical composition. In vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, immunostimulatory, anti-proliferative, and photoprotective effects. These bioactive properties support its application in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic sectors. Given the growing demand for sustainable resources, these algae species stand out as promising candidates for aquaculture and the development of functional ingredients. Their incorporation into novel food products, such as snacks and fortified dairy and meat products, underscores their potential to support health-promoting diets. This review highlights G. turuturu and P. umbilicalis chemical richness, bioactivities, and applications, reinforcing their value as sustainable marine resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Algae: Unveiling Their Nutritional, Health, and Nutraceutical Potential—2nd Edition)
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18 pages, 324 KB  
Review
Harnessing Marine Algae for Sustainable Agriculture: Natural Bioactive Compounds as Eco-Friendly Pesticidal Agents
by Georgi Beev, Diyana Dermendzhieva, Zvezdelina Yaneva, Georgi Kalaydzhiev, Nikolina Naydenova, Daniela Stoeva, Denitsa Georgieva, Silviya Hristova, Zornitsa Beeva and Nikolay Petrov
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090346 - 28 Aug 2025
Viewed by 603
Abstract
Currently, marine algae are capturing the attention of both farmers and researchers eager to integrate sustainable methods to safeguard their crops. Instead of relying exclusively on synthetic pesticides, which often have negative environmental effects, some growers are now exploring algae-based products in hopes [...] Read more.
Currently, marine algae are capturing the attention of both farmers and researchers eager to integrate sustainable methods to safeguard their crops. Instead of relying exclusively on synthetic pesticides, which often have negative environmental effects, some growers are now exploring algae-based products in hopes of reducing pest pressures. Various natural compounds sourced from algae—such as specific fatty acids and complex sugars—are believed to inhibit pest development, although their precise mechanisms are yet to be fully understood. Furthermore, there is some evidence suggesting that these compounds may bolster the plant’s own immune responses, thus enhancing crop resilience. Despite certain limitations on field applications, various techniques, including spraying, amending soil, or pre-treating seeds, are currently being evaluated. The results from the laboratory present a positive outlook, but implementing these discoveries to ensure consistent efficacy in practical settings is a major challenge. Variables such as climatic fluctuations, product durability, and formulation standards all elevate this complexity. In every instance, the approach of incorporating algae to lessen chemical dependence while securing uniform yields persists in being of interest, particularly in the area of organic or low-input farming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Marine Pharmacology)
18 pages, 1566 KB  
Article
Structural and Immunological Insights into the Lipooligosaccharide of the Marine Bacterium Kangiella japonica KMM 3897
by Alina P. Filshtein, Vlada S. Belova, Alexandra S. Kuzmich, Lyudmila A. Romanenko and Maxim S. Kokoulin
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090345 - 28 Aug 2025
Viewed by 496
Abstract
The lipooligosaccharide (LOS) of the marine bacterium Kangiella japonica KMM 3897 was structurally characterized using chemical analysis, NMR spectroscopy, and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The oligosaccharide core consists of a monophosphorylated trisaccharide containing 2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucose, D-glycero-D-manno-heptose, and 3-deoxy-D-manno-oct-2-ulosonic acid. [...] Read more.
The lipooligosaccharide (LOS) of the marine bacterium Kangiella japonica KMM 3897 was structurally characterized using chemical analysis, NMR spectroscopy, and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The oligosaccharide core consists of a monophosphorylated trisaccharide containing 2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucose, D-glycero-D-manno-heptose, and 3-deoxy-D-manno-oct-2-ulosonic acid. The penta-acylated lipid A moiety features a glucosamine disaccharide backbone with phosphate groups and amide- and ester-linked primary fatty acids [i11:0 (3-OH)], along with a secondary acyl chain (i11:0 or 11:0). Immunostimulatory assays revealed that K. japonica KMM 3897 LOS induced significantly weaker cytokine production in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) compared with E. coli LPS. Notably, it exhibited potent antagonistic activity against E. coli LPS-mediated toxicity and suppressed caspase-4 activation in LPS-treated PBMCs. These findings highlight its anti-inflammatory and protective properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Marine Pharmacology)
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17 pages, 5606 KB  
Article
Implantable Bioresorbable Scaffold with Fucosylated Chondroitin Sulfate as a Promising Device for Delayed Stimulation of Hematopoiesis
by Natalia Y. Anisimova, Olga V. Rybalchenko, Natalia S. Martynenko, Georgy V. Rybalchenko, Elena A. Lukyanova, Maria I. Bilan, Anatolii I. Usov, Mikhail V. Kiselevskiy and Nikolay E. Nifantiev
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 344; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090344 - 28 Aug 2025
Viewed by 530
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the prospects of using natural fucosylated chondroitin sulfate (FCS) from the sea cucumber Cucumaria japonica as the active component of an implantable biodegradable scaffold to stimulate hematopoiesis in mice with cyclophosphamide (CPh)-induced myelosuppression. The scaffolds [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the prospects of using natural fucosylated chondroitin sulfate (FCS) from the sea cucumber Cucumaria japonica as the active component of an implantable biodegradable scaffold to stimulate hematopoiesis in mice with cyclophosphamide (CPh)-induced myelosuppression. The scaffolds were based on bioresorbable Fe–Mn–C and Fe–Mn–Pd alloys after equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP). The efficiency of the developed constructs with FCS was compared with the activity of the same scaffolds loaded with recombinant human granulocyte colony stimulating factor, as well as solutions of these active compounds administered subcutaneously after the end of the cyclophosphamide (CPh) course. It was found that implantation of the Fe–Mn–C scaffold loaded with FCS most effectively stimulated hematopoiesis, providing a complex effect. This design of the developed constructs contributed to an increase in the concentration not only of leukocytes and neutrophils, but also platelets in the blood, promoted the proliferation of bone marrow cells, increasing the concentration of Ki-67(+) cells, and contributed to the restoration of the morphology of the animals’ spleen. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biologically Active Compounds from Marine Invertebrates 2025)
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26 pages, 399 KB  
Review
Therapeutic and Nutraceutical Potential of Sargassum Species: A Narrative Review
by Alejandra Torres-Narváez, Andrea Margarita Olvera-Ramírez, Karen Castaño-Sánchez, Jorge Luis Chávez-Servín, Tércia Cesária Reis de Souza, Neil Ross McEwan and Roberto Augusto Ferriz-Martínez
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 343; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090343 - 28 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1297
Abstract
In the face of agricultural and environmental crises, the ocean and its diverse abundance of species have garnered attention as sources of beneficial compounds for humans, offering sustainable solutions across various sectors with minimal environmental impact. Sargassum, a genus of macroalgae, has [...] Read more.
In the face of agricultural and environmental crises, the ocean and its diverse abundance of species have garnered attention as sources of beneficial compounds for humans, offering sustainable solutions across various sectors with minimal environmental impact. Sargassum, a genus of macroalgae, has long been used in alternative medicine and culinary applications. This genus encompasses a wide variety of species, many of which contain bioactive compounds with significant therapeutic potential that remain under investigation. Some Sargassum species not only represent a valuable resource but also pose challenges due to their overgrowth, making their utilization both essential and strategic. In this narrative review we highlight many of the major physiological effects of these compounds, concentrating on their promising role in addressing global challenges. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutritional Content, Biologically Active Compounds, and Correlated Health Impacts of Seaweed as a Resource for Nutraceutical, Cosmetic, and Pharmaceutical Applications)
25 pages, 3740 KB  
Review
Microalgae-Based 3D Bioprinting: Recent Advances, Applications and Perspectives
by Jinhui Tang, Jiahui Sun, Jinyu Cui, Xiangyi Yuan, Guodong Luan and Xuefeng Lu
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 342; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090342 - 27 Aug 2025
Viewed by 588
Abstract
Three-dimensional bioprinting integrating living cells and bioactive materials enables the fabrication of scaffold structures supporting diverse cellular growth and metabolism. Microalgae are among the most promising microbial platforms for the construction of photosynthetic cell factories, while the current industrial-scale cultivation of microalgae remains [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional bioprinting integrating living cells and bioactive materials enables the fabrication of scaffold structures supporting diverse cellular growth and metabolism. Microalgae are among the most promising microbial platforms for the construction of photosynthetic cell factories, while the current industrial-scale cultivation of microalgae remains predominantly dependent on traditional liquid submerged systems, imposing limitations on commercial viability due to both process and economic constraints. Encapsulation of microalgae within bioactive matrices combined with 3D bioprinting to fabricate customized structures has been explored to address the limitations of submerged cultivation, which are expected to expand microalgal applications and establish new research directions in microalgal biotechnology. This review analyzes both matrices and methods of 3D bioprinting, summarizing the advancement of microalgae-based 3D bioprinting into six main domains including living building materials, biophotovoltaics, photosynthetic biosynthesis, bioremediation, tissue engineering, and food engineering. Lastly, synthetic biology-informed perspectives are provided on future developments of 3D bioprinting technologies and their potential in microalgal research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthetic Biology in Marine Microalgae)
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27 pages, 2146 KB  
Article
Giant Moray Eel (Gymnothorax javanicus), a Long-Living Apex Predator That Poses a Food Safety Risk in the Pacific
by Emillie M. F. Passfield, Kirsty F. Smith, D. Tim Harwood, Joshua D. Fitzgerald, Phoebe A. Argyle, Jacob Thomson-Laing and J. Sam Murray
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090341 - 26 Aug 2025
Viewed by 668
Abstract
The giant moray eel (GME; Gymnothorax javanicus) is an important marine species that plays a key ecological role in reef systems and is a valued food source for indigenous communities. However, it is well-known that GMEs pose a food safety risk due [...] Read more.
The giant moray eel (GME; Gymnothorax javanicus) is an important marine species that plays a key ecological role in reef systems and is a valued food source for indigenous communities. However, it is well-known that GMEs pose a food safety risk due to their ability to accumulate high levels of ciguatoxins (CTXs), the toxins known to cause ciguatera poisoning. This study assessed the age, CTX levels, elemental composition, and nutritional profile of seven GME specimens collected from Muri Lagoon, Rarotonga (Cook Islands), representing the most detailed compositional investigation on this species. Age was determined for the three largest specimens, with the oldest being 39 years old. All specimens contained ciguatoxins, with Type I (CTX4A derivatives), Type II (CTX3C derivatives), algal-ciguatoxins, and biotransformed metabolites being detected. There was a higher CTX content in the liver samples compared to flesh samples, with the longest–heaviest specimen containing the highest levels. The CTX1B level observed in flesh samples of all seven eel specimens exceeded the recommended safe guidance level proposed by the USFDA. A similar ciguatoxin profile was observed across flesh sections, with the belly flap or top loin containing the highest levels of CTXs in most specimens. No bioactive metabolites produced by co-occurring harmful microalgae, including regulated shellfish toxins, were detected. Elemental analysis determined the presence of 21 elements, including arsenic, low levels of mercury, and the volcanic elements rubidium and strontium. Nutritionally, the GMEs were shown to be a lean protein source; however, due to the ubiquitous bioaccumulation of CTXs, they pose a food safety risk to consumers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Marine Toxins)
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18 pages, 2330 KB  
Article
Total Syntheses of Marine Natural Products Lyngbyabellin O and Lyngbyabellin P
by Jing Chen, Shiyu Li, Chao Xu and Tao Ye
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090340 - 26 Aug 2025
Viewed by 584
Abstract
Lyngbyabellins O and P are complex natural products derived from non-ribosomal peptide synthetase/polyketide synthase (NRPS/PKS) biosynthetic pathways and have been isolated from marine cyanobacterial sources. Both metabolites are characterized by the presence of two thiazole rings and a distinctive dichlorinated β-hydroxy acid [...] Read more.
Lyngbyabellins O and P are complex natural products derived from non-ribosomal peptide synthetase/polyketide synthase (NRPS/PKS) biosynthetic pathways and have been isolated from marine cyanobacterial sources. Both metabolites are characterized by the presence of two thiazole rings and a distinctive dichlorinated β-hydroxy acid side chain. Notably, lyngbyabellin P is further distinguished by the incorporation of a (3R,4S)-statine moiety. Herein, we report the first total syntheses of lyngbyabellins O and P, which are achieved through the convergent coupling of three key synthetic fragments, namely, two enantiomerically enriched thiazole subunits and a hydroxycarboxylic acid derivative, the latter constructed via a stereoselective aldol reaction. The total syntheses were completed in 12 and 13 longest linear steps (LLSs) for lyngbyabellins O and P, respectively, furnishing the natural products in overall yields of 5.6% and 2.5%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Total Synthesis, Semisynthesis and Analogue Synthesis of Bioactive Marine Natural Products)
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20 pages, 3513 KB  
Article
New Strategy for the Degradation of High-Concentration Sodium Alginate with Recombinant Enzyme 102C300C-Vgb and the Beneficial Effects of Its Degradation Products on the Gut Health of Stichopus japonicus
by Ziqiang Gu, Feiyu Niu, Peng Yang, Wenling Gong, Hina Mukhtar, Siyu Li, Yanwen Zheng, Yiling Zhong, Hanyi Cui, Jichao Li, Haijin Mou and Dongyu Li
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090339 - 25 Aug 2025
Viewed by 511
Abstract
High viscosity of alginate means a relatively low substrate concentration, which limits the efficiency of hydrolysis, resulting in one of the main challenges for the large-scale production of alginate oligosaccharides (AOS). In this study, a pilot-scale degradation product (PSDP) of the recombinant enzyme [...] Read more.
High viscosity of alginate means a relatively low substrate concentration, which limits the efficiency of hydrolysis, resulting in one of the main challenges for the large-scale production of alginate oligosaccharides (AOS). In this study, a pilot-scale degradation product (PSDP) of the recombinant enzyme 102C300C-Vgb was produced for the first time at a substrate concentration of up to 20% sodium alginate. The optimal conditions for SA digestion were: enzyme dosage of 25 U/g, enzymatic temperature of 45 °C, enzymatic pH of 7.0, and enzymatic time of 24 h. Under these conditions, the yield of enzymatic hydrolysis was consistently in the range of 69% to 70%. The average molecular weight (Mw) of PSDP was 1496.36 Da, mainly containing oligosaccharides with degrees of polymerization ranging from 2 to 4. The low-Mw PSDP was subsequently applied in the diet of sea cucumber Stichopus japonicus. The results showed that the body wall weight of S. japonicus increased significantly after 40 days of feeding with a 0.09% PSDP-supplemented diet. Furthermore, PSDP-supplemented diet significantly increased the thickness of the serosal and submucosal layers and the width folds of mucosa of the sea cucumber gut. The abundance of pathogenic bacteria was reduced effectively, and that of beneficial bacteria increased significantly after being fed with PSDP. The results demonstrated that PSDP can serve as a digestive health enhancer for sea cucumbers, promoting their healthy growth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biomaterials of Marine Origin)
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16 pages, 3432 KB  
Article
Marine Algal Metabolites as Cellular Antioxidants: A Study of Caulerpin and Caulerpinic Acid in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
by Graziana Assalve, Paola Lunetti, Annalisa Fai, Antonio Terlizzi, Vincenzo Zara and Alessandra Ferramosca
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 338; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090338 - 25 Aug 2025
Viewed by 593
Abstract
Oxidative stress caused by excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) contributes to numerous chronic diseases. Marine green algae of the Caulerpa genus are rich in bioactive compounds with potential antioxidant activity. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the intracellular antioxidant effects of caulerpin (CAU) [...] Read more.
Oxidative stress caused by excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) contributes to numerous chronic diseases. Marine green algae of the Caulerpa genus are rich in bioactive compounds with potential antioxidant activity. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the intracellular antioxidant effects of caulerpin (CAU) and its derivative caulerpinic acid (CA) using Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a eukaryotic model. Methods: Yeast cells were pretreated with 1 μM of CAU or CA, or with 1 μM of resveratrol (RESV) as a positive control, then exposed to 2 mM of H2O2. Growth, ROS levels, oxidative damage markers, and antioxidant defenses were assessed. Results: Both CAU and CA significantly improved cell survival under oxidative stress, restoring growth rates (CAU: 0.129 h−1, CA: 0.137 h−1) and doubling times (CAU: 5.38 h, CA: 5.07 h) close to control values. Intracellular ROS accumulation, protein carbonylation, and lipid peroxidation were reduced to near-baseline levels. While catalase (Cat) and superoxide dismutase (Sod) activity remained unchanged, CAU and CA elevated intracellular glutathione (GSH) levels (1.6–1.8 fold) and preserved glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, compared to stressed cells without antioxidant pretreatment. Conclusions: CAU and CA act as effective intracellular antioxidants, primarily via ROS scavenging and GSH-dependent pathways. These findings support their potential as natural candidates for developing antioxidant-based therapies against ROS-related disorders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Marine Pharmacology)
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12 pages, 805 KB  
Article
OSMAC-Driven Discovery of Six New Alkaloids from the Cold-Seep-Derived Fungus Talaromyces amestolkiae HDN21-0307
by Xinsheng Huang, Jiajin Wu, Luning Zhou, Zhengjie Wang, Qian Che, Liangzhen Chen, Wenxue Wang, Tianjiao Zhu and Dehai Li
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090337 - 25 Aug 2025
Viewed by 644
Abstract
Six new alkaloid compounds, including two rare aromatic nitrile compounds talaronitriles A–B (1–2), a novel oxime-functionalized azadiphilone analogue talarooxime A (3), a new phenylhydrazone alkaloid talarohydrazone E (4), and two new dipeptide compounds talarodipeptides A–B [...] Read more.
Six new alkaloid compounds, including two rare aromatic nitrile compounds talaronitriles A–B (1–2), a novel oxime-functionalized azadiphilone analogue talarooxime A (3), a new phenylhydrazone alkaloid talarohydrazone E (4), and two new dipeptide compounds talarodipeptides A–B (5–6), were isolated from the deep-sea cold-seep-derived fungus Talaromyces amestolkiae HDN21-0307 via OSMAC approach. Compound 1 is the first natural naphthalene compound with cyano groups. Compound 3 represents the first natural product containing an oxime-functionalized azadiphilone scaffold. Their structures and absolute configurations were elucidated through spectroscopic data analysis and quantum chemical calculations. Notably, compound 3 demonstrated moderate DPPH free-radical-scavenging activity, with an IC50 value of 29.41 μM. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Structural Studies on Marine Natural Products)
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15 pages, 1456 KB  
Article
Democratized Discovery of Microsclerodermin F as an Immunophilin Ligand
by Manfred Auer, Malcolm D. Walkinshaw, Jacqueline Dornan, Nhan T. Pham, Xinru Xue, Miaomiao Liu, Ronald J. Quinn, Eric M. Ross, Abimael D. Rodríguez and James J. La Clair
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 336; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090336 - 24 Aug 2025
Viewed by 676
Abstract
While immunophilins are well-recognized therapeutic targets, several members of this family of peptidyl-proline isomerases (PPIases) have yet to be subjected to ligand discovery efforts. In this study, we demonstrate a cost-effective means to identify ligands to the insufficiently investigated two-domain PPIase human Cyclophilin40 [...] Read more.
While immunophilins are well-recognized therapeutic targets, several members of this family of peptidyl-proline isomerases (PPIases) have yet to be subjected to ligand discovery efforts. In this study, we demonstrate a cost-effective means to identify ligands to the insufficiently investigated two-domain PPIase human Cyclophilin40 (Cyp40). Central to this effort was the use of beads, wherein a confocal nanoscanning (CONA) approach was used to rapidly probe candidates. Here, we describe how one can adapt the physical nature of microsized beads as a means to strategically reduce cost and ultimately make the discovery of small molecule hit and lead compounds more accessible to everyone irrespective of financial status (democratization). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Marine Natural Products to Marine Bioproducts)
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20 pages, 624 KB  
Review
Postbiotics of Marine Origin and Their Therapeutic Application
by Isabel M. Cerezo, Olivia Pérez-Gómez, Sonia Rohra-Benítez, Marta Domínguez-Maqueda, Jorge García-Márquez and Salvador Arijo
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 335; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090335 - 24 Aug 2025
Viewed by 555
Abstract
The increase in antibiotic-resistant pathogens has prompted the search for alternative therapies. One such alternative is the use of probiotic microorganisms. However, growing interest is now turning toward postbiotics—non-viable microbial cells and/or their components or metabolites—that can confer health benefits without the risks [...] Read more.
The increase in antibiotic-resistant pathogens has prompted the search for alternative therapies. One such alternative is the use of probiotic microorganisms. However, growing interest is now turning toward postbiotics—non-viable microbial cells and/or their components or metabolites—that can confer health benefits without the risks associated with administering live microbes. Marine ecosystems, characterized by extreme and diverse environmental conditions, are a promising yet underexplored source of microorganisms capable of producing unique postbiotic compounds. These include bioactive peptides, polysaccharides, lipoteichoic acids, and short-chain fatty acids produced by marine bacteria. Such compounds often exhibit enhanced stability and potent biological activity, offering therapeutic potential across a wide range of applications. This review explores the current knowledge on postbiotics of marine origin, highlighting their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and anticancer properties. We also examine recent in vitro and in vivo studies that demonstrate their efficacy in human and animal health. Some marine bacteria that have been studied for use as postbiotics belong to the genera Bacillus, Halobacillus, Halomonas, Mameliella, Shewanella, Streptomyces, Pseudoalteromonas, Ruegeria, Vibrio, and Weissella. In conclusion, although the use of the marine environment as a source of postbiotics is currently limited compared to other environments, studies conducted to date demonstrate its potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Marine-Derived Ingredients for Drugs, Cosmeceuticals and Nutraceuticals)
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15 pages, 4176 KB  
Article
Characterization of Alginate Utilization Strategy in a Novel Marine Bacteroidetes: Insights from Roseihalotalea indica gen. nov. sp. nov. TK19036T
by Zheng Fu, Shunqin You, Defang Wu, Runying Zeng, Kai Tang and Zhuhua Chan
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090334 - 24 Aug 2025
Viewed by 545
Abstract
Alginate, a major polysaccharide in brown algae, is vital for the carbon cycling of the ocean ecosystem and holds promise for biotechnological applications. Marine Bacteroidetes, known for the ability to degrade complex polysaccharides, play an important role in the ocean carbon cycle; [...] Read more.
Alginate, a major polysaccharide in brown algae, is vital for the carbon cycling of the ocean ecosystem and holds promise for biotechnological applications. Marine Bacteroidetes, known for the ability to degrade complex polysaccharides, play an important role in the ocean carbon cycle; however, the detailed alginate degradation pattern remains to be further explored. In this study, an alginate utilization locus was identified in the genome of a new marine Bacteroidetes, Roseihalotalea indica gen. nov. sp. nov. TK19036T, and encodes two new alginate lyases, RiAlyPL6 and RiAlyPL17, which play potential roles in the degradation and utilization of alginate. RiAlyPL6 and RiAlyPL17 have distinct degradation products and substrate preferences, revealing the adaptation of the strain to utilize alginate with different M/G ratios. Based on the results in this paper, we have proposed a model for the degradation and utilization mechanism of alginate in Roseihalotalea indica gen. nov. sp. nov. TK19036T. All in all, our research provides a new insight into the alginate mechanisms within marine Roseihalotalea, and the two novel alginate lyases are excellent candidates for preparation and application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Seaweed-Degrading Enzymes)
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15 pages, 1611 KB  
Article
Sea Anemone Stichodactyla Haddoni Venom: Extraction Method Dictates Composition and Functional Potency
by Meiling Huang, Ming Li, Rong Zhu, Kailin Mao, Kun Pan, Xuefeidan Liu and Bingmiao Gao
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 333; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090333 - 23 Aug 2025
Viewed by 585
Abstract
Sea anemone venoms contain diverse toxins that have significant pharmacological potential, including anticancer, ecticidal, and immunotherapeutic properties. However, critically, the extraction methodology influences venom composition and bioactivity. This study characterized venom from Stichodactyla haddoni obtained via homogenization, electrical stimulation, and milking. Extraction yields [...] Read more.
Sea anemone venoms contain diverse toxins that have significant pharmacological potential, including anticancer, ecticidal, and immunotherapeutic properties. However, critically, the extraction methodology influences venom composition and bioactivity. This study characterized venom from Stichodactyla haddoni obtained via homogenization, electrical stimulation, and milking. Extraction yields varied significantly between methods: the homogenization, electrical stimulation, and milking of healthy sea anemones yielded crude venoms at rates of 17.8%, 3.4%, and 1.5%, respectively. SDS-PAGE revealed distinct protein banding patterns and concentrations, while RP-HPLC demonstrated method-dependent compositional differences. Comprehensive proteomic profiling identified 2370 proteins, encompassing both unique and shared components across extraction techniques. Label-free quantitative analysis confirmed significant variations in protein abundance that was attributable to the extraction method. Cytotoxicity assays against cancer cell lines revealed concentration-dependent inhibition, with milking-derived venom exhibiting the highest potency. Insecticidal activity against Tenebrio molitor was also method-dependent, with milking venom inducing the highest mortality rate. These findings elucidate the profound impact of extraction methodology on the protein composition and functional activities of S. haddoni venom, providing crucial insights for its optimized exploitation in pharmacological development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Toxins: Characterization, Detection, Classification and Potential Therapeutics)
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19 pages, 2583 KB  
Article
High Inter- and Intraspecific Variability in Amphidinol Content and Toxicity of Amphidinium Strains
by Catharina Alves-de-Souza, Jannik Weber, Mathew Schmitt, Robert York, Sarah Karafas, Carmelo Tomas and Bernd Krock
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(9), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23090332 - 22 Aug 2025
Viewed by 560
Abstract
Amphidinols (AM) are a diverse group of bioactive polyketides produced by dinoflagellates of the genus Amphidinium, known for their hemolytic, antifungal, and cytotoxic activities. This work presents the assessment of AM profiles in a comprehensive number of strains, whose species boundaries were [...] Read more.
Amphidinols (AM) are a diverse group of bioactive polyketides produced by dinoflagellates of the genus Amphidinium, known for their hemolytic, antifungal, and cytotoxic activities. This work presents the assessment of AM profiles in a comprehensive number of strains, whose species boundaries were previously established through detailed taxonomic analysis. Using UHPLC-MS/MS, we characterized the spectrum of AM analogs in 54 Amphidinium strains isolated from diverse geographical locations. In addition, toxicity was assessed using brine shrimp assays, which revealed significant inter- and intraspecific variability. Despite the broad diversity in AM content, no clear correlation was observed between total AM levels and toxicity across all strains. Multivariate analysis grouped the strains into clusters distinguished by distinct AM profiles and toxicity levels, suggesting that AM production alone does not predict toxicity. Our findings highlight the complexity of Amphidinium bioactivity, emphasizing the influence of strain-specific factors and other bioactive compounds. This work highlights the importance of integrating chemical, genetic, and biological assessments to understand better the factors that govern toxicity in this genus, with implications for ecological studies and the monitoring of harmful dinoflagellates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins, 4th Edition)
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