Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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17 pages, 5153 KiB  
Article
Modeling Soil Health Indicators to Assess the Effectiveness of Sustainable Soil Management on Mediterranean Arable Land
by Chiara Piccini, Roberta Farina, Claudia Di Bene, Silvia Vanino and Rosario Napoli
Land 2023, 12(11), 2001; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12112001 - 31 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2503
Abstract
Considering future tasks in soil health, resource management, and environmental protection, farmers are challenged to develop sustainable strategies for managing soil and land resources. In this study, the long-term sustainability of two fertilization strategies—current, with synthetic fertilizers (SYN) vs. conservative, with organic sources [...] Read more.
Considering future tasks in soil health, resource management, and environmental protection, farmers are challenged to develop sustainable strategies for managing soil and land resources. In this study, the long-term sustainability of two fertilization strategies—current, with synthetic fertilizers (SYN) vs. conservative, with organic sources of nitrogen (organic amendments plus green manure with a legume, CONS)—was assessed in a processing tomato/durum wheat rotation. The EPIC model was used, validated with field data, and then run to simulate the management for 30 years under three current and future climates. Yield, soil organic carbon (SOC) stock change, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), water use efficiency (WUE), and nitrate leaching were considered sustainability indicators. Under all of the future climate scenarios, tomato yield increased with CONS, remaining almost stable with SYN. Wheat yield increased both with CONS and SYN; however, the average yield with CONS was considerably lower than with SYN. NUE and nitrate leaching followed the same trend, both decreasing with CONS, while WUE was higher with CONS compared to SYN. The effect of CONS on SOC was always positive. Thus, the alternative N fertilization strategy proposed can be a favorable option for maintaining soil health and sustainable crop production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Management for Soil Health)
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17 pages, 19782 KiB  
Article
Conservation Responsibility for Priority Habitats under Future Climate Conditions: A Case Study on Juniperus drupacea Forests in Greece
by Ioannis P. Kokkoris, Konstantinos Kougioumoutzis, Ioannis Charalampopoulos, Ektor Apostolidis, Ilias Apostolidis, Arne Strid and Panayotis Dimopoulos
Land 2023, 12(11), 1976; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12111976 - 26 Oct 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2396
Abstract
Juniperus drupacea is a highly morphologically and genetically differentiated Tertiary relict, displaying a disjunct geographical range in the eastern Mediterranean. Being a thermophilous, light-demanding, and moderately drought-resistant tree, it survived the past climatic oscillations via altitudinal migration. The species has its westernmost range [...] Read more.
Juniperus drupacea is a highly morphologically and genetically differentiated Tertiary relict, displaying a disjunct geographical range in the eastern Mediterranean. Being a thermophilous, light-demanding, and moderately drought-resistant tree, it survived the past climatic oscillations via altitudinal migration. The species has its westernmost range limit, and its only populations in the EU, in Mts Parnon and Taygetos (Greece). These populations are genetically isolated and distinct compared to their Asian counterparts. For Europe, Juniperus drupacea is categorized as an endangered species by the IUCN. Juniperus drupacea forests constitute a priority habitat for conservation in the EU. However, the species’ conservation status has never been assessed in Greece and the same applies to its climate and land-use change assessment. As Greece is already facing the short-term impacts of climate- and human-induced land-use change, studies dealing with the potential long-term climate- and land-use change effects on rare plant species distribution are urgently needed to implement efficient conservation management plans. Our research employs species distribution models, considering multiple climate scenarios and abiotic factors across different timeframes (2020s, 2050s, 2080s), factoring in the potential threat of forest fires. Additionally, we assess the species’ extinction risk at the European level, according to IUCN Criteria A and B. Study findings indicate significant habitat changes and an elevated extinction risk for Juniperus drupacea in Greece. To safeguard this priority habitat, informed conservation strategies, management plans, and policy making are recommended, based on our scientific insights. Full article
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22 pages, 3579 KiB  
Article
A Fusion of Geothermal and InSAR Data with Machine Learning for Enhanced Deformation Forecasting at the Geysers
by Joe Yazbeck and John B. Rundle
Land 2023, 12(11), 1977; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12111977 - 26 Oct 2023
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2696
Abstract
The Geysers geothermal field in California is experiencing land subsidence due to the seismic and geothermal activities taking place. This poses a risk not only to the underlying infrastructure but also to the groundwater level which would reduce the water availability for the [...] Read more.
The Geysers geothermal field in California is experiencing land subsidence due to the seismic and geothermal activities taking place. This poses a risk not only to the underlying infrastructure but also to the groundwater level which would reduce the water availability for the local community. Because of this, it is crucial to monitor and assess the surface deformation occurring and adjust geothermal operations accordingly. In this study, we examine the correlation between the geothermal injection and production rates as well as the seismic activity in the area, and we show the high correlation between the injection rate and the number of earthquakes. This motivates the use of this data in a machine learning model that would predict future deformation maps. First, we build a model that uses interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) images that have been processed and turned into a deformation time series using LiCSBAS, an open-source InSAR time series package, and evaluate the performance against a linear baseline model. The model includes both convolutional neural network (CNN) layers as well as long short-term memory (LSTM) layers and is able to improve upon the baseline model based on a mean squared error metric. Then, after getting preprocessed, we incorporate the geothermal data by adding them as additional inputs to the model. This new model was able to outperform both the baseline and the previous version of the model that uses only InSAR data, motivating the use of machine learning models as well as geothermal data in assessing and predicting future deformation at The Geysers as part of hazard mitigation models which would then be used as fundamental tools for informed decision making when it comes to adjusting geothermal operations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessing Land Subsidence Using Remote Sensing Data)
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24 pages, 8390 KiB  
Article
What Role Do Urban Parks Play in Forming a Sense of Place? Lessons for Geodesign Using Social Media
by Yijun Zeng and Brian Deal
Land 2023, 12(11), 1960; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12111960 - 24 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4258
Abstract
The sense of place is a multidimensional construct that evokes an emotional commitment to a specific geographic setting. It can be a crucial aspect of cultural ecosystem services. While social media has gained popularity as a tool for assessing ecosystem services, its effectiveness [...] Read more.
The sense of place is a multidimensional construct that evokes an emotional commitment to a specific geographic setting. It can be a crucial aspect of cultural ecosystem services. While social media has gained popularity as a tool for assessing ecosystem services, its effectiveness in capturing a sense of place, its impact on cultural ecosystem services, and its role in the landscape design process remains less certain. This study investigates the role of urban parks in shaping the sense of place by analyzing user-generated content from a specific social media platform (Twitter). We gathered tweets from 30 diverse urban parks in Chicago, covering various park types, sizes, shapes, and management styles. Our analysis reveals multiple facets of the sense of place associated with urban parks. We suggest that a sense of place is not solely rooted in the attachment to physical surroundings but also in the personal experiences individuals encounter within these spaces. Residents residing near parks tend to develop a sense of ownership and responsibility, leading to stronger emotional bonds with their environment. Urban parks foster community engagement, enhance social cohesion, and offer opportunities for nature-based experiences. Furthermore, this study underscores the significance of diverse park features, accessibility, and size in bolstering place attachment. Our research demonstrates the potential for geoinformation analysis in the geodesign process as a cost-effective and scalable approach for understanding the person–place connection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geodesign in Urban Planning)
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17 pages, 2231 KiB  
Article
Does Environmental Aid Make a Difference? Analyzing Its Impact in Developing Countries
by Chris McCarthy, Troy Sternberg and Lumbani Benedicto Banda
Land 2023, 12(10), 1953; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101953 - 22 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2881
Abstract
Amidst escalating global environmental challenges, does environmental aid drive tangible conservation outcomes in developing countries or does it merely perpetuate the rift between economic ambition and environmental responsibility? Using a comprehensive ten-year dataset from the OECD, World Bank, Climate Watch, and the Climate [...] Read more.
Amidst escalating global environmental challenges, does environmental aid drive tangible conservation outcomes in developing countries or does it merely perpetuate the rift between economic ambition and environmental responsibility? Using a comprehensive ten-year dataset from the OECD, World Bank, Climate Watch, and the Climate Change Laws of the World database, we analyze the relationship between environmental aid and environmental conservation outcomes in recipient countries. Our results indicate that although aid can influence policy development, there is a weak correlation with outcomes such as increased forest cover, expansion of protected areas, and reduced CO2 emissions. Moreover, the pronounced roles of GDP and population in shaping these outcomes underline the complex interplay of environmental challenges with economic growth and demographic shifts. This dynamic, coupled with the evident mismatch between environmental aid delivery and tangible conservation improvements, emphasizes the need to reconsider current aid distribution strategies. In light of current environmental challenges, this research offers valuable insights into the effectiveness of environmental aid in developing countries and suggests a way forward for more targeted and impactful conservation efforts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers for 'Land Socio-Economic and Political Issues' Section)
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24 pages, 5509 KiB  
Article
Ecovoltaics: Maintaining Native Plants and Wash Connectivity inside a Mojave Desert Solar Facility Leads to Favorable Growing Conditions
by Tamara Wynne-Sison, Dale A. Devitt and Stanley D. Smith
Land 2023, 12(10), 1950; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101950 - 21 Oct 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3109
Abstract
The installation of solar facilities is increasing rapidly in the Mojave Desert USA, with the largest facility in North America (3227 ha) currently being built 30 km north of Las Vegas, NV. At the state level, Nevada (USA) has developed an energy plan [...] Read more.
The installation of solar facilities is increasing rapidly in the Mojave Desert USA, with the largest facility in North America (3227 ha) currently being built 30 km north of Las Vegas, NV. At the state level, Nevada (USA) has developed an energy plan to diversify its energy portfolio by 2030 with green energy representing 50% of the energy produced. Although solar is considered a clean energy, it does require significant amounts of land and as such may have negative consequences at the habitat and ecosystem levels. A multi-year study was conducted to assess the impact a photovoltaic facility in the Mojave Desert had on the growth and physiological response of two native shrubs (Ambrosia dumosa and Larrea tridentata) growing inside and outside the facility. These species were selected because they were the dominant species at the site and are representative of desert scrub communities throughout the Mojave Desert. At the time of construction, native plants and washes were left intact inside the solar facility. The solar panel arrays were separated at either 8 m or 10 m. Plants were selected for monitoring on the basis of location: at the panel drip line, below the panels, or midway between panel rows. Abiotic factors, including PAR, reference evapotranspiration, precipitation, soil water in storage, and infiltration, were monitored bi-monthly. The growth and physiological status of the plants were assessed by monitoring leaf water potential, chlorophyll index, canopy temperatures, non-structural carbohydrates in the roots and stems, leaf tissue ion concentrations, stem elongation, and seed production. Plants at the bottom edges of the panels received more precipitation due to runoff from the panels, which led to increased soil moisture in the long spacing but not the short spacing. The lower soil water in storage in the short spacing was related to greater growth and higher soil water extraction. Although the area under the panels provided shade in the summer and warmer temperatures in the winter, the incoming PAR was reduced by as much as 85%, causing plants growing under the panels to be spindly with lower canopy volume (L. tridentata, p = 0.03) and seed yield (A. dumosa, p = 0.05). Ambrosia plants remained green in color year-round (not going into winter dormancy) inside the facility and had elevated levels of starch in their roots and stems compared with plants growing at the outside control sites (p < 0.001). Larrea growing outside the facility had lower xylem water potentials compared with those inside the facility (p < 0.001), lower chlorophyll index (p < 0.001, Ambrosia as well), and lower stem elongation (p < 0.001), supporting the conclusion that both Larrea and Ambrosia performed better inside the facility. Shifts in δ13 C suggested greater water-use efficiency at the locations with the least amount of soil water in storage. Our results support the installation of solar facilities that minimize the impact on native plants and wash connectivity (ecovoltaics), which should translate into a reduced negative impact at the habitat and ecosystem levels. Basedon our results, energy companies that embrace ecovoltaic systems that take an engineering and biological approach should provide acceptable environments for desert fauna. However, corridors (buffers) will need to be maintained between solar facilities, and fences will need to have openings that allow for the continuous flow of animals and resources. Full article
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19 pages, 807 KiB  
Article
Early Warnings and Perceived Climate Change Preparedness among Smallholder Farmers in the Upper West Region of Ghana
by Cornelius K. A. Pienaah, Evans Batung, Suleman Ansumah Saaka, Kamaldeen Mohammed and Isaac Luginaah
Land 2023, 12(10), 1944; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101944 - 20 Oct 2023
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3439
Abstract
The impacts of climate change are already pushing beyond the threshold for sustainable agriculture and rural livelihoods. In Sub-Saharan Africa, smallholder farmers are particularly vulnerable due to limited resources and adaptive capacity. Early warnings are critical in mitigating and reducing climate-related dangers and [...] Read more.
The impacts of climate change are already pushing beyond the threshold for sustainable agriculture and rural livelihoods. In Sub-Saharan Africa, smallholder farmers are particularly vulnerable due to limited resources and adaptive capacity. Early warnings are critical in mitigating and reducing climate-related dangers and building resiliency. That notwithstanding, there needs to be higher coverage of early warnings in developing countries, and there is even less knowledge of their contribution to rural development. Using a cross-sectional survey involving smallholder farmer households (n = 517), this study investigates the relationship between early warnings and perceived climate preparedness in Ghana’s semi-arid Upper West Region. From ordered logistic regression presented as an odds ratio (OR), factors that influenced climate preparedness in the past 12 months before the study include exposure to early warnings (OR = 2.238; p < 0.001) and experiences of prior climate events such as drought (OR = 9.252; p < 0.001), floods (OR = 6.608; p < 0.001), and erratic rain (OR = 4.411; p < 0.001). The results emphasize the importance of early warning systems and various socioeconomic factors in improving the climate resilience of smallholder farmers in Ghana. In conclusion, the study puts forth policy suggestions worth considering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Land Management, Climate Change and Food Security)
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29 pages, 6891 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Irrigation of Wine Grapes with Brackish Water for Managing Soil Salinization
by Vinod Phogat, Tim Pitt, Paul Petrie, Jirka Šimůnek and Michael Cutting
Land 2023, 12(10), 1947; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101947 - 20 Oct 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2352
Abstract
Water scarcity and quality are critical impediments to sustainable crop production. In this study, HYDRUS-2D was calibrated using field measurements of water contents and salinities in the soil under wine grapes irrigated with river water (Rw, 0.32 dS/m). The calibrated model [...] Read more.
Water scarcity and quality are critical impediments to sustainable crop production. In this study, HYDRUS-2D was calibrated using field measurements of water contents and salinities in the soil under wine grapes irrigated with river water (Rw, 0.32 dS/m). The calibrated model was then used to evaluate the impact of (a) four different water qualities ranging from 0.32 (Rw) to 3.2 dS/m (brackish water, Gw) including blended (Mix) and monthly alternating (Alt) irrigation modes; (b) two rainfall conditions (normal and 20% below normal); and (c) two leaching options (with and without 30 mm spring leaching irrigation) during the 2017–2022 growing seasons. Irrigation water quality greatly impacted root water uptake (RWU) by wine grapes and other water balance components. Irrigation with brackish water reduced average RWU by 18.7% compared to river water. Irrigation with blended water or from alternating water sources reduced RWU by 8.8 and 7%, respectively. Relatively small (2.8–8.2%) average annual drainage (Dr) in different scenarios produced a very low (0.05–0.16) leaching fraction. Modeling scenarios showed a tremendous impact of water quality on the salts build-up in the soil. The average electrical conductivity of the saturated soil extract (ECe) increased three times with Gw irrigation compared to Rw (current practices). Blended and alternate irrigation scenarios showed a 21 and 28% reduction in ECe, respectively, compared to Gw. Irrigation water quality substantially impacted site-specific actual basal (Kcb act) and single (Kc act) crop coefficients of grapevine. Threshold leaching efficiency estimated in terms of the salt mass leached vs. added (LEs; kg/kg) for salinity control (LEs > 1) was achieved with LFs of 0.07, 0.12, 0.12, and 0.15 for the Rw, Mix, Alt, and Gw irrigations, respectively. Applying annual leaching irrigation (30 mm) before bud burst (spring) in the Mix and Alt with Rw and Gw scenarios was found to be the best strategy for managing irrigation-induced salinity in the root zone, lowering the ECe to levels comparable to irrigation with Rw. Modeling scenarios suggested that judicious use of water resources and continuous root zone monitoring could be key for salinity management under adverse climate and low water allocation conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salinity Monitoring and Modelling at Different Scales)
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17 pages, 3755 KiB  
Article
Enhancing the Long-Term Ecological Management and Monitoring of Landscapes: The L-TEAM Framework
by Mystyn Mills, Loralee Larios and Janet Franklin
Land 2023, 12(10), 1942; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101942 - 19 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2397
Abstract
Long-term monitoring and adaptive ecological management are essential to the conservation of biodiversity. Yet, achieving successful long-term ecological monitoring and management, especially at the landscape level, has proven challenging. In this paper, we address the hurdles faced in sustaining long-term monitoring and management [...] Read more.
Long-term monitoring and adaptive ecological management are essential to the conservation of biodiversity. Yet, achieving successful long-term ecological monitoring and management, especially at the landscape level, has proven challenging. In this paper, we address the hurdles faced in sustaining long-term monitoring and management for landscape-scale efforts by offering three promising conceptual and methodological developments that support such initiatives. Then, we introduce L-TEAM, a long-term ecological adaptive monitoring and management framework that integrates those three components using four tools: a conceptual model, clearly defined and measurable objectives, scientifically robust experimentation, and decision support tools. Finally, using a case study, we demonstrate L-TEAM’s effectiveness in supporting the long-term monitoring and management of a landscape conservation project with diverse habitat types and multiple management objectives. This structured decision framework not only facilitates informed decision making in management practices, but also ensures the implementation of scientifically grounded long-term monitoring. Additionally, L-TEAM holds the potential to enhance our understanding of ecosystem functioning and biodiversity responses to disturbances and management actions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation Planning)
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27 pages, 1205 KiB  
Review
Assessment and Mapping of Soil Salinity Using the EM38 and EM38MK2 Sensors: A Focus on the Modeling Approaches
by Panagiota Antonia Petsetidi and George Kargas
Land 2023, 12(10), 1932; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101932 - 17 Oct 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4235
Abstract
Soil salinization and its detrimental agricultural, environmental, and socioeconomic impact over extended regions represent a major global concern that needs to be addressed. The sustainability of agricultural lands and the development of proper mitigation strategies require effective monitoring and mapping of the saline [...] Read more.
Soil salinization and its detrimental agricultural, environmental, and socioeconomic impact over extended regions represent a major global concern that needs to be addressed. The sustainability of agricultural lands and the development of proper mitigation strategies require effective monitoring and mapping of the saline areas of the world. Therefore, robust modeling techniques and efficient sensors that assess and monitor the spatial and temporal variations in soil salinity within an area, promptly and accurately, are essential. The aim of this paper is to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the modeling approaches for the assessment and mapping of saline soils using data collected by the EM38 and EM38MK2 (MK2) sensors at different scales. By examining the current and latest approaches and highlighting the most noteworthy considerations related to their accuracy and reliability, the intention of this review is to elucidate and underline the role of the EM38 and the MK2 type in the recent needs of detecting and interpreting soil salinity. Another aim is to assist researchers and users in selecting the optimal approach for future surveys and making well-informed decisions for the implementation of precise management practices. The study’s findings revealed that the integration of the EM38 and MK2 sensors with remote sensing data and advanced methods like machine learning and inversion is a promising approach to the accurate prediction and mapping of the spatiotemporal variations in soil salinity. Therefore, future research focused on validating and expanding such sophisticated modeling applications to regional and global scales should be increased. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Salinity Monitoring and Modelling at Different Scales)
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17 pages, 2522 KiB  
Article
Survey of Missouri Landowners to Explore the Potential of Woody Perennials to Integrate Conservation and Production
by Raelin Kronenberg, Sarah Lovell, Bhuwan Thapa, Christine Spinka, Corinne Valdivia, Michael Gold and Sougata Bardhan
Land 2023, 12(10), 1911; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101911 - 12 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2579
Abstract
The state of Missouri, USA offers a unique opportunity for tree planting under several federal conservation programs. However, many landowners remain hesitant to enroll and take land out of agricultural production. This study explores the willingness of landowners to adopt agroforestry systems with [...] Read more.
The state of Missouri, USA offers a unique opportunity for tree planting under several federal conservation programs. However, many landowners remain hesitant to enroll and take land out of agricultural production. This study explores the willingness of landowners to adopt agroforestry systems with food producing tree and shrub species through federal conservation program funding using mail and online surveys. Surveys followed the Dillman Tailored Design Method to collect data on landowners’ farm characteristics, production practices, and land management choices. Survey participants were sampled on a county basis within each of the six major geographic regions of the state. Twelve counties were randomly selected, and surveys were mailed to a proportional sampling of farm addresses gathered from each of the county tax assessor offices. The goal of the survey was to (1) identify landowners’ current land management practices and goals, (2) understand landowners’ perceptions of and preferences for different planting plans for their farm, and (3) capture landowners’ interest in participating in conservation programs to assist in the planting of trees and shrubs on their land. Our analysis of this survey found that landowners are receptive to agroforestry plantings, rating them higher on average than traditional agricultural land management practices. Landowner age, past participation in a conservation program, and presence of marginal land all had significant correlation with willingness to adopt agroforestry. The inclusion of technical assistance or federal conservation funding was found to increase the willingness of landowners to plant multifunctional agroforestry designs. Full article
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20 pages, 77639 KiB  
Article
Edible Garden Cities: Rethinking Boundaries and Integrating Hedges into Scalable Urban Food Systems
by David Adams, Peter J. Larkham and Michael Hardman
Land 2023, 12(10), 1915; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101915 - 12 Oct 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2972
Abstract
Connecting to and extending recent debates around more-than-human thinking, this paper explores how porous boundary treatments and plot layouts might encourage ecological exchanges within new urban and peri-urban developments. This study therefore responds to suggestions for innovative plot designs that facilitate positive trans-species [...] Read more.
Connecting to and extending recent debates around more-than-human thinking, this paper explores how porous boundary treatments and plot layouts might encourage ecological exchanges within new urban and peri-urban developments. This study therefore responds to suggestions for innovative plot designs that facilitate positive trans-species interactions, especially considering wider anxieties surrounding biodiversity loss and recognition of the need for climate-resilient garden spaces. Focusing on a recent example of a large-scale residential development in the English midlands, this paper outlines the socio-economic, cultural and ecological significance of embedding different hedgerow designs into early planning considerations; revealing the need to move beyond current models. The discussion then turns to how such ambitions might encourage sustainable land use, particularly through creating potentially scalable urban agricultural systems that sustain healthy food choices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Planning Sustainable Cities through Nature-Based Solutions)
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27 pages, 2159 KiB  
Article
GIS-Based RUSLE Reservoir Sedimentation Estimates: Temporally Variable C-Factors, Sediment Delivery Ratio, and Adjustment for Stream Channel and Bank Sediment Sources
by Patrick J. Starks, Daniel N. Moriasi and Ann-Marie Fortuna
Land 2023, 12(10), 1913; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101913 - 12 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2575
Abstract
The empirical Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) has been adapted to geographical information system (GIS) frameworks to study the spatial variability of soil erosion across landscapes and has also been used to estimate reservoir sedimentation. The literature presents contradictory results about the [...] Read more.
The empirical Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) has been adapted to geographical information system (GIS) frameworks to study the spatial variability of soil erosion across landscapes and has also been used to estimate reservoir sedimentation. The literature presents contradictory results about the efficacy of using RUSLE in a GIS context for quantifying reservoir sedimentation, requiring further evaluation and validation of its estimates relative to measured reservoir sedimentation. Our primary objective was to determine if these contradictory results may be a function of the RUSLE’s inability to account for sediments derived from gullies, stream channels, or stream banks; the temporal variability of some of RUSLE’s empirically based factors such as the land cover/land management (C-) factor; and in some model renditions, the choice of value for the sediment delivery ratio (SDR). The usefulness of adjusting these estimates using a regional representative value of gully/stream bank sediment contributions was also assessed. High-spatial horizontal resolution (2 m) digital elevation models (DEMs) for 12 watersheds were used together with C-factor data for five representative years in a GIS-based RUSLE model that incorporates SDR within a sediment routing routine to study the impacts of choice of C-factor and SDR on reservoir sedimentation estimates. Choice of image date for developing C-factors was found to impact reservoir estimates. We also found that the value of SDR for some of the study watersheds would have to be unrealistically small to produce sedimentation estimates comparable to measured values. Estimates of reservoir sedimentation were comparable to measured data for 5 of the 12 watersheds, when the regionally based adjustment for gully/stream bank contributions was applied. However, differences remained large for the remaining seven watersheds. Statistical analysis revealed that certain combinations of geomorphic, pedologic, or topographic variables could be used to predict the degree of sediment underestimation with a significant and high level of correlation (0.72 < R2 ≤ 0.99; p-value < 0.05). Our findings indicate that the level of agreement between GIS-based RUSLE estimates of reservoir sedimentation and measured values is a function of watershed characteristics; for example, the area-weighted soil erodibility (K-) factor of the soils within the watershed and stream channels, the stream entrenchment ratio and bank full depth, the percentage of the stream corridor having slopes ≥ 21°, and the width of the stream flood way as a percentage of the watershed area. Within the context of GIS, these metrics are easily obtained from digital elevation models and publicly available soils data and may be useful in prioritizing reservoirs’ assessments for function and safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Land, Soil and Water)
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18 pages, 3251 KiB  
Article
Mid- and End-of-the-Century Estimation of Agricultural Suitability of California’s Specialty Crops
by Gabriel Granco, Haoji He, Brandon Lentz, Jully Voong, Alan Reeve and Exal Vega
Land 2023, 12(10), 1907; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101907 - 11 Oct 2023
Viewed by 2455
Abstract
Specialty crops with long economic life cycles have lower adaptability and flexibility to climate change, making long-term planning crucial. This study examines the impact of climate change on almond, citrus, pistachio, and walnut production in California, using a machine learning approach to estimate [...] Read more.
Specialty crops with long economic life cycles have lower adaptability and flexibility to climate change, making long-term planning crucial. This study examines the impact of climate change on almond, citrus, pistachio, and walnut production in California, using a machine learning approach to estimate crop suitability under current and future environmental conditions. We used recent satellite-observed cropland data to generate an occurrence dataset for these crops. Ecological data including bioclimatic variables derived from global circulation models developed under the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) and surface variables were used to model suitability. The bioclimatic variables relating to temperature and precipitation had the largest effect on each crop’s suitability estimation. The results indicate that suitable areas for almonds, citrus, and walnuts will change significantly within 20 years due to climatic change, and the change will be even greater by the end of the century, indicating a potential loss of 94% of the current suitable area. The results for pistachios indicate change in the spatial distribution of suitable area but the total area is predicted to remain near the current suitable area. Policymakers, researchers, and farmers must work together to develop proactive adaptation strategies to mitigate the negative effects of climate change on specialty crop production. The application of a species distribution model for agriculture suitability provides critical information for future work on adaptation to climate change, identifying areas to target for further analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Land Management, Climate Change and Food Security)
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24 pages, 10639 KiB  
Article
Resident Effect Perception in Urban Spaces to Inform Urban Design Strategies
by Zichen Zhao, Zhiqiang Wu, Shiqi Zhou, Wen Dong, Wei Gan, Yixuan Zou and Mo Wang
Land 2023, 12(10), 1908; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101908 - 11 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2971
Abstract
In the field of urban design, current research has shifted towards resident preference perception and computer-aided design methods that rely on deep learning techniques. In this study, we aimed to provide a quantitative design method for urban space design that could take into [...] Read more.
In the field of urban design, current research has shifted towards resident preference perception and computer-aided design methods that rely on deep learning techniques. In this study, we aimed to provide a quantitative design method for urban space design that could take into account the preferences of different populations. Through empirical research, we collected real urban space and population data, which we then quantified using advanced intelligent recognition tools based on deep learning techniques. Our ensuing analysis illuminated the intricate interplay between constituent elements of urban spaces and the structural and emotional changes of residents. By taking into account the specific driving relationships between each element and residents, we proposed a new evaluation methodology for constructing an intelligent design evaluation model for urban spaces. This intelligent design evaluation model was subsequently used to evaluate the urban space both pre- and post-design. The standard deviation of the difference results demonstrated that the design option (SD value = 0.103) and the desired option for Space 1 were lower than the current option (SD value = 0.129) and the expected scheme. Our findings provide quantitative configuration strategies and program evaluation for urban space design, thus helping designers to design urban spaces that are more popular with residents. Full article
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23 pages, 1665 KiB  
Article
One Hundred Priority Questions for the Development of Sustainable Food Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa
by Adam J. M. Devenish, Petra Schmitter, Nugun. P. Jellason, Nafeesa Esmail, Nur M. Abdi, Selase K. Adanu, Barbara Adolph, Maha Al-Zu’bi, Amali A. Amali, Jennie Barron, Abbie S. A. Chapman, Alexandre M. Chausson, Moses Chibesa, Joanne Davies, Emmanuel Dugan, Glory I. Edwards, Anthony Egeru, Tagel Gebrehiwot, Geoffrey H. Griffiths, Amleset Haile, Henry G. Hunga, Lizzy Igbine, Ousman M. Jarju, Francis Keya, Muhammad Khalifa, Wamba A. Ledoux, Lemlem T. Lejissa, Pius Loupa, Jonathan Lwanga, Everisto D. Mapedza, Robert Marchant, Tess McLoud, Patience Mukuyu, Labram M. Musah, Morton Mwanza, Jacob Mwitwa, Dora Neina, Tim Newbold, Samuel Njogo, Elizabeth J. Z. Robinson, Wales Singini, Bridget B. Umar, Frank Wesonga, Simon Willcock, Jingyi Yang and Joseph A. Tobiasadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Land 2023, 12(10), 1879; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101879 - 7 Oct 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6553
Abstract
Sub-Saharan Africa is facing an expected doubling of human population and tripling of food demand over the next quarter century, posing a range of severe environmental, political, and socio-economic challenges. In some cases, key Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are in direct conflict, raising [...] Read more.
Sub-Saharan Africa is facing an expected doubling of human population and tripling of food demand over the next quarter century, posing a range of severe environmental, political, and socio-economic challenges. In some cases, key Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are in direct conflict, raising difficult policy and funding decisions, particularly in relation to trade-offs between food production, social inequality, and ecosystem health. In this study, we used a horizon-scanning approach to identify 100 practical or research-focused questions that, if answered, would have the greatest positive impact on addressing these trade-offs and ensuring future productivity and resilience of food-production systems across sub-Saharan Africa. Through direct canvassing of opinions, we obtained 1339 questions from 331 experts based in 55 countries. We then used online voting and participatory workshops to produce a final list of 100 questions divided into 12 thematic sections spanning topics from gender inequality to technological adoption and climate change. Using data on the background of respondents, we show that perspectives and priorities can vary, but they are largely consistent across different professional and geographical contexts. We hope these questions provide a template for establishing new research directions and prioritising funding decisions in sub-Saharan Africa. Full article
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41 pages, 130136 KiB  
Article
Mapping Urban Structure Types Based on Remote Sensing Data—A Universal and Adaptable Framework for Spatial Analyses of Cities
by Andreas Braun, Gebhard Warth, Felix Bachofer, Michael Schultz and Volker Hochschild
Land 2023, 12(10), 1885; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101885 - 7 Oct 2023
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8191
Abstract
In the face of growing 21st-century urban challenges, this study emphasizes the role of remote sensing data in objectively defining urban structure types (USTs) based on morphology. While numerous UST delineation approaches exist, few are universally applicable due to data constraints or impractical [...] Read more.
In the face of growing 21st-century urban challenges, this study emphasizes the role of remote sensing data in objectively defining urban structure types (USTs) based on morphology. While numerous UST delineation approaches exist, few are universally applicable due to data constraints or impractical class schemes. This article attempts to tackle this challenge by summarizing important approaches dealing with the computation of USTs and to condense their contributions to the field of research within a single comprehensive framework. Hereby, this framework not only serves as a conjunctive reference for currently existing implementations, but is also independent regarding the input data, spatial scale, or targeted purpose of the mapping. It consists of four major steps: (1) the collection of suitable data sources to describe the building morphology as a key input, (2) the definition of a spatial mapping unit, (3) the parameterization of the mapping units, and (4) the final classification of the mapping units into urban structure types. We outline how these tasks can lead to a UST classification which fits the users’ needs based on their available input data. At the same time, the framework can serve as a protocol for future studies where USTs are mapped, or new approaches are presented. This article closes with an application example for three different cities to underline the flexibility and applicability of the proposed framework while maintaining maximized objectivity and comparability. We recommend this framework as a guideline for the use-specific mapping of USTs and hope to contribute to past and future research on this topic by fostering the implementation of this concept for the spatial analysis and a better understanding of complex urban environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Morphology: A Perspective from Space)
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19 pages, 11093 KiB  
Article
Managing Urban Green Areas: The Benefits of Collaborative Governance for Green Spaces
by Danny Casprini, Alessandra Oppio, Giulia Rossi and Irene Bengo
Land 2023, 12(10), 1872; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101872 - 4 Oct 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3797
Abstract
Urbanisation has had an impact on people’s livelihoods, and on social infrastructures as well as on the consumption of resources. In the last century, we have witnessed many transformations at the urban scale that in many cases led to the commodification and enclosure [...] Read more.
Urbanisation has had an impact on people’s livelihoods, and on social infrastructures as well as on the consumption of resources. In the last century, we have witnessed many transformations at the urban scale that in many cases led to the commodification and enclosure of public areas and, especially, green areas. With the turn of the millennium and following the adoption of the UN Agenda 2030, the trend has been partially reverted and cities in Europe are becoming progressively greener, although the phenomenon do not always bring positive societal outcomes and it is not able to re-distribute benefits among community members, promoting unequal access to green areas. Instead, in many cases the so-called green gentrification phenomenon has been identified as a primary societal challenge connected with urban regeneration projects. Building on this, the paper aims to find an answer to the question of whether or not the governance model adopted for urban green areas influences how benefits connected with ecosystem services are perceived by stakeholders and re-distributed at the community level. Based on the gaps highlighted in the theoretical background and direct observation of Biblioteca degli Alberi Milano (BAM), a recently developed urban park in Milan, an analytical framework was developed and tested. The results allow us to identify innovative practices for the management of green areas capable of maximising ecosystem services’ benefits beyond the intervention area. This will support the adaptability, replicability, and scalability of these initiatives while providing effective tools for practitioners and planners when developing a collaborative management model for urban green areas. Full article
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23 pages, 5555 KiB  
Article
Mapping and Quantification of Miombo Deforestation in the Lubumbashi Charcoal Production Basin (DR Congo): Spatial Extent and Changes between 1990 and 2022
by Héritier Khoji Muteya, Dieu-donné N’Tambwe Nghonda, Franco Mwamba Kalenda, Harold Strammer, François Munyemba Kankumbi, François Malaisse, Jean-François Bastin, Yannick Useni Sikuzani and Jan Bogaert
Land 2023, 12(10), 1852; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101852 - 28 Sep 2023
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3033
Abstract
Population growth in the city of Lubumbashi in the southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo) is leading to increased energy needs, endangering the balance of the miombo woodland in the rural area referred to as the Lubumbashi charcoal production basin (LCPB). [...] Read more.
Population growth in the city of Lubumbashi in the southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo) is leading to increased energy needs, endangering the balance of the miombo woodland in the rural area referred to as the Lubumbashi charcoal production basin (LCPB). In this study, we quantified the deforestation of the miombo woodland in the LCPB via remote sensing and landscape ecology analysis tools. Thus, the analysis of Landsat images from 1990, 1998, 2008, 2015 and 2022 was supported by the random forest classifier. The results showed that the LCPB lost more than half of its miombo woodland cover between 1990 (77.90%) and 2022 (39.92%) and was converted mainly to wooded savannah (21.68%), grassland (37.26%), agriculture (2.03%) and built-up and bare soil (0.19). Consecutively, grassland became the new dominant land cover in 2022 (40%). Therefore, the deforestation rate (−1.51%) is almost six-times higher than the national average (−0.26%). However, persistent miombo woodland is characterised by a reduction, over time, in its largest patch area and the complexity of its shape. Consequently, because of anthropogenic activities, the dynamics of the landscape pattern are mainly characterised by the attrition of the miombo woodland and the creation of wooded savannah, grassland, agriculture and built-up and bare soil. Thus, it is urgent to develop a forest management plan and find alternatives to energy sources and the sedentarisation of agriculture by supporting local producers to reverse these dynamics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geospatial Data in Landscape Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation)
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23 pages, 13151 KiB  
Article
Opportunities for Monitoring Soil and Land Development to Support United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A Case Study of the United States of America (USA)
by Elena A. Mikhailova, Hamdi A. Zurqani, Lili Lin, Zhenbang Hao, Christopher J. Post, Mark A. Schlautman and George B. Shepherd
Land 2023, 12(10), 1853; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101853 - 28 Sep 2023
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4248
Abstract
Land, including soil resources, makes important contributions to the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, there are challenges in identifying land/soil measurable information (e.g., indicators, metrics, etc.) to monitor the progress toward achieving these goals. This study examines the role of [...] Read more.
Land, including soil resources, makes important contributions to the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, there are challenges in identifying land/soil measurable information (e.g., indicators, metrics, etc.) to monitor the progress toward achieving these goals. This study examines the role of land/soil in selected SDGs (SDG 2: Zero Hunger; SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production; SDG 13: Climate Action; SDG 15: Life on Land) and provides practical examples on how to use geospatial analysis to track relevant qualitative and quantitative land/soil data using the contiguous United States of America (USA) as a case study. The innovative aspect of this study leverages geospatial technologies to track the intersection of land use/land cover (LULC) change and soil resources to quantify development trends within the overall land cover matrix to evaluate if these trends are sustainable. Classified land cover data derived from satellite-based remote sensing were used to identify the extent of developed areas in 2016 and the change in development areas since 2011. Most land development through time in the USA has caused losses (area loss of nearly 355,600 km2, with projected midpoint losses of about 5.7 × 1012 kg total soil carbon (TSC) and about $969B (where B = billion = 109, USD) in social costs of carbon dioxide emissions, SC-CO2). All ten soil orders present in the contiguous USA experienced losses from developments, which represents a loss for both biodiversity and soil diversity (pedodiversity). The contiguous USA experienced an increase in land/soil consumption between 2001 and 2016 at the expense of deciduous forest (−3.1%), evergreen forest (−3.0%), emergent herbaceous wetlands (−0.6%), and hay/pasture (−7.9%). These “new” land developments (24,292.2 km2) caused a complete projected midpoint loss of 4.0 × 1011 kg TSC, equivalent to $76.1B SC-CO2. States with the largest developed areas and the highest TSC losses with associated SC-CO2 were Texas and Florida. The proposed methodology used in this study can be applied worldwide, at various spatial scales, to help monitor SDGs over time. With improved tools to monitor SDGs, progress on these SDGs may require linking the SDGs to existing or future international and national legal frameworks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Global Perspective in Soil Carbon Sequestration and Climate Change)
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24 pages, 1933 KiB  
Article
Environmental and Social Benefits of Extensive Green Roofs Applied on Bus Shelters in Edinburgh
by Zuzana Koscikova and Vladimir Krivtsov
Land 2023, 12(10), 1831; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12101831 - 25 Sep 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6055
Abstract
The presence of green roofs in urban areas provides various ecosystem services that help mitigate climate change. They play an essential role in sustainable drainage systems, contribute to air quality and carbon sequestration, mitigate urban heat island, support biodiversity, and create green spaces [...] Read more.
The presence of green roofs in urban areas provides various ecosystem services that help mitigate climate change. They play an essential role in sustainable drainage systems, contribute to air quality and carbon sequestration, mitigate urban heat island, support biodiversity, and create green spaces supporting public well-being. Bus stops provide good opportunities for installing green roofs. Various cities worldwide have started installing green roofs on bus shelters, but often without thoroughly comparing expenses and the resulting benefits. This study quantifies the social and environmental benefits of installing green roofs on bus shelters in the City of Edinburgh. An assessment of the benefits and their monetary values was conducted using the B£ST analysis tool combined with manual calculations, which is easily transferable to other cities worldwide. It was compared to the current situation with no green roofs installed at bus stops. Installation of green roofs on all bus shelters in the City of Edinburgh may result in £12.9 million–£87.2 million in total benefit present value. The total cost was projected to be £15,994,000. By green roof installation, the City of Edinburgh can be closer to being carbon-neutral by 2030, a sustainable city as part of the City Plan 2030 and City Vision 2050. Full article
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21 pages, 2109 KiB  
Article
Urban Development and Transportation: Investigating Spatial Performance Indicators of 12 European Union Coastal Regions
by Paraskevas Nikolaou and Socrates Basbas
Land 2023, 12(9), 1757; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12091757 - 10 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1737
Abstract
Urbanization is one of the most dominant economic and social changes of the 20th century. This phenomenon brings about rapid urban development, which is inextricably linked to transport development. In order to understand this relationship, it is important to analyze the spatial spillover [...] Read more.
Urbanization is one of the most dominant economic and social changes of the 20th century. This phenomenon brings about rapid urban development, which is inextricably linked to transport development. In order to understand this relationship, it is important to analyze the spatial spillover effects of the phenomenon in the urban environment. This study analyzes the spatial performance, in terms of urban development, of 12 European Union regions from five European countries with coastal areas by incorporating spatial data such as length of road network, population distribution, land uses, and other factors. Key performance indicators have been developed for evaluating the structural development model of the regions (e.g., dense or sprawl development). In addition, the incorporation of spatial spillover effects in the evaluation of the regions was conducted by the extended spatial data envelopment analysis (SDEA) method. The results of SDEA identified the best and worst-performing regions in terms of urban growth. Finally, this study implements a target-setting approach where under-performing regions can best perform. Based on the target-setting approach, local authorities can set realistic targets for improving the structural model that the regions are following. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Use Planning for Post COVID-19 Urban Transport Transformations)
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17 pages, 3302 KiB  
Article
Nonlinear Flood Responses to Tide Level and Land Cover Changes in Small Watersheds
by Huabing Huang, Yu Pan, Changpeng Wang and Xianwei Wang
Land 2023, 12(9), 1743; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12091743 - 8 Sep 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1670
Abstract
Regarding global warming, the threat of flooding is projected to increase due to the change in intensity and frequency of single drivers and amplification caused by multi-driver interactions. This interaction becomes more complicated in developing regions with rapidly changing land cover. As a [...] Read more.
Regarding global warming, the threat of flooding is projected to increase due to the change in intensity and frequency of single drivers and amplification caused by multi-driver interactions. This interaction becomes more complicated in developing regions with rapidly changing land cover. As a result, demands on flood risk management are rising especially in small watersheds, which are more vulnerable to driver disturbances compared with large watersheds. Existing studies focused on large watersheds rather than small watersheds. However, the findings derived from large-scale analysis cannot be transferred to small watersheds directly. This research investigated the flood responses in the Yonghe River Watershed (YRW) (63.8 km2) in Guangzhou, China, considering the impact of land cover change. The YRW experienced a disastrous compound flood on 22 May 2020. A hydrodynamic model integrating the Hydrologic Engineering Center’s Hydrologic Modeling System and River Analysis System (HEC-HMS and HEC-RAS, respectively) was established and calibrated using the inundation depths observed during the flood. Model analysis using multiple scenarios showed that the watershed is river-dominated, and flood responses to the three factors are nonlinear but with different increasing rates. The response curves for tide levels and land cover changes increase faster at high values, whereas the rainfall intensity curves vary slightly. These findings highlight the importance of integrating tidal impacts into flood risk management, even in river-dominated coastal watersheds. The study further recommends that in small watersheds, 50% imperviousness is an indicator of the urgent demand for flood risk management measures. Full article
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18 pages, 4553 KiB  
Article
Should Desert and Desertification Regions Be Confused? New Insights Based on Vegetation Quality and Its Inter-Decadal Variations
by Luguang Jiang and Ye Liu
Land 2023, 12(9), 1734; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12091734 - 6 Sep 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1858
Abstract
As the most unique ecosystem on the Earth’s surface, desert and desertification region cannot be confused. The current research on spatial distinction of desert and desertification region is still lacking. Based on NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) data from 1998 to 2020, we [...] Read more.
As the most unique ecosystem on the Earth’s surface, desert and desertification region cannot be confused. The current research on spatial distinction of desert and desertification region is still lacking. Based on NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) data from 1998 to 2020, we aimed to distinguish the differences between desert and desertification region. Improvement and degradation of vegetation quality in China have coexisted in the past 20 years. Within the low value classification in 1998, the regions where vegetation quality remained High increase were mainly concentrated in Loess Plateau. Within the medium value classification in 1998, the High increase classifications were mainly distributed in the west of the Taihang Mountains, north of the Qinling–Daba Mountains, east of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau, and the Northeast Plain. Within the high value classification in 1998, the High increase classification was distributed in the south of the Yangtze River. In 1998 and 2020, China had a total area of 2.50 million km2 of desert regions, accounting for 26% of China’s land area. After 20 years of large-scale ecological protection, desert regions have hardly undergone significant changes. Desertification regions decreased from 2.80 million km2 to 1.67 million km2, a decrease of 40.3%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Desert Ecosystems and Landscapes: Structure, Functioning and Threats)
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19 pages, 2818 KiB  
Article
Coexistence and Succession of Spontaneous and Planted Vegetation on Extensive Mediterranean Green Roofs: Impacts on Soil, Seed Banks, and Mesofauna
by Christel Vidaller, Anaïs Jouet, Carmen Van Mechelen, Tania De Almeida, Jérôme Cortet, Lucie Rivière, Grégory Mahy, Martin Hermy and Thierry Dutoit
Land 2023, 12(9), 1726; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12091726 - 5 Sep 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2361
Abstract
Extensive green roofs are well known to improve the urban environment, but in the Mediterranean regions, dry climatic conditions pose the problem of their sustainability when no irrigation is applied. After planting or sowing in 2012, 18 local Mediterranean plant species on different [...] Read more.
Extensive green roofs are well known to improve the urban environment, but in the Mediterranean regions, dry climatic conditions pose the problem of their sustainability when no irrigation is applied. After planting or sowing in 2012, 18 local Mediterranean plant species on different types of exposure and substrate in a non-irrigated extensive green roof in Avignon (South-Eastern France), the physico-chemical characteristics of the soil, winter and spring soil seed banks, soil mesofauna and initially sown, planted, or spontaneous vegetation expressed on the surface were studied from 2013 to 2020. In 2020, significant differences related to the exposure conditions (shade/sun) and, to a lesser extent, to the depth of substrate used (5 cm/5 cm or 10 cm with a water retention layer) were found. The deeper plots in the shade have significantly higher soil fertility, cover, and vegetation height. However, the plots in the sun have higher moss cover, planted or sowed vegetation abundance, and springtail abundance. By 2020, more than half of the initially sown species had disappeared, except for several planted perennials and short-cycle annual species. On the other hand, a significant increase in the species richness of spontaneously established species was measured over time. In the absence of a permanent and transient seed bank for the sowed and spontaneous species, the plant community is then mostly dependent on species flows via the local surrounding seed rain. Planting perennial species (Sedum spp., Iris lutescens), followed by spontaneous colonization of species present in the vicinity of the roof would then represent a more efficient strategy for the persistence of extensive non-irrigated green roofs in Mediterranean environments than sowing a species-rich local Mediterranean seed mixture dominated by annual species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Roofs in Arid and Semi-arid Climates)
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24 pages, 18938 KiB  
Article
Exploring Land Use Management Strategies through Morphological Spatial Patterns Using a Climate–Socioeconomic-Based Land Use Simulation Modeling Framework
by Yusong Xie, Katsue Fukamachi, Wen Wang and Shozo Shibata
Land 2023, 12(9), 1722; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12091722 - 4 Sep 2023
Viewed by 2036
Abstract
Facing future complex climate changes and global economic fluctuations, land use and land cover (LULC) simulation is recognized as an important initiative to support government decision-making. In this study, a comprehensive LULC simulation modeling framework was proposed based on the PLUS and InVEST [...] Read more.
Facing future complex climate changes and global economic fluctuations, land use and land cover (LULC) simulation is recognized as an important initiative to support government decision-making. In this study, a comprehensive LULC simulation modeling framework was proposed based on the PLUS and InVEST models. The Kinki metropolis in Japan was chosen as a case to simulate future LULC changes under four SSP–RCP (126, 245, 370, and 585) scenarios, and to calculate carbon storage (CS) from 2040 to 2100. The results show that cultivated land will decrease while forests will increase, except under scenario SSP585. The artificial surface will increase except under SSP370. The CS changes are significantly correlated with forest area changes. Furthermore, this study highlights the significance of analyzing and discussing future LULCs under wide-area planning. Spatial pattern, morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA), and Pearson correlation analysis were used to explore the characteristics of the LULC types. The results reveal that the prefectures within the Kinki metropolitan area can be classified into three groups based on the spatial pattern indices change of the artificial surface. Most cultivated land is concentrated in important patches and corridors (area larger than 40,000 m2), accounting for over 90% of the total area, while the number is less than 25%. Forests will become more aggregated, and different MSPA classes will have varying impacts on CS changes. This study comprehensively analyzed and validated the feasibility of the simulation results from different LULC perspectives, comparing the similarities and differences in the development of prefectures. Additionally, this research provides a comprehensive framework for integrating simulated LULC types with policy discussions to better guide LULC planning and policy formulation in metropolitan Kinki. Full article
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23 pages, 3961 KiB  
Article
Multiresource Pastoralism, Dynamic Foodways, and Ancient Statecraft in Mongolia
by William Honeychurch, Chunag Amartuvshin, Joshua Wright, Christina Carolus and Michelle Hrivnyak
Land 2023, 12(9), 1715; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12091715 - 2 Sep 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3240
Abstract
Pastoral nomadic regional confederations, states, and empires have assumed a prominent place in the histories of the Eurasian steppe zone; however, anthropological theory devoted to understanding these political systems is still debated and relatively inchoate. A major question concerns the techniques of political [...] Read more.
Pastoral nomadic regional confederations, states, and empires have assumed a prominent place in the histories of the Eurasian steppe zone; however, anthropological theory devoted to understanding these political systems is still debated and relatively inchoate. A major question concerns the techniques of political integration that might have brought together dispersed mobile herders under the aegis of these complex, large-scale steppe polities. The first such polity in East Asia, the Xiongnu state (c. 250 BC–150 AD) of Mongolia, has been characterized as a polity built by mobile herders, but in fact the steppe populations of this period followed quite diverse lifeways. Most notably, the establishment of more permanent settlements for craft and agricultural production has complicated the typical narrative of the pastoral nomadic eastern steppe. This study considers ways to conceptualize these interesting variations in lifeway during the Xiongnu period and raises the question of how they might have promoted a novel Xiongnu political order. We analyze transformations within the Egiin Gol valley of northern Mongolia to better understand the organizational, productive, and settlement dynamics and present the first regional landscape perspective on the local transformations incurred by the creation of a Xiongnu agricultural hub. To understand these radical changes with respect to the long-term pastoral nomadic and hunting-gathering traditions of the valley’s inhabitants, Salzman’s flexibility-based model of multiresource pastoralism is of great use. Egiin Gol valley transformations indeed attest to a scale of political economy far beyond the bounds of this local area and suggest an innovative role for indigenous farming in Eurasian steppe polity building. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling Land Use Change Using Historical and Archaeological Datasets)
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18 pages, 3230 KiB  
Article
High-Performance Landscapes: Re-Thinking Design and Management Choices to Enhance Ecological Benefits in Urban Environments
by J. Amy Belaire, Heather Bass, Heather Venhaus, Keri Barfield, Tim Pannkuk, Katherine Lieberknecht and Shalene Jha
Land 2023, 12(9), 1689; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12091689 - 29 Aug 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3844
Abstract
A growing body of research indicates that urban landscapes can support biodiversity and provide multiple ecosystem services. However, we still have limited knowledge about how specific design and management choices impact environmental benefits within highly modified landscapes. Furthermore, we know relatively little about [...] Read more.
A growing body of research indicates that urban landscapes can support biodiversity and provide multiple ecosystem services. However, we still have limited knowledge about how specific design and management choices impact environmental benefits within highly modified landscapes. Furthermore, we know relatively little about the potential tradeoffs and synergies encountered when managing for multiple ecosystem services within urban landscapes. In this study, we address knowledge gaps in both research and practice by leveraging a ‘designed experiment’ approach that included a diverse team of researchers and practitioners to evaluate the impacts of designed landscapes on several focal environmental outcomes essential for urban sustainability. Specifically, we evaluated small-scale designed-landscape research plots that varied in plant richness, origin of vegetation, and drought tolerance, and we simultaneously quantified impacts on water conservation, pollinators, and maintenance-related impacts, as well as their intersection with aesthetic appeal for residents. Our results indicate that key landscape choices such as the selection of drought-tolerant plants and a diverse native plant palette can simultaneously enhance water conservation, increase resources for pollinators, and reduce maintenance impacts. Importantly, the designs that rated more highly in terms of visual quality were also those that supported higher pollinator biodiversity and required relatively little water for irrigation, indicating that synergy across multiple benefits is achievable in designed landscapes. In urban landscapes, aesthetic appeal is often a top priority, and our results indicate that visual quality does not need to be sacrificed in order to design landscapes that additionally support water conservation and provide resources for pollinators. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers for Land Planning and Architecture Section)
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27 pages, 9475 KiB  
Article
Spatiotemporal Linkages between Administrative Division Adjustment and Urban Form: Political Drivers of the Urban Polycentric Structure
by Youlin Chen, Lei Wang, Peiheng Yu, Ning Nie, Xuan Yang and Yiyun Chen
Land 2023, 12(9), 1674; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12091674 - 27 Aug 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2143
Abstract
As a crucial government strategy for spatial management and resource allocation, administrative division adjustment (ADA) provides interesting insights in the investigation of the polycentric urban structure (POLY). Using high-resolution geographic grid population data, this study aims to interpret complex linkages between ADA and [...] Read more.
As a crucial government strategy for spatial management and resource allocation, administrative division adjustment (ADA) provides interesting insights in the investigation of the polycentric urban structure (POLY). Using high-resolution geographic grid population data, this study aims to interpret complex linkages between ADA and POLY. Specifically, this research explores the dynamic evolution of POLY and ADA, investigates the spatiotemporal impact of ADA on POLY based on geographically and temporally weighted regression models and analyzes the differences in socioeconomic driving forces for POLY in cities with and without ADA. The results demonstrate that the value of POLY had a rising trend during the study periods. In terms of spatial pattern, POLY has a higher value in the Eastern region and a lower value in the Western region. The influences of ADA on POLY are also characterized by spatiotemporal heterogeneity. The impact of ADA on POLY has a higher value in Eastern and Western China and a lower value in Central and Northeastern China. In addition, the impacts of socioeconomic factors on POLY between cities with and without ADA differed significantly in Central and Western China while differing insignificantly in Eastern and Northeastern China. To promote the balanced development of administrative institutional structures and urban spatial transformation, ADA should be selectively implemented to facilitate POLY following the level of population, economic and productive development in each region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Land Socio-Economic and Political Issues)
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24 pages, 9839 KiB  
Article
Carbon Storage in Cropland Soils: Insights from Iowa, United States
by Jim Jordahl, Marshall McDaniel, Bradley A. Miller, Michael Thompson, Sebastian Villarino and Lisa A. Schulte
Land 2023, 12(8), 1630; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12081630 - 19 Aug 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4826
Abstract
The restoration of soil organic matter (SOM, as measured by soil organic carbon (SOC)) within the world’s agricultural soils is imperative to sustaining crop production and restoring other ecosystem services. We compiled long-term studies on the effect of management practices on SOC from [...] Read more.
The restoration of soil organic matter (SOM, as measured by soil organic carbon (SOC)) within the world’s agricultural soils is imperative to sustaining crop production and restoring other ecosystem services. We compiled long-term studies on the effect of management practices on SOC from Iowa, USA—an agricultural region with relatively high-quality soil data—to highlight constraints on detecting changes in SOC and inform research needed to improve SOC measurement and management. We found that strip-tillage and no-tillage increased SOC by 0.25–0.43 Mg C ha−1 yr−1 compared to losses of 0.24 to 0.46 Mg C ha−1 yr−1 with more intensive tillage methods. The conversion of cropland to perennial grassland increased SOC by 0.21–0.74 Mg C ha−1 yr−1. However, diversifying crop rotations with extended rotations, and supplementing synthetic fertilizer with animal manure, had highly variable and inconsistent effects on SOC. The improved prediction of changes in SOC requires: the use of methods that can identify and disentangle multiple sources of variability; looking beyond total SOC and toward systematic collection of data on more responsive and functionally relevant fractions; whole-profile SOC monitoring; monitoring SOC in long-term studies on the effect of multiple conservation practices used in combination; and deeper collaboration between field soil scientists and modelers. Full article
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13 pages, 816 KiB  
Article
Short-Term Effect of Different Inputs of Organic Amendments from Olive Oil Industry By-Products on Soil Organic Carbon and Physical Properties
by Nadia Vignozzi, Maria Costanza Andrenelli, Alessandro Elio Agnelli, Angelo Fiore and Sergio Pellegrini
Land 2023, 12(8), 1628; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12081628 - 18 Aug 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1728
Abstract
Maintaining adequate levels of soil organic matter in Mediterranean agro-ecosystems is a pressing need due to the increasing evidence of climate change. The use of by-products of the olive oil industry as organic amendments could contribute to this goal. We report the results [...] Read more.
Maintaining adequate levels of soil organic matter in Mediterranean agro-ecosystems is a pressing need due to the increasing evidence of climate change. The use of by-products of the olive oil industry as organic amendments could contribute to this goal. We report the results of a 2-year research carried out in southern Italy on a clay loam soil for evaluating the effects of different olive oil industry by-products on soil organic carbon and other related soil characteristics. The treatments were: (i) Olive mill wastewater (OMW), (ii) compost from olive pomace (CP1), (iii) compost from olive pomace in double quantity (CP2), and (iv) organo-mineral fertilizer (OMF). Soil samples, collected at a depth of 0–20 cm, were analyzed for total organic carbon (TOC), its extractable (TEC) and humic fractions (HC), and aggregate stability (Ist). In addition, soil macroporosity, water retention, and penetration resistance (PR) were evaluated. CP1 induced the largest increase in soil TOC, TEC, and HC content, and a significant improvement in Ist; the addition of a large quantity of organic carbon (CP2) did not determine a proportional increase in soil organic matter content. The aggregate stability of the CP2 was the lowest; nevertheless, the characterization of macroporosity indicated an improvement of soil structure functionality. With respect to control (OMF), OMW had a significant decrease in Ist and an increase in PR of the uppermost soil layer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Health and Well-Being: Sources, Effects and Remediation)
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41 pages, 651 KiB  
Review
Biochar as Soil Amendment: The Effect of Biochar on Soil Properties Using VIS-NIR Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy, Biochar Aging and Soil Microbiology—A Review
by Vasileios Tsolis and Pantelis Barouchas
Land 2023, 12(8), 1580; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12081580 - 10 Aug 2023
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 10899
Abstract
This literature review explores the assessment of biochar quality and its impact on soil properties using diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. Biochar, a product of biomass pyrolysis, is recognized for its positive effects on soil fertility and carbon sequestration. This review emphasizes the need for [...] Read more.
This literature review explores the assessment of biochar quality and its impact on soil properties using diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. Biochar, a product of biomass pyrolysis, is recognized for its positive effects on soil fertility and carbon sequestration. This review emphasizes the need for systematic research on biochar stability and highlights the potential of diffuse reflectance spectroscopy for analyzing soil–biochar interactions. Biochar acts as a soil conditioner, improving physical, chemical, and biological properties and enhancing soil fertility and crop yield. Furthermore, it aids in mitigating climate change by sequestering carbon dioxide. However, the long-term behavior of biochar and its interactions with various factors require further field research for optimal utilization, as the aging process of biochar in soil is complex, involving physical, chemical, and biological interactions that influence its impact on the agroecosystem. This review also emphasizes the importance of studying the interaction between biochar and soil microbes, as it plays a crucial role in enhancing soil fertility and plant resistance to pathogens. However, research on this interaction is limited. VIS-NIR spectroscopy is a valuable tool for monitoring biochar application to soil. Nevertheless, controversial results highlight the intricate interactions between biochar, soil, and environmental conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A Global Perspective in Soil Carbon Sequestration and Climate Change)
21 pages, 5560 KiB  
Article
Quantifying Damages to Soil Health and Emissions from Land Development in the State of Illinois (USA)
by Elena A. Mikhailova, Hamdi A. Zurqani, Lili Lin, Zhenbang Hao, Christopher J. Post, Mark A. Schlautman, Gregory C. Post, George B. Shepherd and Renee M. Dixon
Land 2023, 12(8), 1567; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12081567 - 8 Aug 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2943
Abstract
The concept of soil health is increasingly being used as an indicator for sustainable soil management and even includes legislative actions. Current applications of soil health often lack geospatial and monetary analyses of damages (e.g., land development), which can degrade soil health through [...] Read more.
The concept of soil health is increasingly being used as an indicator for sustainable soil management and even includes legislative actions. Current applications of soil health often lack geospatial and monetary analyses of damages (e.g., land development), which can degrade soil health through loss of carbon (C) and productive soils. This study aims to evaluate the damages to soil health (e.g., soil C, the primary soil health indicator) attributed to land developments within the state of Illinois (IL) in the United States of America (USA). All land developments in IL can be associated with damages to soil health, with 13,361.0 km2 developed, resulting in midpoint losses of 2.5 × 1011 of total soil carbon (TSC) and a midpoint social cost of carbon dioxide emissions (SC-CO2) of $41.8B (where B = billion = 109, USD). More recently developed land area (721.8 km2) between 2001 and 2016 likely caused the midpoint loss of 1.6 × 1010 kg of TSC and a corresponding midpoint of $2.7B in SC-CO2. New developments occurred adjacent to current urban areas near the capital cities of Springfield, Chicago, and St. Louis (the border city between the states of Missouri and IL). Results of this study reveal several types of damage to soil health from developments: soil C loss, associated “realized” soil C social costs (SC-CO2), and loss of soil C sequestration potential from developments. The innovation of this study has several aspects. Geospatial analysis of land cover combined with corresponding soil types can identify changes in the soil health continuum at the landscape level. Because soil C is a primary soil health indicator, land conversions caused by developments reduce soil health and the availability of productive soils for agriculture, forestry, and C sequestration. Current IL soil health legislation can benefit from this landscape level data on soil C loss with GHG emissions and associated SC-CO2 costs by providing insight into the soil health continuum and its dynamics. These techniques and data can also be used to expand IL’s GHG emissions reduction efforts from being solely focused on the energy sector to include soil-based emissions from developments. Current soil health legislation does not recognize that soil’s health is harmed by disturbance from land developments and that this disturbance results in GHG emissions. Soil health programs could be broadened to encourage less disturbance of soil types that release high levels of GHG and set binding targets based on losses in the soil health continuum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Management for Soil Health)
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30 pages, 32514 KiB  
Article
Urban Green Infrastructure Accessibility: Investigating Environmental Justice in a European and Global Green Capital
by Borja Ruiz-Apilánez, Estitxu Ormaetxea and Itziar Aguado-Moralejo
Land 2023, 12(8), 1534; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12081534 - 2 Aug 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4771
Abstract
Access to green spaces offers numerous benefits to citizens and is key to achieving environmental justice. This article explores accessibility to green infrastructure (GI) in Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain, the European and Global Green Capital in 2012 and 2019. Vitoria-Gasteiz was selected as a case [...] Read more.
Access to green spaces offers numerous benefits to citizens and is key to achieving environmental justice. This article explores accessibility to green infrastructure (GI) in Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain, the European and Global Green Capital in 2012 and 2019. Vitoria-Gasteiz was selected as a case study because it combines actions aimed at promoting green infrastructure in the city along with an urban model that in recent years has favored more expansive urbanism. Manhattan distance and configurational analysis is used to investigate accessibility to the most relevant elements of the GI system and their integration in the urban tissue. Considering the actual pedestrian mobility network, configurational accessibility is examined globally and locally with 1 km and 300 m radii. The analysis reveals great differences both in global and local configurational accessibility across fifty components of the GI system that are greater than 0.5 ha and open for public use. It also shows that, while almost all inhabitants (97.9%) reside within 1 km from these green areas, 27.7% of the population live more than 300 m away. The investigation demonstrates the need to improve the city’s GI to provide universal accessibility to green spaces. It offers useful methods that planning professionals and local administrations can use to assess residents’ access to green areas and guide future GI transformation and development towards environmental justice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services in Urban Contexts: Balancing City Environment)
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18 pages, 2458 KiB  
Article
Rotational Grazing Strategies Minimally Impact Soil Microbial Communities and Carbon Dynamics—A Texas Case Study
by Jennifer M. Moore, Daniel K. Manter and Kristie A. Maczko
Land 2023, 12(8), 1517; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12081517 - 30 Jul 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2951
Abstract
The goal of our study was to evaluate the long-term (>12 years) influence of stocking density and herd rotation frequency on plant and soil microbial community and carbon dynamics in three working ranches in Texas. One ranch utilized a high stocking density and [...] Read more.
The goal of our study was to evaluate the long-term (>12 years) influence of stocking density and herd rotation frequency on plant and soil microbial community and carbon dynamics in three working ranches in Texas. One ranch utilized a high stocking density and high-frequency (HIGH) rotation where cattle were moved multiple times each day; the second ranch used a medium stocking density and rotation frequency (MED) where herds were moved every 2–3 weeks; and the third ranch used a low stocking density with continuous grazing (LOW). Neither plant nor microbial diversity measures differed between the ranches, but plant functional and microbial community compositions differentiated management strategies. The MED ranch was characterized by a plant community dominated by little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium) and had the greatest soil organic matter content (2.8%) and soil respiration rates compared to the LOW (SOM = 2.2%) and HIGH (SOM = 2.1%) ranches. The HIGH ranch had a relatively high abundance and diversity of forbs and introduced grasses, and the LOW ranch had an even mixture of tall, introduced, and cool-season grasses. All three ranches had relatively high levels of Gram-positive bacteria (>70%) with MED having a higher relative abundance of bacteria important for carbon cycling. Furthermore, network analyses suggest that soil microbial communities at all ranches were highly synergistic and exhibited well-defined ecological niches. Differences in soil properties between ranches tended to be minor and suggest that grazing strategies can differ without any substantial shifts in soil and microbial function. Full article
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23 pages, 9808 KiB  
Article
The Olive Grove Landscape as a Tourist Resource in Andalucía: Oleotourism
by Mª Genoveva Dancausa Millán, Javier Sanchez-Rivas García and Mª Genoveva Millán Vázquez de la Torre
Land 2023, 12(8), 1507; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12081507 - 28 Jul 2023
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3251
Abstract
Andalucía, located in the southern region of Spain, is the world’s largest producer of olive oil. It is home to over 70 million olive trees, which shape the distinctive landscape of the olive groves typical of the Mediterranean Basin. This research focuses on [...] Read more.
Andalucía, located in the southern region of Spain, is the world’s largest producer of olive oil. It is home to over 70 million olive trees, which shape the distinctive landscape of the olive groves typical of the Mediterranean Basin. This research focuses on analyzing the olive grove landscape and the rich culture associated with the olive tree as a tourist activity known as oleotourism. This form of tourism would attract an increased number of tourists and generate funds for the preservation of the olive tree heritage if UNESCO declared it a World Heritage Site, similar to other cultural landscapes. Furthermore, it would help diversify the region’s tourism industry, which has traditionally focused on sun and beach tourism. This study is a continuation of previous research initiated by the authors in 2017. It is observed that the profile of oleotourists before and after the COVID-19 pandemic has not varied significantly, although there has been an increase in the number of people engaging in this type of tourism, as evidenced by the results obtained with the SARIMA model. The SARIMA model is used for forecasting and analyzing time series data. These findings indicate that investing in this tourism activity would be profitable for local residents, making it a sustainable form of tourism that is compatible with the environment and the local community. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Outlooks, Local Marketplaces and Tourism Advancement)
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14 pages, 915 KiB  
Article
Searching for Balance between Hill Country Pastoral Farming and Nature
by John R. Dymond, Adam J. Daigneault, Olivia R. Burge, Chris C. Tanner, Fiona E. Carswell, Suzie Greenhalgh, Anne-Gaelle E. Ausseil, Norman W. H. Mason and Beverley R. Clarkson
Land 2023, 12(8), 1482; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12081482 - 26 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1775
Abstract
Much land has been cleared of indigenous forest for pastoral agriculture worldwide. In New Zealand, the clearance of indigenous forest on hill country has resulted in high food production, but waterways have become turbid, with high nutrient and E. coli concentrations. A range [...] Read more.
Much land has been cleared of indigenous forest for pastoral agriculture worldwide. In New Zealand, the clearance of indigenous forest on hill country has resulted in high food production, but waterways have become turbid, with high nutrient and E. coli concentrations. A range of on-farm mitigations are available, but it is unclear how they should be applied catchment-wide. We have developed a catchment-scale model that integrates economics with ecosystem services to find a better balance between agriculture and nature. In the upper Wairua catchment, Northland, if three actions are prioritised—(1) keeping stock out of streams, (2) constructing flood retention bunds in first-order catchments, and (3) planting trees on highly erodible land—then sediment loads, E. coli levels, and flooding are significantly reduced. Implementing these actions would cost approximately 10% of catchment net revenue, so it is feasible with a combination of regulation and subsidy. Many catchments in New Zealand are primarily pastoral agriculture, as in other countries (in North and South America, Australasia, and the United Kingdom), and would benefit from the analysis presented here to guide development along sustainable pathways. While pastoral agriculture typically stresses waterways, with increased sedimentation and freshwater contaminants, much can be done to mitigate these effects with improved farm and riparian management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Land, Biodiversity, and Human Wellbeing)
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18 pages, 2790 KiB  
Article
The Flow Matrix Offers a Straightforward Alternative to the Problematic Markov Matrix
by Jessica Strzempko and Robert Gilmore Pontius, Jr.
Land 2023, 12(7), 1471; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071471 - 24 Jul 2023
Viewed by 4269
Abstract
The Flow matrix is a novel method to describe and extrapolate transitions among categories. The Flow matrix extrapolates a constant transition size per unit of time on a time continuum with a maximum of one incident per observation during the extrapolation. The Flow [...] Read more.
The Flow matrix is a novel method to describe and extrapolate transitions among categories. The Flow matrix extrapolates a constant transition size per unit of time on a time continuum with a maximum of one incident per observation during the extrapolation. The Flow matrix extrapolates linearly until the persistence of a category shrinks to zero. The Flow matrix has concepts and mathematics that are more straightforward than the Markov matrix. However, many scientists apply the Markov matrix by default because popular software packages offer no alternative to the Markov matrix, despite the conceptual and mathematical challenges that the Markov matrix poses. The Markov matrix extrapolates a constant transition proportion per time interval during whole-number multiples of the duration of the calibration time interval. The Markov extrapolation allows at most one incident per observation during each time interval but allows repeated incidents per observation through sequential time intervals. Many Markov extrapolations approach a steady state asymptotically through time as each category size approaches a constant. We use case studies concerning land change to illustrate the characteristics of the Flow and Markov matrices. The Flow and Markov extrapolations both deviate from the reference data during a validation time interval, implying there is no reason to prefer one matrix to the other in terms of correspondence with the processes that we analyzed. The two matrices differ substantially in terms of their underlying concepts and mathematical behaviors. Scientists should consider the ease of use and interpretation for each matrix when extrapolating transitions among categories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Approaches to Land Use/Land Cover Change Modeling)
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17 pages, 1237 KiB  
Article
Does the Perceived Effectiveness of Voluntary Conservation Programs Affect Household Adoption of Sustainable Landscaping Practices?
by Xumin Zhang and Hayk Khachatryan
Land 2023, 12(7), 1429; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071429 - 17 Jul 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1546
Abstract
State and local governments have implemented voluntary and mandatory programs to conserve and protect natural resources in and around urban developments. Even though the long-term environmental benefits are apparent, convincing homeowners to adopt sustainable landscapes with less water and chemical use is challenging. [...] Read more.
State and local governments have implemented voluntary and mandatory programs to conserve and protect natural resources in and around urban developments. Even though the long-term environmental benefits are apparent, convincing homeowners to adopt sustainable landscapes with less water and chemical use is challenging. An important consideration from the successful policy implementation point of view is that homeowners have different environmental attitudes, which can be the determining factor that influences their adoption intentions of sustainable landscaping practices. This study assesses whether homeowners’ environmental attitude is a statistically significant predictor of sustainable landscape adoption intention. Moreover, homeowners’ perception of the effectiveness of the voluntary environmental programs may be influenced by their environmental attitudes and impose mediating effects on sustainable landscape adoption intentions. We also examine whether homeowners’ perceived effectiveness of voluntary environmental programs has a mediating effect on the adoption decision. The Value-Belief-Norm hierarchical model framework is utilized to examine both effects. The results revealed that homeowners’ pro-environmental attitudes influence their perceived effectiveness of voluntary programs and their sustainable landscape adoption intentions. The combined influence accounts for 13.6% of homeowners’ adoption intention. Homeowners’ personal norms also affect their perceived effectiveness of voluntary programs (9% variance explained), and the mediating effect of the perceived effectiveness of voluntary programs has an amplifying effect and positively influences the adoption intention. The implications for policymakers in the realm of landscape conservation programs are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards Sustainable Residential Landscape Designs)
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20 pages, 10433 KiB  
Article
A Modeling Approach for Analyzing the Hydrological Impacts of the Agribusiness Land-Use Scenarios in an Amazon Basin
by Zandra A. Cunha, Carlos R. Mello, Samuel Beskow, Marcelle M. Vargas, Jorge A. Guzman and Maíra M. Moura
Land 2023, 12(7), 1422; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071422 - 16 Jul 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1958
Abstract
The Xingu River Basin (XRB) in the Brazilian Amazon region has a great relevance to the development of northern Brazil because of the Belo Monte hydropower plant and its crescent agribusiness expansion. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of the Lavras Simulation [...] Read more.
The Xingu River Basin (XRB) in the Brazilian Amazon region has a great relevance to the development of northern Brazil because of the Belo Monte hydropower plant and its crescent agribusiness expansion. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of the Lavras Simulation of the Hydrology (LASH) model to represent the main hydrological processes in the XRB and simulate the hydrological impacts in the face of land-use change scenarios. Following the trend of the most relevant agribusiness evolution in the XRB, four agribusiness scenarios (S) were structured considering the increase in grasslands (S1: 50% over the native forest; S2: 100% over the native forest) and soybean plantations (S3: 50% over the native forest; S4: 100% over native forest). Average hydrographs were simulated, and the frequency duration curves (FDC) and average annual values of the main hydrological components for each scenario were compared. The results showed that, in general, changes in land use based on deforestation in the XRB would lead to an increase in flood streamflow and a reduction in baseflow. The increases in direct surface runoff varied from 4.4% for S1 to 29.8% for S4 scenarios. The reduction in baseflow varied from −1.6% for S1 to −4.9% for S2. These changes were reduced when the entire XRB was analyzed, but notable for the sub-basins in its headwater region, where the scenarios were more effective. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydro-Sedimentological Modeling for Simulating LULC)
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24 pages, 3205 KiB  
Article
Vulnerability of Coastal Infrastructure and Communities to Extreme Storms and Rising Sea Levels: An Improved Model for Grenada and Its Dependencies
by Paulette E. Posen, Claire Beraud, Cherry Harper Jones, Emmanouil Tyllianakis, Andre Joseph-Witzig and Aria St. Louis
Land 2023, 12(7), 1418; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071418 - 15 Jul 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3599
Abstract
Coastal areas of Grenada in the south-eastern Caribbean are particularly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change. The effects of increasingly powerful hurricanes, sea-level rise, and reef degradation are often compounded by local anthropogenic activities. Many communities reside in low-lying areas, with [...] Read more.
Coastal areas of Grenada in the south-eastern Caribbean are particularly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change. The effects of increasingly powerful hurricanes, sea-level rise, and reef degradation are often compounded by local anthropogenic activities. Many communities reside in low-lying areas, with development and infrastructure concentrated along the coast. Wave/storm surge models based on historic hurricanes Ivan and Lenny, and a hurricane with a predicted 100-year return period, were used to assess coastal inundation under different storm and sea-level rise scenarios. Coupled Tomawac and Telemac models were used in conjunction with high-resolution LiDAR data to provide a full vulnerability assessment across all coastal zones. Results were combined with census data at the Enumeration District level to assess impacts on the built environment. Qualitative and quantitative estimates were derived for the impact on natural features, land use, and infrastructure supporting critical economic activity in Grenada’s coastal zones. Estimation of both spatial extent and inundation depth improved the estimation of likely coastal impacts and associated costs at the national level. A general increase in extent and severity of inundation was predicted with projected future sea-level rise, with the potential for disruption to major coastal infrastructure evident in all scenarios, risking serious social and economic consequences for local communities. Coastal communities using poorer-quality building materials were most severely affected. This integrated method of assessment can guide disaster planning and decision-making to reduce risk and aid resilience in hurricane-prone regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Where Land Meets Sea: Terrestrial Influences on Coastal Environments)
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18 pages, 8634 KiB  
Article
Investigation and Comparison of Spatial–Temporal Characteristics of Farmland Fragmentation in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Region, China, and Bavaria, Germany
by Lu Niu, Mengyao Xu and Walter Timo de Vries
Land 2023, 12(7), 1410; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071410 - 14 Jul 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1979
Abstract
Farmland fragmentation has emerged as the primary manifestation of global land use changes during the last century. Following the economic reform and opening up in China from the 1980s, the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region has witnessed continuous farmland fragmentation. Understanding the spatial–temporal dynamics of [...] Read more.
Farmland fragmentation has emerged as the primary manifestation of global land use changes during the last century. Following the economic reform and opening up in China from the 1980s, the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region has witnessed continuous farmland fragmentation. Understanding the spatial–temporal dynamics of farmland fragmentation is crucial for formulating sustainable land use management strategies. However, the specific causes and locations of farmland fragmentation remain unclear, as do potential significant differences or similarities across different countries. Given this quandary, this study empirically analyzes the spatial–temporal characteristics of farmland fragmentation in two different contexts: the BTH region in China and Bavaria in Germany. The study utilizes multiple theoretical models for temporal and spatial farmland fragmentation, applying the comprehensive index method, landscape pattern analysis, and the magic cube model. The results indicate that the farmland fragmentation index (FFI) value in BTH and Bavaria first increased or remained stable, but afterwards, both decreased and increased again. Moreover, the spatial analysis demonstrated high significance values for the FFI in the northern and western BTH region and in northern and southern Bavaria. There are, furthermore, significant differences in the FFI in different macro landforms. The FFI in the mountain regions is significantly higher than that of the plains. Finally, the results also demonstrate that a decreasing FFI relates to the overall low values within an FFI region. The theoretical framework in this study appears to align with empirical results, and thus provides a reference for future policy measures to protect farmland. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agricultural Land Use and Rural Development)
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19 pages, 1746 KiB  
Article
Do Land Use and Land Cover Scenarios Support More Integrated Land Use Management?
by Roberta Rigo and Thomas Houet
Land 2023, 12(7), 1414; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071414 - 14 Jul 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2303
Abstract
In agricultural landscape management, the conventional top-down approaches that primarily focus on market-led responses struggle to preserve the landscape elements essential for environmental sustainability. To address this deficiency, land use and land cover change (LUCC) scenarios promote an integrated understanding of landscape dynamics [...] Read more.
In agricultural landscape management, the conventional top-down approaches that primarily focus on market-led responses struggle to preserve the landscape elements essential for environmental sustainability. To address this deficiency, land use and land cover change (LUCC) scenarios promote an integrated understanding of landscape dynamics and highlight the inconsistency between the compartmentalisation of the public sector (“siloisation”) and the necessity for management that reflects the interdependencies of socio-ecological systems. This study investigates the extent to which the creation and dissemination of LUCC scenarios lead to modifications in the values, attitudes, and behaviours of local actors engaged in land management, giving particular emphasis to the role of these scenarios in encouraging integrated management. To accomplish this objective, we interviewed local actors who actively participated in the co-construction of the scenario narratives or learned about the scenarios during dissemination workshops. We then analysed the data via a thematic and lexicometric analysis. The findings highlighted the dual function of these scenarios as a catalyst for pre-existing political will to promote integrated management and as a tool for raising awareness about major environmental challenges. At the group level, the outcomes encompassed aspects such as basing political decisions on the results of scenarios and fostering collaboration between institutions. These outcomes were observed among the actors involved in co-constructing scenarios or those with pre-existing motivations to pursue integrated management initiatives. Additional personal outcomes included an increased awareness of environmental challenges and the consolidation of non-formalised knowledge. We argue that combining co-construction and dissemination enhances the outcomes of scenarios considerably. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Scenarios of Land Use and Land Cover Change)
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32 pages, 70064 KiB  
Article
Sustainability Assessments of Peri-Urban Areas: An Evaluation Model for the Territorialization of the Sustainable Development Goals
by Pasquale De Toro, Enrico Formato and Nicola Fierro
Land 2023, 12(7), 1415; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071415 - 14 Jul 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3561
Abstract
This research tests a sustainability assessment based on the 2030 Agenda’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through a process of their territorialization and implementation. This process enables the development of a spatial decision support system (SDSS) that can be integrated with strategic environmental assessments [...] Read more.
This research tests a sustainability assessment based on the 2030 Agenda’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through a process of their territorialization and implementation. This process enables the development of a spatial decision support system (SDSS) that can be integrated with strategic environmental assessments in urban planning. The assessment takes place on the transversality of the sustainability concept, considering the three dimensions (environmental, social, and economic) in a single assessment through the spatial sustainability assessment model (SSAM) by integrating geographic information systems (GIS) and multicriteria analyses. Economic development, social equity, and ecological integrity represent the three common visions for rethinking peri-urban edges. The choice of key indicators is due to the possibilities for action of urban plans and the vision of SDG 11a, which aims to support ‘positive economic, social, and environmental links among urban, peri-urban and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning’. In addition, they were selected to be representative of sustainable planning processes in the peri-urban area. In recognizing the limits of urban expansion processes, in the peri-urban area, it is necessary to promote a different growth based on agri-environmental values, the production of biodiversity reserves and corridors, new models of inhabiting open space, and the consolidation of civic and collective uses. The paper tests the assessment methodology in two urban plans of the Metropolitan City of Naples that address the development of the peri-urban area with different strategies. This provides insight into how to support decision-making processes so that economic development, social equity, and ecological integrity represent three common and integrated visions to enable development that is consistent with SDGs. The results show that it is possible to identify trade-offs among the three dimensions. In fact, where there are environmental subtractions necessary to accommodate peri-urban land-relation functions, these are offset by the social values of collective use and by the values of the current economy that aim to redistribute present resources. Full article
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20 pages, 963 KiB  
Review
Erosion and Sediment Transport Modeling: A Systematic Review
by Tesfa Gebrie Andualem, Guna A. Hewa, Baden R. Myers, Stefan Peters and John Boland
Land 2023, 12(7), 1396; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071396 - 12 Jul 2023
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 11847
Abstract
Soil erosion and sediment transport have significant consequences, including decreased agricultural production, water quality degradation, and modification to stream channels. Understanding these processes and their interactions with contributing factors is crucial for assessing the environmental impacts of erosion. The primary objective of this [...] Read more.
Soil erosion and sediment transport have significant consequences, including decreased agricultural production, water quality degradation, and modification to stream channels. Understanding these processes and their interactions with contributing factors is crucial for assessing the environmental impacts of erosion. The primary objective of this review is to identify a suitable soil erosion and sediment transport model for catchment-scale application. The study considers various model selection processes, including model capability and the spatial and temporal domains for assessing spatiotemporal distributions. The review acknowledges the limitations, uncertainties, and unrealistic assumptions associated with soil erosion and sediment transport models. Models are usually developed with a particular objective, which demands an assessment of capabilities, spatial, and temporal applicability, and catchment-scale applicability. Distributed models are often preferred for catchment-scale applications, as they can adequately account for spatial variations in erosion potential and sediment yield, aiding in the evaluation of erosion-contributing elements and planning erosion control measures. Based on the findings of this study, the authors encourage utilizing models (such as Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) or Automated Geospatial Watershed Assessment Tool (AGWA)) that can forecast net erosion as a function of sediment output for catchment erosion and sediment yield modeling. This review helps researchers and practitioners involved in erosion and sediment modeling by guiding the selection of an appropriate model type based on specific modeling purposes and basin scale. By choosing appropriate models, the accuracy and effectiveness of sediment yield estimation and erosion control measures can be improved. Full article
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15 pages, 6521 KiB  
Article
Field-Scale Floating Treatment Wetlands: Quantifying Ecosystem Service Provision from Monoculture vs. Polyculture Macrophyte Communities
by Jonathan Fletcher, Nigel Willby, David M. Oliver and Richard S. Quilliam
Land 2023, 12(7), 1382; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071382 - 11 Jul 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1974
Abstract
Global water security is critical for human health, well-being, and economic stability. However, freshwater environments are under increasing anthropogenic pressure and now, more than ever, there is an urgent need for integrated approaches that couple issues of water security and the remediation of [...] Read more.
Global water security is critical for human health, well-being, and economic stability. However, freshwater environments are under increasing anthropogenic pressure and now, more than ever, there is an urgent need for integrated approaches that couple issues of water security and the remediation of degraded aquatic environments. One such strategy is the use of floating treatment wetlands (FTW), which are artificial floating mats that sustain and support the growth of macrophytes capable of removing nutrients from over-enriched waterbodies. In this study, we quantify a range of indicators associated with FTWs, planted with different vegetation community types (i.e., monocultures and polycultures) over the course of a three-year field-scale study. The composition of the two different types of FTWs changed significantly with a convergence in diversity and community composition between the two types of FTWs. Phytoremediation potential of the two FTW communities, in terms of nutrient standing stocks, were also similar but did compare favourably to comparable wild-growing plant communities. There were few substantial differences in invertebrate habitat provision under the FTWs, although the high incidence of predators demonstrated that FTWs can support diverse macroinvertebrate communities. This field-scale study provides important practical insights for environmental managers and demonstrates the potential for enhanced ecosystem service provision from employing nature-based solutions, such as FTWs, in freshwater restoration projects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Land Use, Impact Assessment and Sustainability)
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20 pages, 8342 KiB  
Article
Exploring Switzerland’s Land Cover Change Dynamics Using a National Statistical Survey
by Isabel Nicholson Thomas and Gregory Giuliani
Land 2023, 12(7), 1386; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071386 - 11 Jul 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2659
Abstract
Timely and reliable Land Use and Cover change information is crucial to efficiently mitigate the negative impact of environmental changes. Switzerland has the ambitious objective of being a sustainable country while remaining an attractive business location with a high level of well-being. However, [...] Read more.
Timely and reliable Land Use and Cover change information is crucial to efficiently mitigate the negative impact of environmental changes. Switzerland has the ambitious objective of being a sustainable country while remaining an attractive business location with a high level of well-being. However, this aspiration is hampered by increasing pressures that are significantly impacting the environment and putting serious demands on land. In the present study, we used the national Land Cover (LC) dataset, named ArealStatistik, produced by the Federal Statistical Office, to explore the spatiotemporal patterns of Land Cover in Switzerland, providing a comprehensive assessment of land cover change at the national scale. Results indicate that, in general, Switzerland has undergone small, spatially dispersed, dynamic, and gradual change trends, with high rates of transition between low growing Brush Vegetation and forest LC classes in recent years. These pixel-level trends are more important in the lower altitude plateau and Jura regions, while greater changes in the spatial configuration of LC are observed in the alpine regions. However, findings also suggest that identifying drivers and understanding the rate of change are limited by the spatial resolution and temporal update frequency of the ArealStatistik. The ability to understand these drivers would benefit from a high-resolution annual LC dataset. Such a data product can be produced using the ArealStatistik together with dense satellite data time-series and Machine/Deep Learning techniques. Full article
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12 pages, 1574 KiB  
Article
Hyperspectral Bare Soil Index (HBSI): Mapping Soil Using an Ensemble of Spectral Indices in Machine Learning Environment
by Eric Ariel L. Salas and Sakthi Subburayalu Kumaran
Land 2023, 12(7), 1375; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071375 - 10 Jul 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4979
Abstract
Spectral remote-sensing indices based on visible, NIR, and SWIR wavelengths are useful in predicting spatial patterns of bare soil. However, identifying an effective combination of informative wavelengths or spectral indices for mapping bare soil in a complex urban/agricultural region is still a challenge. [...] Read more.
Spectral remote-sensing indices based on visible, NIR, and SWIR wavelengths are useful in predicting spatial patterns of bare soil. However, identifying an effective combination of informative wavelengths or spectral indices for mapping bare soil in a complex urban/agricultural region is still a challenge. In this study, we developed a new bare-soil index, the Hyperspectral Bare Soil Index (HBSI), to improve the accuracy of bare-soil remote-sensing mapping. We tested the HBSI using the high-spectral-resolution AVIRIS-NG and Sentinel-2 multispectral images. We applied an ensemble modeling approach, consisting of random forest (RF) and support vector machine (SVM), to classify bare soil. We found that the HBSI outperformed other existing bare-soil indices with over 91% accuracy for Sentinel-2 and AVIRIS-NG. Furthermore, the combination of the HBSI and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) showed a better performance in bare-soil classification, with >92% accuracy for Sentinel-2 and >97% accuracy for AVIRIS-NG images. Also, the RF-SVM ensemble surpassed the performance of the individual models. The novelty of HBSI is due to its development, since it utilizes the blue band in addition to the NIR and SWIR2 bands from the high-spectral-resolution data from AVIRIS-NG to improve the accuracy of bare-soil mapping. Full article
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23 pages, 947 KiB  
Article
Mainstreaming Nature-Based Solutions in City Planning: Examining Scale, Focus, and Visibility as Drivers of Intervention Success in Liverpool, UK
by Ian Mell, Sarah Clement and Fearghus O’Sullivan
Land 2023, 12(7), 1371; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071371 - 8 Jul 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5678
Abstract
Nature-based solutions (NBS) have been central to the European Union’s drive to address climate change, ecological degradation, and promote urban prosperity. Via an examination of the Horizon 2020-funded URBAN GreenUP project in Liverpool, this paper explores mainstreaming NBS in city planning. It uses [...] Read more.
Nature-based solutions (NBS) have been central to the European Union’s drive to address climate change, ecological degradation, and promote urban prosperity. Via an examination of the Horizon 2020-funded URBAN GreenUP project in Liverpool, this paper explores mainstreaming NBS in city planning. It uses evidence from pre- and post-intervention surveys with Liverpool residents and interviews with local business, environmental, government, and community sector experts to illustrate how a complex interplay of scale, location, focus, and visibility of NBS influences perceptions of the added value of NBS. This paper highlights the requirement that NBS interventions be bespoke and responsive to the overarching needs of residents and other stakeholders. Moreover, we underscore the importance of expert input into the design, location, and maintenance of NBS and call for these key drivers of successful delivery to be better integrated into work programs. This paper also notes that the type and size of NBS interventions impact perceptions of their value, with smaller projects being viewed as less socially and ecologically valuable compared to larger investments. We conclude that while small-scale NBS can support climatic, health, or ecological improvements in specific instances, strategic, larger-scale, and more visible investments are required to accrue substantive benefits and gain acceptance of NBS as a legitimate and effective planning tool. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Nature-Based Solutions)
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15 pages, 664 KiB  
Article
The Effects of Land Reallocation on Irrigation Collective Action: Moderating Effects of Informal Organizations and Leadership
by Danqiu Cao, Yahua Wang and Liangzhen Zang
Land 2023, 12(7), 1336; https://doi.org/10.3390/land12071336 - 3 Jul 2023
Viewed by 1900
Abstract
The prevailing literature has extensively explored the economic ramifications of land reallocation; however, its impact on commons governance remains underexamined. This study, using the agricultural irrigation system in rural China as an example, empirically investigated how land reallocation affects collective action. Survey information [...] Read more.
The prevailing literature has extensively explored the economic ramifications of land reallocation; however, its impact on commons governance remains underexamined. This study, using the agricultural irrigation system in rural China as an example, empirically investigated how land reallocation affects collective action. Survey information from 6298 households, spread across 461 villages in 20 Chinese provinces, served as the basis for the analysis. Our findings suggest that land reallocation is unfavorable for irrigation collective action, but the presence of informal organizations and effective leadership within the village can help ameliorate these negative effects. This research contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the nexus between land reallocation and irrigation collective action, offering potentially valuable policy insights for countries or regions worldwide that grapple with land reallocation issues. Full article
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