Virtual Worlds, Volume 5, Issue 3 (September 2026) – 12 articles

Racial bias emerges early in life: explicit bias is often observable in childhood but tends to decline with age, whereas implicit bias typically persists through adolescence, shaped by stereotypes, peer dynamics, and identity development. Given adolescents’ heightened sensitivity to peer exclusion and discrimination, interventions targeting implicit bias during this stage may have important implications. Prior studies suggest that embodying avatars of different races in virtual reality (VR) can influence implicit attitudes, with effects depending on surrounding social context: positive interactions may reduce bias, whereas negative experiences may exacerbate it. This study extends this work, examining whether implicit racial bias changes from pre- to post-exposure following embodiment in a Black virtual body presented in either a positive or negative social context among White adolescents and adults. Participants experienced a strong sense of embodiment, with adolescents reporting greater perceived agency, while adults exhibited stronger emotional reactions to social cues. Nevertheless, no statistically detectable changes in racial bias were found from pre- to post-exposure, and these changes did not differ significantly by social context condition or age group. Overall, in this brief, single-session, and primarily non-interactive embodiment scenario with non-reciprocal crowd exposure, we found no statistically significant short-term changes in racial bias. However, the intervention elicited strong embodiment and selective, age-dependent differences in socio-affective experience, suggesting that more intensive, socially interactive, and tailored VR designs may be required for attitude change. Full article

Bruxism-related orofacial pain is a common clinical manifestation associated with muscular hyperactivity, psychoemotional factors, and altered pain sensitivity. Immersive virtual reality (iVR) has emerged as a non-pharmacological strategy for pain management; however, evidence in individuals with bruxism-related pain remains limited. This pilot study evaluated the feasibility, tolerability, and preliminary clinical responses associated with an iVR intervention in adults with bruxism-related orofacial pain. A longitudinal pilot study with repeated assessments (T0–T4) was conducted in 15 adults with self-reported bruxism-related orofacial pain. Participants completed two standardized relaxation-oriented iVR sessions using an Oculus Quest 3 head-mounted display. Feasibility, immersive experience, cybersickness symptoms, pain intensity, and pressure pain threshold (PPT) were evaluated. All participants completed the intervention protocol and follow-up assessments, resulting in 100% adherence. Cybersickness symptoms were mild, and immersive experience scores indicated high perceived presence. Pain intensity decreased progressively throughout follow-up, with the greatest reduction observed at T4. The pressure pain threshold demonstrated modest temporal increases, particularly in the splenius, upper trapezius, and temporalis regions. The intervention was feasible and well tolerated and was accompanied by exploratory reductions in pain-related outcomes over time. These findings support future controlled studies to clarify the clinical effects of immersive virtual reality in individuals with bruxism-related orofacial pain. Full article

The study examines the acceptance of Virtual Reality (VR) as a university educational resource using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). A quasi-experimental design was applied with 132 students from the Bachelor’s Degree in Education at the University of Seville. A desktop VR learning object developed according to Mayer’s principles was used and evaluated with three instruments: a TAM questionnaire, a SUS usability scale, and an ad hoc scale for technical and educational aspects. The results indicate high reliability (α > 0.9) and high scores for perceived usefulness, ease of use, enjoyment, attitude, and intention to use. The most notable correlations were between usability, usefulness, and intention. Usability was related to technical quality, ease of use and educational usefulness. The findings support the use of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) for examining the acceptance of desktop VR in higher education. The results also suggest that desktop VR can provide motivating learning experiences. Future research should replicate these findings using random samples and immersive VR environments. Full article

As traffic automation grows, research into communication between automated vehicles (AVs) and pedestrians is increasing. Since communication is particularly challenging for persons with intellectual disability (PID), we investigated which gestures are used during street crossings and whether they differ between PID and persons with no diagnosed disability (PnDD). We conducted a virtual reality study with $N=70$ participants ($n=38$ PID, $n=32$ PnDD), observing participants’ movement and gestures in a road-crossing scenario and having them rate their presence, user experience, and the AV’s behavior. PID descriptively gestured less often than PnDD (33.3% vs. 18.8% of trials without a gesture), though this difference was not statistically significant. The increased learning effect of using gestures improves crossing time for PID. We identified three primary gestures (Greet, Barrier, Stop) that both groups equally favored. Our work contributes to making bidirectional communication with AVs more inclusive by providing insights into gestures used by PnDD and PID and identifying indicators of subconscious learning effects when using gestures. Full article

As VR hardware advances, hardware-related factors inducing motion sickness are expected to be gradually resolved; consequently, software-based mitigation methods are garnering significant attention. While various software-based methods exist, they often rely on modifying the content itself, presenting a significant drawback: difficulty in immediate application to existing content. Meanwhile, the Visual Guide (VG) technique reduces sickness by superimposing a separate image onto the content. This approach offers the distinct advantage of being easily applicable to existing content. However, motion sickness mitigation via visual guides suffers from a drawback: the added imagery can distract from the content, thereby reducing user concentration. To address this, this paper proposes a mitigation method utilizing the transparency of the visual guide to minimize the loss of focus on the content. To evaluate the proposed method, experiments were conducted to collect EEG data, Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) scores, and responses to a custom-designed concentration questionnaire. Under the tested conditions, the 60-s fade-out condition showed a favorable descriptive balance between lower mean SSQ score changes and preserved concentration. Because corrected pairwise post-hoc comparisons were not performed and the EEG analysis was based on whole-session average power spectral density, these findings should be interpreted as condition-level trends rather than definitive pairwise or event-related effects. Full article

Byzantine theological education often focuses on textual abstraction, frequently failing to convey the tradition’s embodied, spatial, and liturgical depths. This mixed-methods case study examined whether immersive virtual reality (IVR) could bridge this divide. A total of thirty (n = 30) graduate theology students were invited to navigate a bespoke reconstruction of a Byzantine church—modeled on the Chora Monastery—using Meta Quest 3 headsets (Qualcomm Snapdragon XR2 Gen 2, standalone inside-out tracking). Following a 25 min immersive session, participants completed usability assessments, semi-structured interviews, and observational documentation. Quantitative data revealed above-average system usability (M = 72.50, SD = 5.18), significantly exceeding the standard 68-point usability benchmark, t(29) = 4.760, p < 0.001, d = 0.869, and intuitive navigation even among IVR novices (63.3% of participants completed the guided task sequence with zero errors). Through thematic analysis, six key dimensions of the experience—spatial presence, theological meaning-making, navigational ease, interaction affordances, pedagogical limitations, and technical constraints—were identified. Participants described the sense of ‘immersive presence’ as transformative and reported that it helped them correct prior spatial misconceptions and deepened their affective engagement with the liturgy. However, they also identified significant pedagogical hurdles. The lack of collaborative features was described as “theologically incomplete,” while the absence of multisensory elements—specifically scent—created a noticeable liturgical void. Furthermore, participants highlighted an unresolved tension between the experience’s devotional immersion and the critical distance required for academic study. The findings suggest that if IVR can support theological education effectively, future digital architectures may need to go beyond technical functionality to prioritize communal presence, contemplative pacing, and scaffolded criticality. This single-case, non-comparative design does not test IVR’s efficacy relative to physical site visits or 360° video. It instead establishes baseline usability and experiential evidence to inform such comparisons in future research. Full article

Virtual reality (VR) technology presents the potential of transforming science education. Chemistry education, in particular, has traditionally been limited by the safety, infrastructure, and cost of chemistry laboratories, as well as the inability of traditional methods to visualize microscopic phenomena within chemistry. While there are various virtual reality systems that have been published that describe the capabilities of performing individual functions within the virtual chemistry classroom (such as simulating chemistry experiments or visualizing molecules), few have incorporated the various components of an effective chemistry classroom within their software, and the literature offers no unifying architectural framework or accompanying set of design principles for integrating those components systematically. This paper presents a design framework and reference architecture for an immersive virtual reality smart chemistry laboratory. The framework has not yet been implemented as a software system; its value lies in a principle-driven design blueprint—layers, responsibilities, inter-layer data flows, and design rules—that is intended to guide future implementations. The framework divides the virtual chemistry classroom into five major layers and the data that flows between those layers. Each layer has a relationship with other theories of learning, such as constructivism, experiential learning theory, and cognitive load theory, as well as a rule-based system for providing guidance to the user to enhance their learning of chemistry topics. The intelligence of the framework is deliberately staged: its core is a rule-based, explainable expert system that is implementable with current technology, while AI and generative-AI capabilities are positioned as optional future augmentations of specific layers. Additionally, a model for governing the data collected from the virtual chemistry laboratory is presented. Both existing literature and case studies of third-party virtual reality systems are reviewed to indicate the capabilities of each of these systems; these systems are not the implementations of the current framework. As a result, the virtual reality chemistry classroom can enhance engagement in chemistry concepts and topics, allow for accessibility to chemistry concepts, and reduce the potential for chemical exposure to students. The scalable design framework and reference architecture described in this paper can be used to guide the development of next-generation virtual chemistry classrooms. Future efforts in regard to this technology would focus upon actually implementing the proposed framework, deploying it into chemistry classrooms, and evaluating the learning of students who utilize the learning environment. Full article

Rapid technological advancements are transforming educational practice and reshaping the traditional conception of learning. In particular, immersive technologies, such as augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), have shifted the focus from learning outcomes alone to the quality of the learning environment and the psychological processes involved in learning (e.g., motivation and cognitive processes). Against this background, the current perspective proposes a reconceptualization of immersive technologies (virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed reality) as ecological learning environments. Specifically, by integrating the neo-ecological framework with the Cognitive-Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL), we argue that immersive technologies create hybrid physical–virtual microsystems in which embodied and experiential learning emerge as pedagogical processes through which knowledge is actively constructed. From this perspective, learning results from the interaction between ecological contexts, immersive psychological mechanisms, and learners’ active engagement with the environment. We further discuss the important limitations and ethical challenges associated with immersive technologies. Finally, we suggest that immersive technology should be integrated into blended educational approaches consisting of traditional learning combined with immersive technologies. Full article

This study examines the effectiveness of a virtual reality (VR) application as a learning tool in higher hospitality education, focusing on declarative knowledge acquisition and test-based learning outcomes. Conducted as a classroom-based pilot study, it involved a census of undergraduate students enrolled in a restaurant management course (N = 28) and compared VR-supported learning with traditional instruction using printed materials. Declarative knowledge acquisition was assessed using identical multiple-choice pre- and post-tests. Results showed that scores improved across all students. A statistically significant time × group interaction indicated that the two groups improved at different rates over time. Students who learned using printed materials demonstrated greater improvement than those who used the VR application. The findings suggest that, in its implementation, the VR application did not demonstrate superior test-based knowledge outcomes compared to traditional learning. One possible explanation lies in the type of knowledge assessed: the test focused on declarative and recognition-based knowledge, whereas VR may be more effective for procedural and experience-based learning. The limited interactivity of the early-stage VR application (VR HOTEL v0.9.4) may have also constrained its instructional potential. Overall, the results highlight the importance of aligning VR-based learning activities with learning objectives, instructional design, and assessment methods. Full article

Driven by competition, innovation, and shifting market demands, the automotive industry has evolved from mass production to high-mix, low-volume manufacturing, increasing operator flexibility and cognitive load. Virtual Reality (VR) can support training if aligned with user needs. This study presents a VR assembly training prototype with varying support levels and evaluates its effects on performance, physiological responses, and user experience in eleven operators, categorized by VR experience (novices vs. experts). User experience was positive, though improvements are needed in perceived bodily ownership. Novices completed tasks slower than experts (Welch’s t-test, t(16.84) = −2.50, p = 0.023, d = −1.14), while no differences in hint usage were observed (χ²(1) = 1.02, p = 0.313). Mixed repeated-measures ANCOVAs revealed significant effects of support level and VR experience (p = 0.032; p = 0.046) on heart rate, but not on breathing rate or galvanic skin response (GSR). Mixed repeated-measures ANOVAs showed significant effects of task buzzer and support level on heart rate and breathing rate (p = 0.018; p = 0.005), with no effects for GSR. Although results warrant caution due to the small sample size, findings highlight the importance of support design and provide insights for future research on VR-based assembly training. Full article

Augmented reality (AR) provides a new format for retailers to connect with consumers. However, different consumer subgroups may have varying perceptions of AR as an integral technology within the retail experience. Since Millennials currently have an increasing disposable income, this study explores Millennials’ diverse perceptions of AR via Q methodology. Q methodology is a research approach that studies subjective viewpoints by having participants rank statements within a defined grid, which reveals shared patterns of perspective. To measure perceptions, participants were given a survey consisting of a Q sort with 14 statements that needed to be ranked from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree” and open-ended questions about why they ranked the statements in a specific order. In response, five unique factors emerged from the Q analysis. Factor 1 demonstrated a gamified view of AR, Factor 2 focused on the utilitarian benefit of AR, Factor 3 highlighted the innovation and effectiveness of AR, Factor 4 shared how AR can be enjoyable and realistic, and Factor 5 found AR to be immersive but not interactive. Full article

Virtual reality (VR) provides a flexible platform for investigating human perception of augmented bodily abilities. While motion scaling of virtual limbs has been explored in previous studies, psychophysical detection thresholds and embodiment have rarely been examined together, and direct comparisons between motion enlargement and reduction remain limited. In this study, we systematically manipulated the motion gain of a virtual hand in an immersive VR environment and evaluated both detection thresholds for deviations from unity gain and embodiment, including the sense of ownership and agency. Fifteen participants took part in the experiment. The results showed that the 50% detection thresholds for motion gain were 1.18 for motion expansion and 0.86 for motion shrinkage. These detection thresholds were approximately symmetric about the unity gain. In contrast, embodiment ratings showed an asymmetric decline, with ownership and agency decreasing more steeply for motion shrinkage than for motion expansion. Perceptual detection and subjective embodiment therefore exhibited both consistency and divergence: the onset of significant degradation in ownership and agency occurred near the perceptual detection range, whereas beyond these thresholds, embodiment declined asymmetrically. These findings provide quantitative guidance for designing motion-scaled body augmentation in VR, highlighting the importance of considering not only detectability but also the direction-dependent robustness of embodiment. Full article