Contemporary Developments in Mixed, Augmented, and Virtual Reality: Implications for Teaching and Learning—2nd Edition

A Special Issue of Virtual Worlds (ISSN 2813-2084).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 December 2026 | Viewed by 5050

Editors


E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637616, Singapore
Interests: augmented reality/virtual reality and game-based learning; artificial intelligence; data science; the internet of things; neuroergonomics
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Guest Editor
Department of Systems Information Science—Media Architecture, Future University, Hakodate 041-8655, Japan
Interests: virtual reality; physiological data; education; constructionism; task design; robot mediated interactions
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

By their very nature, virtual environments and immersive worlds suggest affordances for learning that educators are particularly suited to speak towards, not least due to the potential for dynamic, embodied, and multisensory learning experiences to sit alongside field studies in the physical world. Such environments and their associated technologies are not new, having been marketed to consumers since at least the mid-2000s—and earlier if panoramic photographs are included.

Virtual environments are, however, enjoying a recent resurgence of interest, not only because of the recent pandemic but also because of the introduction of the mixed reality headset from Apple in February 2024. In its marketing rhetoric, the company has appropriated the term ‘spatial computing’ from a seminal work by Shekhar et al. The latter defines the term as referring to “the ideas, solutions, tools, technologies, and systems that transform our lives by creating a new understanding of locations–how we know, communicate, and visualize our relationship to locations and how we navigate through them”.

‘Spatial computing’ technologies therefore foreground the role of the body in meaning-making and creative expression. By allowing learners to engage with digital content overlaid on their physical surroundings, these devices facilitate an embodied, multisensory approach to learning that bridges the physical and psychological dimensions. Learners can leverage natural interactions and familiar environmental cues to construct personally relevant understandings, moving fluidly between consuming and producing knowledge artifacts in a shared hybrid space.

In this Special Issue, we seek academic and critical perspectives on the potential impact of such socio-technological developments on teaching and learning.

Therefore, we call for contributions that report studies on mixed, augmented, and virtual reality teaching/learning scenarios. This Special Issue helps to focus research on the utility of such learning environments. It also provides an opportunity to highlight what we already know in this field, which areas in the research landscape appear ripe for exploration at present, and what future developments can be expected.

Topics that would be of relevance to this Special Issue include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Constructivist perspectives on the design of learning environments that leverage the affordances of mixed, augmented, and virtual reality;
  • Early initiatives in mixed, augmented, and virtual reality as a means of affording canvases of expression for learners;
  • Critical analyses of curriculum design paradigms that seek/have sought to incorporate mixed, augmented, and virtual reality;
  • Perspectives on scaling learning interventions with mixed, augmented, and virtual reality;
  • Open source data and the evolution of mixed, augmented, and virtual reality for learning.

Dr. Kenneth Y. T. Lim
Dr. Michael Vallance
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Virtual Worlds is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • embodied cognition
  • immersive environments
  • spatial computing
  • teaching and learning

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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24 pages, 1966 KB  
Article
Perceived Presence, Fidelity, Immersion and Usability in an Immersive Virtual Reality Learning Object: A Cross-Sectional Study with Higher-Education Students in a Future Classroom Environment
by Julio Cabero-Almenara, Antonio Palacios-Rodríguez, Julio Barroso-Osuna and Mª Victoria Fernández-Scagliusi
Virtual Worlds 2026, 5(3), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/virtualworlds5030041 - 21 Aug 2026
Viewed by 872
Abstract
Immersive virtual reality (VR) is increasingly used in higher education, yet evidence on how perceived presence, fidelity, immersion and usability co-occur in authentic learning objects—and how they relate to prior experience and gender—remains limited. This cross-sectional study examines these four perceptual dimensions in [...] Read more.
Immersive virtual reality (VR) is increasingly used in higher education, yet evidence on how perceived presence, fidelity, immersion and usability co-occur in authentic learning objects—and how they relate to prior experience and gender—remains limited. This cross-sectional study examines these four perceptual dimensions in 250 undergraduate students of Early Childhood and Primary Education at the University of Seville immediately after interacting with an immersive VR learning object built around the Future Classroom model. All variables are self-reported perceptions collected at a single post-experience time point; no learning outcomes were assessed. Data were collected with the Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ), a fidelity–immersion scale and the System Usability Scale (SUS). Reliability was high across instruments (α = 0.881–0.931). Students reported moderate-to-high presence, realism, fidelity and immersion, and a notable usability score (SUS = 71.18). Presence, fidelity and immersion correlated strongly and positively, although their conceptual proximity and the shared measurement method preclude treating these associations as evidence of empirically distinct constructs. Associations with usability were weak and heterogeneous. Gender differences were absent except for involvement, an isolated result reported as exploratory. Prior experience with VR and with head-mounted displays was associated with differences in the ratings, with small effect sizes and a non-monotonic pattern: the intermediate-experience group scored lowest, whereas the low- and high-experience groups did not differ significantly from one another. The study characterises students’ perceived experience of an immersive VR learning object; it does not test its effects on learning. Full article
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17 pages, 6177 KB  
Article
Predicting Virtual Reality Adoption in Education: A Structural Model Based on TAM and Usability
by María Miravete-Gracia, Julio Cabero-Almenara, Antonio Palacios-Rodríguez and Marta Montenegro-Rueda
Virtual Worlds 2026, 5(3), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/virtualworlds5030038 - 10 Aug 2026
Viewed by 688
Abstract
The study examines the acceptance of Virtual Reality (VR) as a university educational resource using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). A quasi-experimental design was applied with 132 students from the Bachelor’s Degree in Education at the University of Seville. A desktop VR learning [...] Read more.
The study examines the acceptance of Virtual Reality (VR) as a university educational resource using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). A quasi-experimental design was applied with 132 students from the Bachelor’s Degree in Education at the University of Seville. A desktop VR learning object developed according to Mayer’s principles was used and evaluated with three instruments: a TAM questionnaire, a SUS usability scale, and an ad hoc scale for technical and educational aspects. The results indicate high reliability (α > 0.9) and high scores for perceived usefulness, ease of use, enjoyment, attitude, and intention to use. The most notable correlations were between usability, usefulness, and intention. Usability was related to technical quality, ease of use and educational usefulness. The findings support the use of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) for examining the acceptance of desktop VR in higher education. The results also suggest that desktop VR can provide motivating learning experiences. Future research should replicate these findings using random samples and immersive VR environments. Full article
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15 pages, 3752 KB  
Article
Virtual Reality and Declarative Knowledge Acquisition in Hospitality Management Education: A Classroom-Based Pilot Study
by Marko Kukanja and Saša Planinc
Virtual Worlds 2026, 5(3), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/virtualworlds5030032 - 17 Jul 2026
Viewed by 425
Abstract
This study examines the effectiveness of a virtual reality (VR) application as a learning tool in higher hospitality education, focusing on declarative knowledge acquisition and test-based learning outcomes. Conducted as a classroom-based pilot study, it involved a census of undergraduate students enrolled in [...] Read more.
This study examines the effectiveness of a virtual reality (VR) application as a learning tool in higher hospitality education, focusing on declarative knowledge acquisition and test-based learning outcomes. Conducted as a classroom-based pilot study, it involved a census of undergraduate students enrolled in a restaurant management course (N = 28) and compared VR-supported learning with traditional instruction using printed materials. Declarative knowledge acquisition was assessed using identical multiple-choice pre- and post-tests. Results showed that scores improved across all students. A statistically significant time × group interaction indicated that the two groups improved at different rates over time. Students who learned using printed materials demonstrated greater improvement than those who used the VR application. The findings suggest that, in its implementation, the VR application did not demonstrate superior test-based knowledge outcomes compared to traditional learning. One possible explanation lies in the type of knowledge assessed: the test focused on declarative and recognition-based knowledge, whereas VR may be more effective for procedural and experience-based learning. The limited interactivity of the early-stage VR application (VR HOTEL v0.9.4) may have also constrained its instructional potential. Overall, the results highlight the importance of aligning VR-based learning activities with learning objectives, instructional design, and assessment methods. Full article
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29 pages, 1877 KB  
Article
Hybrid Craft Training in Vocational Education: Integrating E-Learning and VR in Glassblowing Apprenticeships
by Noël Crescenzo, David Arnaud, Peiman Fallahian Sichani, Johan Winther Kristensen, Nikolaos Partarakis and Xenophon Zabulis
Virtual Worlds 2026, 5(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/virtualworlds5020026 - 28 May 2026
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Abstract
This article reports an exploratory, small-cohort mixed-methods case study of how an e-learning platform and a virtual reality (VR) workshop simulator can be integrated into a traditional craft apprenticeship without displacing workshop-based learning. Drawing on the Craeft glassblowing Pilot 1 at the European [...] Read more.
This article reports an exploratory, small-cohort mixed-methods case study of how an e-learning platform and a virtual reality (VR) workshop simulator can be integrated into a traditional craft apprenticeship without displacing workshop-based learning. Drawing on the Craeft glassblowing Pilot 1 at the European Centre for Research and Training in Glassmaking (CERFAV), it reports a two-phase mixed-methods study contrasting a Traditional Augmented (TA) group, which used a Craeft e-learning platform and a VR glassblowing simulator, with a Traditional (T) control group following the standard Certificate of Professional Competence (CPC) program. Quantitative data from formative assessments and CPC examination results are combined with qualitative feedback, satisfaction surveys, self-assessment questionnaires, and interviews with apprentices and trainers. In Phase 1, where digital tools were deployed in a separate mode alongside existing instruction, the e-learning platform was perceived as pedagogically valuable, but descriptive differences in assessment outcomes were limited and uneven, with greater score dispersion in the TA group. In Phase 2, redesigned hybrid usage scenarios assigned distinct and complementary roles to the e-learning platform, VR, and workshop practice within an iterative learning cycle, and the descriptive results suggest more consistent patterns of higher scores for the TA group in cross-cutting theoretical subjects, with less variance in their scores. Qualitative analyses show that apprentices adopt a pragmatic stance towards digital tools, using the e-learning platform primarily for revision and exam preparation and VR for workshop discovery and tool recognition, while maintaining a strong attachment to material practice. The study suggests that, in small, high-stakes craft VET program, the perceived value of virtual learning environments depends less on their intrinsic properties than on their orchestration within coherent hybrid designs and on trainers’ capacity to align them with authentic tasks and assessment regimes. All findings should be interpreted as exploratory given the small sample size (n < 20), non-random group assignment, and potential self-selection biases. Full article
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18 pages, 1854 KB  
Perspective
An Immersive Virtual Reality-Based Smart Chemistry Laboratory Framework for Interactive Science Education
by Harshavardhan Kosuri and Rathnakar Achary
Virtual Worlds 2026, 5(3), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/virtualworlds5030034 - 24 Jul 2026
Viewed by 431
Abstract
Virtual reality (VR) technology presents the potential of transforming science education. Chemistry education, in particular, has traditionally been limited by the safety, infrastructure, and cost of chemistry laboratories, as well as the inability of traditional methods to visualize microscopic phenomena within chemistry. While [...] Read more.
Virtual reality (VR) technology presents the potential of transforming science education. Chemistry education, in particular, has traditionally been limited by the safety, infrastructure, and cost of chemistry laboratories, as well as the inability of traditional methods to visualize microscopic phenomena within chemistry. While there are various virtual reality systems that have been published that describe the capabilities of performing individual functions within the virtual chemistry classroom (such as simulating chemistry experiments or visualizing molecules), few have incorporated the various components of an effective chemistry classroom within their software, and the literature offers no unifying architectural framework or accompanying set of design principles for integrating those components systematically. This paper presents a design framework and reference architecture for an immersive virtual reality smart chemistry laboratory. The framework has not yet been implemented as a software system; its value lies in a principle-driven design blueprint—layers, responsibilities, inter-layer data flows, and design rules—that is intended to guide future implementations. The framework divides the virtual chemistry classroom into five major layers and the data that flows between those layers. Each layer has a relationship with other theories of learning, such as constructivism, experiential learning theory, and cognitive load theory, as well as a rule-based system for providing guidance to the user to enhance their learning of chemistry topics. The intelligence of the framework is deliberately staged: its core is a rule-based, explainable expert system that is implementable with current technology, while AI and generative-AI capabilities are positioned as optional future augmentations of specific layers. Additionally, a model for governing the data collected from the virtual chemistry laboratory is presented. Both existing literature and case studies of third-party virtual reality systems are reviewed to indicate the capabilities of each of these systems; these systems are not the implementations of the current framework. As a result, the virtual reality chemistry classroom can enhance engagement in chemistry concepts and topics, allow for accessibility to chemistry concepts, and reduce the potential for chemical exposure to students. The scalable design framework and reference architecture described in this paper can be used to guide the development of next-generation virtual chemistry classrooms. Future efforts in regard to this technology would focus upon actually implementing the proposed framework, deploying it into chemistry classrooms, and evaluating the learning of students who utilize the learning environment. Full article
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14 pages, 745 KB  
Perspective
Redesigning Learning Through Immersive Technologies: An Educational Perspective on Virtual and Augmented Reality
by Ambra Gentile and Marianna Alesi
Virtual Worlds 2026, 5(3), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/virtualworlds5030033 - 23 Jul 2026
Viewed by 1224
Abstract
Rapid technological advancements are transforming educational practice and reshaping the traditional conception of learning. In particular, immersive technologies, such as augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), have shifted the focus from learning outcomes alone to the quality of the learning environment and [...] Read more.
Rapid technological advancements are transforming educational practice and reshaping the traditional conception of learning. In particular, immersive technologies, such as augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), have shifted the focus from learning outcomes alone to the quality of the learning environment and the psychological processes involved in learning (e.g., motivation and cognitive processes). Against this background, the current perspective proposes a reconceptualization of immersive technologies (virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed reality) as ecological learning environments. Specifically, by integrating the neo-ecological framework with the Cognitive-Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL), we argue that immersive technologies create hybrid physical–virtual microsystems in which embodied and experiential learning emerge as pedagogical processes through which knowledge is actively constructed. From this perspective, learning results from the interaction between ecological contexts, immersive psychological mechanisms, and learners’ active engagement with the environment. We further discuss the important limitations and ethical challenges associated with immersive technologies. Finally, we suggest that immersive technology should be integrated into blended educational approaches consisting of traditional learning combined with immersive technologies. Full article
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