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Volume 15
Issue 14
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Buildings, Volume 15, Issue 14 (July-2 2025) – 204 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The proposed retrofit technique is easy to apply and cost-effective and demonstrates limited labor demands, low disturbance and the ability to be used even in the case of interior beam–column joints linking beams in all directions. Moreover, it successfully transformed the failure mode of the subassemblages, which was dominated by brittle shear failure of the joint in case of the original specimens, to a ductile one with the concentration of damage mainly in the beam of the retrofitted specimens. Therefore, the structural integrity of the retrofitted specimens was effectively preserved, while deformation capacity and ductility were significantly improved. Hence, it seems particularly competitive and convenient with respect to other strengthening schemes, especially when the primary goal is the improvement of ductility and energy dissipation capacity. View this paper
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29 pages, 1852 KiB  
Review
Evaluating the Economic Impact of Digital Twinning in the AEC Industry: A Systematic Review
by Tharindu Karunaratne, Ikenna Reginald Ajiero, Rotimi Joseph, Eric Farr and Poorang Piroozfar
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2583; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142583 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 820
Abstract
This study conducts a comprehensive systematic review of the economic impact of Digital Twin (DT) technology within the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry, following the PRISMA methodology. While DT adoption has been accelerated by advancements in Building Information Modelling (BIM), the Internet [...] Read more.
This study conducts a comprehensive systematic review of the economic impact of Digital Twin (DT) technology within the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry, following the PRISMA methodology. While DT adoption has been accelerated by advancements in Building Information Modelling (BIM), the Internet of Things (IoT), and data analytics, significant challenges persist—most notably, high initial investment costs and integration complexities. Synthesising the literature from 2016 onwards, this review identifies sector-specific barriers, regulatory burdens, and a lack of standardisation as key factors constituting DT implementation costs. Despite these hurdles, DTs demonstrate strong potential for enhancing construction productivity, optimising lifecycle asset management, and enabling predictive maintenance, ultimately reducing operational expenditures and improving long-term financial performance. Case studies reveal cost efficiencies achieved through DTs in modular construction, energy optimisation, and infrastructure management. However, limited financial resources and digital skills continue to constrain the uptake across the sector, with various extents of impact. This paper calls for the development of unified standards, innovative public–private funding mechanisms, and strategic collaborations to unlock and utilise DTs’ full economic value. It also recommends that future research explore theoretical frameworks addressing governance, data infrastructure, and digital equity—particularly through conceptualising DT-related data as public assets or collective goods in the context of smart cities and networked infrastructure systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Transformation in the Construction Industry: Latest Advances and Prospects)
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22 pages, 11784 KiB  
Article
Research on the Causes of the Concave Shapes of Traditional Chinese Building Roofs from the Construction Perspective
by Xiang Chen, Chenyuan Wang, Jie Sun and Weijie Xia
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2582; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142582 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 486
Abstract
Exploring the causes of the concave curved form of the roofs in traditional Chinese architecture is key to understanding its unique esthetics and structural logic. Regarding its causes, the academic community offers various explanations, including esthetics and function, but research that delves deeply [...] Read more.
Exploring the causes of the concave curved form of the roofs in traditional Chinese architecture is key to understanding its unique esthetics and structural logic. Regarding its causes, the academic community offers various explanations, including esthetics and function, but research that delves deeply into specific construction techniques and material limitations and systematically explains how they lead to the precise roof forms is relatively insufficient, which limits our comprehensive understanding of the deep generative logic of this unique form. This study aimed to bridge this gap by systematically exploring the causes of the concave curved form of roofs in traditional Chinese architecture (such as flying eaves, upturned corners, and Ju zhe) from the perspective of construction technology. Through a systematic review of historical literature (especially Yingzao fashi (Treatise on Architectural Methods)); the empirical investigation and analysis of typical architectural examples; detailed research on the structural practices, material properties (especially the creep behavior of timber), and construction techniques of key timber components such as flying rafters, hip rafters, and rafters; and mechanical principles and computational simulation, this study found that the concave curved forms of different parts of the roof, such as the eaves (flying rafters), corners (corner upturn), and main body (Ju zhe), are not purely esthetic choices but are, to a large extent, technical responses or inevitable results stemming from objective construction constraints of the time, including limitations on timber length, component connection methods, structural load distribution, and long-term deformation. Based on these findings, this study proposes the concept of “Passive Form” to summarize this form-generation mechanism, emphasizing that architectural forms are not solely determined by subjective will but are rooted in the adaptation and transformation of real constraints in construction, providing a technical perspective rooted in practice for understanding the forms of Chinese traditional architecture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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16 pages, 2566 KiB  
Article
Human Responses to Different Built Hyperthermal Environments After Short-Term Heat Acclimation
by Shuai Zhang, Qingqin Wang, Haizhu Zhou, Tianyang Wang and Guanguan Jia
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2581; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142581 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 287
Abstract
Hyperthermal environments are encountered in many situations, and significant heat stress can exacerbate the fatigue perception of individuals and potentially threaten their safety. Heat acclimation (HA) interventions have many benefits in preventing the risk of incidents. However, whether HA interventions in specific environments [...] Read more.
Hyperthermal environments are encountered in many situations, and significant heat stress can exacerbate the fatigue perception of individuals and potentially threaten their safety. Heat acclimation (HA) interventions have many benefits in preventing the risk of incidents. However, whether HA interventions in specific environments can cope with other different hyperthermal environments remains uncertain. In this study, forty-three young male participants were heat-acclimated over 10 days of training on a motorized treadmill in a fixed hyperthermal environment, and they were tested in different hyperthermal environments. Physiological indices (rectal temperature (Tr), heart rate (HR), skin temperature (Tsk), and total sweat loss (Msl)) and subjective perception (rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and thermal sensation votes (TSVs)) were measured during both the heat stress test (HST) sessions and HA training sessions. The results show that HR and Tsk significantly differed between pre- and post-heat acclimation (p < 0.05 for all) following the acclimation program. However, after heat acclimation training, the reduction in Tr (ΔTr) was more notable in lower-ET* environments, and Msl showed distinct changes in different ET* environments. The RPE and TSV decreased after HA interventions, although the difference was not significant. The results indicate that HA can effectively reduce the peak of physiological parameters. However, when subjected to stronger heat stress, the improvement effects of heat acclimation on human responses will be affected. In addition, HA can alleviate physiological thermal strain, thereby reducing the adverse effects on mobility, but it has no effect on the supervisor’s ability to perceive the environment. This study suggests that additional HA training can reduce the risk of activities in high-temperature environments but exhibits different effects under different environmental conditions, indicating that hot acclimation suits have selective effects on the environment. This study provides recommendations for additional HA training before high-temperature activities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Low-Carbon Urban Areas and Neighbourhoods)
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24 pages, 4943 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Optimum Thermal Insulation for Mass Walls in Severe Solar Climates of Northern Chile
by Konstantin Verichev, Carmen Díaz-López, Gerardo Loncomilla Huenupán and Andrés García-Ruiz
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2580; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142580 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 236
Abstract
The Life Cycle Cost Assessment (LCCA) methodology is widely used to determine the optimal thickness of thermal insulation for walls and roofs. The results depend on several factors, such as the degree day calculations method, the ambient or sol–air temperature, base temperature variations, [...] Read more.
The Life Cycle Cost Assessment (LCCA) methodology is widely used to determine the optimal thickness of thermal insulation for walls and roofs. The results depend on several factors, such as the degree day calculations method, the ambient or sol–air temperature, base temperature variations, and the heat capacity of the thermal envelope elements. This study aims to analyze the impact of solar radiation on mass walls with different orientations in five cities in northern Chile, which have severe solar climates. The goal is to determine the optimal thickness of expanded polystyrene insulation using the LCCA method, considering solar radiation, a varying base temperature, and validating results by analyzing the energy demand for heating and cooling of a typical house. The findings show that excluding solar radiation in the LCCA methodology can lead to an underestimation of the optimal insulation thickness by 21–39% for walls in northern Chile. It was also found that using variable monthly threshold temperatures for heating and cooling based on the adaptive thermal comfort model results in a slight underestimation (1–3%) of the optimal thickness compared to a constant annual temperature. An energy simulation of a typical house in five cities in northern Chile showed that neglecting the effect of solar radiation when determining the thermal insulation thickness for the studied wall can lead to a minor increase in heating and cooling energy demand, ranging from approximately 1% to 9%. However, this study emphasizes the importance of applying optimal insulation thickness for cities with more continental climates like Santiago and Calama, where the heating demand is higher than cooling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Thermal, Environmental, and Economic Performance of Building Envelopes: Advancing Sustainable Solutions)
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39 pages, 5325 KiB  
Review
Mechanical Ventilation Strategies in Buildings: A Comprehensive Review of Climate Management, Indoor Air Quality, and Energy Efficiency
by Farhan Lafta Rashid, Mudhar A. Al-Obaidi, Najah M. L. Al Maimuri, Arman Ameen, Ephraim Bonah Agyekum, Atef Chibani and Mohamed Kezzar
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2579; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142579 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 817
Abstract
As the demand for energy-efficient homes continues to rise, the importance of advanced mechanical ventilation systems in maintaining indoor air quality (IAQ) has become increasingly evident. However, challenges related to energy balance, IAQ, and occupant thermal comfort persist. This review examines the performance [...] Read more.
As the demand for energy-efficient homes continues to rise, the importance of advanced mechanical ventilation systems in maintaining indoor air quality (IAQ) has become increasingly evident. However, challenges related to energy balance, IAQ, and occupant thermal comfort persist. This review examines the performance of mechanical ventilation systems in regulating indoor climate, improving air quality, and minimising energy consumption. The findings indicate that demand-controlled ventilation (DCV) can enhance energy efficiency by up to 88% while maintaining CO2 concentrations below 1000 ppm during 76% of the occupancy period. Heat recovery systems achieve efficiencies of nearly 90%, leading to a reduction in heating energy consumption by approximately 19%. Studies also show that employing mechanical rather than natural ventilation in schools lowers CO2 levels by 20–30%. Nevertheless, occupant misuse or poorly designed systems can result in CO2 concentrations exceeding 1600 ppm in residential environments. Hybrid ventilation systems have demonstrated improved thermal comfort, with predicted mean vote (PMV) values ranging from –0.41 to 0.37 when radiant heating is utilized. Despite ongoing technological advancements, issues such as system durability, user acceptance, and adaptability across climate zones remain. Smart, personalized ventilation strategies supported by modern control algorithms and continuous monitoring are essential for the development of resilient and health-promoting buildings. Future research should prioritize the integration of renewable energy sources and adaptive ventilation controls to further optimise system performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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24 pages, 319 KiB  
Article
Improving City Centre Project Delivery in Small Cities: Developer Perspectives on Public Authority Conduct
by Aud Tennøy and Oddrun Helen Hagen
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2578; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142578 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 239
Abstract
Urban development through property development in central parts of cities rather than through sprawl is key to achieving sustainable future cities. However, realising desired projects in complex city centre environments is challenging and risky due to the involvement of numerous actors. This paper [...] Read more.
Urban development through property development in central parts of cities rather than through sprawl is key to achieving sustainable future cities. However, realising desired projects in complex city centre environments is challenging and risky due to the involvement of numerous actors. This paper offers novel insights into developers’ perspectives on how the conduct of public authorities influences city centre zoning plan processes. Based on interviews with 11 employees of property development firms, working on mixed-use city centre projects ranging from 1100 to 112,000 m2 Gross Floor Area in small and medium-sized Norwegian cities, the study identifies key challenges developers experience in their interactions with public authorities across sectors and administrative levels during planning processes and analyses how these challenges relate to goals, knowledge and power among key actors. The study finds that public authorities can improve the efficiency of zoning plan processes and enhance city centre project delivery by altering their conduct. First, by more explicitly clarifying that the realisation of desired city centre property developments is a primary policy objective, maintaining this focus throughout the processes and taking responsibility for reconciling conflicts in ways that enable feasible projects. Second, by improving their knowledge of the fundamental need for projects to be profitable in order to be realised, and the impact of authorities’ requirements on project viability. Third, by exercising their agenda-setting power more constructively and flexibly throughout the zoning plan process. The paper examines underexplored perspectives in planning research and yields actionable recommendations for planning practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Cities and Their Downtowns: Urban Studies and Planning)
51 pages, 4910 KiB  
Review
The Impact of Building Windows on Occupant Well-Being: A Review Integrating Visual and Non-Visual Pathways with Multi-Objective Optimization
by Siqi He, Wenli Zhang and Yang Guan
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2577; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142577 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 500
Abstract
This review investigates the role of building windows in supporting occupant well-being through access to natural views and daylight. This review synthesizes recent interdisciplinary research from environmental psychology, building science, and human physiology to examine how windows impact cognitive performance, psychological restoration, and [...] Read more.
This review investigates the role of building windows in supporting occupant well-being through access to natural views and daylight. This review synthesizes recent interdisciplinary research from environmental psychology, building science, and human physiology to examine how windows impact cognitive performance, psychological restoration, and circadian health. Drawing on 304 peer-reviewed studies from 2000 to 2024, the review identifies two core pathways: visual effects—related to daylight availability, glare control, and view quality—and non-visual effects—linked to circadian entrainment and neuroendocrine regulation via ipRGCs. These effects interact yet compete, necessitating a multi-objective optimization approach. This paper evaluates commonly used metrics for visual comfort, circadian-effective lighting, and view quality and discusses their integration in design frameworks. The review also highlights the potential of adaptive facade technologies and artificial window systems to balance human-centered lighting goals with energy efficiency. A research roadmap is proposed to support future integrative design strategies that optimize both visual and non-visual outcomes in diverse architectural contexts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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20 pages, 5441 KiB  
Article
Acoustic Emission Monitoring Method for Multi-Strand Fractures in Post-Tensioned Prestressed Hollow Core Slab Bridges Using Waveguide Rods
by Wei Yan, Shiwei Niu, Wei Liu, Juan Li, Shu Si, Xilong Qi, Shengli Li, Nan Jiang, Shuhan Chen and Guangming Wu
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2576; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142576 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 265
Abstract
Acoustic emission (AE) technology has been extensively applied in the damage assessment of steel strands; however, it remains inadequate in identifying and quantifying the number of strand fractures, which limits the accuracy and reliability of prestressed structure monitoring. In this study, a test [...] Read more.
Acoustic emission (AE) technology has been extensively applied in the damage assessment of steel strands; however, it remains inadequate in identifying and quantifying the number of strand fractures, which limits the accuracy and reliability of prestressed structure monitoring. In this study, a test platform based on practical engineering was built. The AE monitoring method using a waveguide rod was applied to identify signals from different numbers of strand fractures, and their acoustic characteristics were analyzed using Fourier transform and multi-bandwidth wavelet transform. The propagation attenuation behavior of the AE signals in the waveguide rod was then analyzed, and the optimal parameters for field monitoring as well as the maximum number of plates suitable for series beam plates were determined. The results show that AE signals decrease exponentially with an increasing propagation distance, and attenuation models for various AE parameters were established. As the number of strand fractures increases, the amplitude of the dominant frequency increases significantly, and the energy distribution shifts towards higher-frequency bands. This finding introduces a novel approach for quantifying fractures in steel strands, enhancing the effectiveness of AE technology in monitoring and laying a foundation for the development of related technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation)
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20 pages, 2071 KiB  
Article
Thermal Performance and Energy Efficiency Evaluation of Building Envelopes Incorporating Trombe Walls, PCM, and Multi-Alveolar Structures in Tunisian Climate
by Nour Lajimi, Noureddine Boukadida, Chemseddine Maatki, Bilel Hadrich, Walid Hassen, Lioua Kolsi and Habib Ben Aissia
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2575; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142575 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 293
Abstract
Solar energy is one of the most promising solutions for improving building energy efficiency. Among passive heating systems, the combination of a Trombe wall, phase change materials (PCM), and multi-alveolar structures (MAS) stands out. This configuration enhances the wall’s ability to absorb solar [...] Read more.
Solar energy is one of the most promising solutions for improving building energy efficiency. Among passive heating systems, the combination of a Trombe wall, phase change materials (PCM), and multi-alveolar structures (MAS) stands out. This configuration enhances the wall’s ability to absorb solar heat and distribute it evenly throughout the interior. This study evaluated thermal comfort by examining the effects of phase change materials and multi-alveolar structures combined with a Trombe wall on the thermal behavior of a building and improving the thermal inertia of brick walls. Numerical simulations using Visual FORTRAN were conducted to evaluate the thermal properties of different configurations under the climatic conditions recorded in Hammam Sousse, Tunisia. The results show that the integration of the Trombe wall and PCM has a significant impact on interior temperature stability, energy consumption, and overall thermal comfort. The combined effect of the MAS and PCM with the Trombe wall improved heat gain in winter and spring, reaching a low thermal damping factor of 40% in March, reducing heating power, and optimizing thermal comfort for occupants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Phase Change Materials for Thermal Energy Storage in Buildings)
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22 pages, 916 KiB  
Article
A Model Based on Variable Weight Theory and Interval Grey Clustering to Evaluate the Competency of BIM Construction Engineers
by Shaonan Sun, Yiming Zuo, Chunlu Liu, Xiaoxiao Yao, Ailing Wang and Zhihui Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2574; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142574 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 197
Abstract
Building information modeling (BIM) has emerged as a fundamental component of Industry 4.0 recently. BIM construction engineers (BCEs) play a pivotal role in implementing BIM, and their personal competency is crucial to the successful application and promotion of BIM technology. Existing research on [...] Read more.
Building information modeling (BIM) has emerged as a fundamental component of Industry 4.0 recently. BIM construction engineers (BCEs) play a pivotal role in implementing BIM, and their personal competency is crucial to the successful application and promotion of BIM technology. Existing research on evaluating BIM capabilities has mainly focused on the enterprise or project level, neglecting individual-level analysis. Therefore, this study aims to establish an individual-level competency evaluation model for BCEs. Firstly, the competency of BCEs was divided into five levels by referring to relevant standards and domestic and foreign research. Secondly, through the analysis of literature data and website data, the competency evaluation indicator system for BCEs was constructed, which includes four primary indicators and 27 secondary indicators. Thirdly, variable weight theory was used to optimize the weights determined by general methods and calculate the comprehensive weights of each indicator. Then the competency levels of BCEs were determined by the interval grey clustering method. To demonstrate the application of the proposed method, a case study from a Chinese enterprise was conducted. The main results derived from this case study are as follows: domain competencies have the greatest weight among the primary indicators; the C9-BIM model is the secondary indicator with the highest weight (ωj = 0.0804); and the competency level of the BCE is “Level 3”. These results are consistent with the actual situation of the enterprise. The proposed model in this study provides a comprehensive tool for evaluating BCEs’ competencies from an individual perspective, and offers guideline for BCEs to enhance their competencies in pursuing sustainable professional development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Methodologies in Building and Construction Management—2nd Edition)
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21 pages, 6005 KiB  
Article
Archetype Identification and Energy Consumption Prediction for Old Residential Buildings Based on Multi-Source Datasets
by Chengliang Fan, Rude Liu and Yundan Liao
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2573; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142573 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 366
Abstract
Assessing energy consumption in existing old residential buildings is key for urban energy conservation and decarbonization. Previous studies on old residential building energy assessment face challenges due to data limitations and inadequate prediction methods. This study develops a novel approach integrating building energy [...] Read more.
Assessing energy consumption in existing old residential buildings is key for urban energy conservation and decarbonization. Previous studies on old residential building energy assessment face challenges due to data limitations and inadequate prediction methods. This study develops a novel approach integrating building energy simulation and machine learning to predict large-scale old residential building energy use using multi-source datasets. Using Guangzhou as a case study, open-source building data was collected to identify 31,209 old residential buildings based on age thresholds and areas of interest (AOIs). Key building form parameters (i.e., long side, short side, number of floors) were then classified to identify residential archetypes. Building energy consumption data for each prototype was generated using EnergyPlus (V23.2.0) simulations. Furthermore, XGBoost and Random Forest machine learning algorithms were used to predict city-scale old residential building energy consumption. Results indicated that five representative prototypes exhibited cooling energy use ranging from 17.32 to 21.05 kWh/m2, while annual electricity consumption ranged from 60.10 to 66.53 kWh/m2. The XGBoost model demonstrated strong predictive performance (R2 = 0.667). SHAP (Shapley Additive Explanations) analysis identified the Building Shape Coefficient (BSC) as the most significant positive predictor of energy consumption (SHAP value = 0.79). This framework enables city-level energy assessment for old residential buildings, providing critical support for retrofitting strategies in sustainable urban renewal planning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Building Resilience Under Climate Change)
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27 pages, 4254 KiB  
Review
Dynamic Skin: A Systematic Review of Energy-Saving Design for Building Facades
by Jian Wang, Shengcai Li and Peng Ye
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2572; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142572 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 513
Abstract
The construction industry is one of the main areas of energy consumption and carbon emissions, and strengthening research on the thermal performance of building facades can effectively promote energy conservation and emission reduction. Compared with traditional static enclosure structures, dynamic skin can adapt [...] Read more.
The construction industry is one of the main areas of energy consumption and carbon emissions, and strengthening research on the thermal performance of building facades can effectively promote energy conservation and emission reduction. Compared with traditional static enclosure structures, dynamic skin can adapt its functions, characteristics, and methods based on constantly changing environmental conditions and performance requirements. It has great potential in adapting to the environment, reducing energy consumption, adjusting shading and natural ventilation, and improving human thermal and visual comfort. To comprehensively understand the key technologies of dynamic skin energy-saving design, previous research results were comprehensively compiled from relevant databases. The research results indicate that various types of dynamic skins, intelligent materials, multi-layer facades, dynamic shading, and biomimetic facades are commonly used core technologies for dynamic facades. Parametric modeling, computer simulation, and multi-objective algorithms are commonly used to optimize the performance of dynamic skin. In addition, integrated technology design, interaction design, and lifecycle design should be effective methods for improving dynamic skin energy efficiency, resident satisfaction, and economic benefits. Despite current challenges, dynamic skin energy-saving technology remains one of the most effective solutions for future sustainable building design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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44 pages, 15871 KiB  
Article
Space Gene Quantification and Mapping of Traditional Settlements in Jiangnan Water Town: Evidence from Yubei Village in the Nanxi River Basin
by Yuhao Huang, Zibin Ye, Qian Zhang, Yile Chen and Wenkun Wu
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2571; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142571 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 387
Abstract
The spatial genes of rural settlements show a lot of different traditional settlement traits, which makes them a great starting point for studying rural spatial morphology. However, qualitative and macro-regional statistical indicators are usually used to find and extract rural settlement spatial genes. [...] Read more.
The spatial genes of rural settlements show a lot of different traditional settlement traits, which makes them a great starting point for studying rural spatial morphology. However, qualitative and macro-regional statistical indicators are usually used to find and extract rural settlement spatial genes. Taking Yubei Village in the Nanxi River Basin as an example, this study combined remote sensing images, real-time drone mapping, GIS (geographic information system), and space syntax, extracted 12 key indicators from five dimensions (landform and water features (environment), boundary morphology, spatial structure, street scale, and building scale), and quantitatively “decoded” the spatial genes of the settlement. The results showed that (1) the settlement is a “three mountains and one water” pattern, with cultivated land accounting for 37.4% and forest land accounting for 34.3% of the area within the 500 m buffer zone, while the landscape spatial diversity index (LSDI) is 0.708. (2) The boundary morphology is compact and agglomerated, and locally complex but overall orderly, with an aspect ratio of 1.04, a comprehensive morphological index of 1.53, and a comprehensive fractal dimension of 1.31. (3) The settlement is a “clan core–radial lane” network: the global integration degree of the axis to the holy hall is the highest (0.707), and the local integration degree R3 peak of the six-room ancestral hall reaches 2.255. Most lane widths are concentrated between 1.2 and 2.8 m, and the eaves are mostly higher than 4 m, forming a typical “narrow lanes and high houses” water town streetscape. (4) The architectural style is a combination of black bricks and gray tiles, gable roofs and horsehead walls, and “I”-shaped planes (63.95%). This study ultimately constructed a settlement space gene map and digital library, providing a replicable quantitative process for the diagnosis of Jiangnan water town settlements and heritage protection planning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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19 pages, 1563 KiB  
Review
Autonomous Earthwork Machinery for Urban Construction: A Review of Integrated Control, Fleet Coordination, and Safety Assurance
by Zeru Liu and Jung In Kim
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2570; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142570 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 382
Abstract
Autonomous earthwork machinery is gaining traction as a means to boost productivity and safety on space-constrained urban sites, yet the fast-growing literature has not been fully integrated. To clarify current knowledge, we systematically searched Scopus and screened 597 records, retaining 157 peer-reviewed papers [...] Read more.
Autonomous earthwork machinery is gaining traction as a means to boost productivity and safety on space-constrained urban sites, yet the fast-growing literature has not been fully integrated. To clarify current knowledge, we systematically searched Scopus and screened 597 records, retaining 157 peer-reviewed papers (2015–March 2025) that address autonomy, integrated control, or risk mitigation for excavators, bulldozers, and loaders. Descriptive statistics, VOSviewer mapping, and qualitative synthesis show the output rising rapidly and peaking at 30 papers in 2024, led by China, Korea, and the USA. Four tightly linked themes dominate: perception-driven machine autonomy, IoT-enabled integrated control systems, multi-sensor safety strategies, and the first demonstrations of fleet-level collaboration (e.g., coordinated excavator clusters and unmanned aerial vehicle and unmanned ground vehicle (UAV–UGV) site preparation). Advances include centimeter-scale path tracking, real-time vision-light detection and ranging (LiDAR) fusion and geofenced safety envelopes, but formal validation protocols and robust inter-machine communication remain open challenges. The review distils five research priorities, including adaptive perception and artificial intelligence (AI), digital-twin integration with building information modeling (BIM), cooperative multi-robot planning, rigorous safety assurance, and human–automation partnership that must be addressed to transform isolated prototypes into connected, self-optimizing fleets capable of delivering safer, faster, and more sustainable urban construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Automation and Robotics in Building Design and Construction)
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21 pages, 7587 KiB  
Article
Rapid Identification Method for Concrete Defect Boundaries Based on Acoustic-Mode Gradient Analysis
by Yong Yang, Peixuan Shen, Ziming Qi and Shiqi Liu
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2569; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142569 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 216
Abstract
Concrete is extensively utilized in infrastructure projects. However, issues like construction quality and external loads can lead to the formation of thin-plate-like voids with considerable aspect ratios, posing serious safety risks and highlighting the need for effective boundary detection. This paper addresses the [...] Read more.
Concrete is extensively utilized in infrastructure projects. However, issues like construction quality and external loads can lead to the formation of thin-plate-like voids with considerable aspect ratios, posing serious safety risks and highlighting the need for effective boundary detection. This paper addresses the challenges of traditional acoustic detection methods, which often suffer from low efficiency, poor adaptability to environmental conditions, and difficulties in measuring defect sizes. It explores a spatially diverse MIC Array system. Unlike single-point MIC that can only capture multi-directional sound field information from one excitation point, this array improves efficiency through simultaneous multi-channel data acquisition. This study develops a vibration model for a circular thin plate with fixed boundaries, examines the gradient relationships in various directions, and introduces a method that integrates MIC array technology with acoustic vibration techniques. The focus is on identifying concrete defect boundaries, where a single excitation at the same measurement point can yield different first-order vibration modes recorded by various MICs. A gradient-based approach is proposed to determine defect boundaries based on the locations of different MICs in the array. Experiments were carried out using circular thin-plate concrete samples with pre-existing voids. For instance, at boundary measurement point 15, the first-order modal data collected by MIC0 and MIC4 were 7.80×10−4 Pa and 5.42×10−6 Pa, respectively, exhibiting a significant gradient difference, which verified the accuracy and rapidity of identifying concrete void boundaries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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28 pages, 1140 KiB  
Article
Hybrid Metaheuristic Optimization of HVAC Energy Consumption and Thermal Comfort in an Office Building Using EnergyPlus
by Reza Akraminejad, Tianyi Zhao, Yacine Rezgui, Ali Ghoroghi and Yousef Shahbazi Razlighi
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2568; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142568 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 294
Abstract
Energy is a critical resource, and its optimization is central to sustainable building design. Occupant comfort, significantly influenced by factors, including mean radiant temperature (MRT), alongside air temperature, velocity, and humidity, is another key consideration. This paper introduces a hybrid crow search optimization [...] Read more.
Energy is a critical resource, and its optimization is central to sustainable building design. Occupant comfort, significantly influenced by factors, including mean radiant temperature (MRT), alongside air temperature, velocity, and humidity, is another key consideration. This paper introduces a hybrid crow search optimization (CSA) and penguin search optimization algorithm (PeSOA), termed (HCRPN), designed to simultaneously optimize building energy consumption and achieve MRT levels conducive to thermal comfort by adjusting HVAC system parameters. We first validate HCRPN using ZDT-1 and Shaffer N1 multi-objective benchmarks. Subsequently, we employ EnergyPlus simulations, utilizing a single-objective Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) for initial parameter analysis to generate a dataset. Following correlation analyses to understand parameter relationships, we implement our hybrid multi-objective approach. Comparative evaluations against state-of-the-art algorithms, including MoPso, NSGA-II, hybrid Nsga2/MOEAD, and Mo-CSA, validated the effectiveness of HCRPN. Our findings demonstrate an average 7% reduction in energy consumption and a 3% improvement in MRT-based comfort relative to existing methods. While seemingly small, even minor enhancements in MRT can have a noticeable positive impact on well-being, particularly in large, high-occupancy buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Indoor Air Quality and Sustainable Artificial Environments)
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22 pages, 9247 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Restoration in Urban Waterfront Spaces: Environmental Features, Visual Behavior, and Design Implications
by Shiqin Zhou, Chang Lin and Quanle Huang
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2567; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142567 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 298
Abstract
Urbanization poses mental health risks for urban dwellers, whereas natural environments offer mental health benefits by providing restorative experiences through visual stimuli. While urban waterfront spaces are recognized for their mental restorative potential, the specific environmental features and individual visual behaviors that drive [...] Read more.
Urbanization poses mental health risks for urban dwellers, whereas natural environments offer mental health benefits by providing restorative experiences through visual stimuli. While urban waterfront spaces are recognized for their mental restorative potential, the specific environmental features and individual visual behaviors that drive these benefits remain inadequately understood. Grounded in restorative environments theory, this study investigates how these factors jointly influence restoration. Employing a controlled laboratory experiment, subjects viewed real-life images of nine representative spatial locations from the waterfront space of Guangzhou Long Bund. Data collected during the multimodal experiments included subjective scales data (SRRS), physiological measurement data (SCR; LF/HF), and eye-tracking data. Key findings revealed the following: (1) The element visibility rate and visual characteristics of plant and building elements significantly influence restorative benefits. (2) Spatial configuration attributes (degree of enclosure, spatial hierarchy, and depth perception) regulate restorative benefits. (3) Visual behavior patterns (attributes of fixation points, fixation duration, and moderate dispersion of fixations) are significantly associated with restoration benefits. These findings advance the understanding of the mechanisms linking environmental stimuli, visual behavior, and psychological restorative benefits. They translate into evidence-based design principles for urban waterfront spaces. This study provides a refined perspective and empirical foundation for enhancing the restorative benefits of urban waterfront spaces through design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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26 pages, 4943 KiB  
Article
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity for Real-Time Filament Quality Monitoring in 3D Concrete Printing Construction
by Luis de la Flor Juncal, Allan Scott, Don Clucas and Giuseppe Loporcaro
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2566; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142566 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 320
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) concrete printing (3DCP) has gained significant attention over the last decade due to its many claimed benefits. The absence of effective real-time quality control mechanisms, however, can lead to inconsistencies in extrusion, compromising the integrity of 3D-printed structures. Although the importance [...] Read more.
Three-dimensional (3D) concrete printing (3DCP) has gained significant attention over the last decade due to its many claimed benefits. The absence of effective real-time quality control mechanisms, however, can lead to inconsistencies in extrusion, compromising the integrity of 3D-printed structures. Although the importance of quality control in 3DCP is broadly acknowledged, research lacks systematic methods. This research investigates the feasibility of using ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) as a practical, in situ, real-time monitoring tool for 3DCP. Two different groups of binders were investigated: limestone calcined clay (LC3) and zeolite-based mixes in binary and ternary blends. Filaments of 200 mm were extruded every 5 min, and UPV, pocket hand vane, flow table, and viscometer tests were performed to measure pulse velocity, shear strength, relative deformation, yield stress, and plastic viscosity, respectively, in the fresh state. Once the filaments presented printing defects (e.g., filament tearing, filament width reduction), the tests were concluded, and the open time was recorded. Isothermal calorimetry tests were conducted to obtain the initial heat release and reactivity of the supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). Results showed a strong correlation (R2 = 0.93) between UPV and initial heat release, indicating that early hydration (ettringite formation) influenced UPV and determined printability across different mixes. No correlation was observed between the other tests and hydration kinetics. UPV demonstrated potential as a real-time monitoring tool, provided the mix-specific pulse velocity is established beforehand. Further research is needed to evaluate UPV performance during active printing when there is an active flow through the printer. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on the Performance of Traditional, New and Potential Building Materials: 2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 8592 KiB  
Article
Spatial Differentiation in the Contribution of Innovation Influencing Factors: An Empirical Study in Nanjing from the Perspective of Nonlinear Relationships
by Chengyu Wang, Renchao Luo and Lingchao Zhou
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2565; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142565 - 21 Jul 2025
Viewed by 294
Abstract
The agglomeration characteristics of innovation spaces reflect the intrinsic mechanisms of regional resource integration and collaborative innovation. Investigating the contributions of influencing factors to innovation space agglomeration and their spatial differentiation has significant implications for improving urban innovation quality. Taking the Nanjing central [...] Read more.
The agglomeration characteristics of innovation spaces reflect the intrinsic mechanisms of regional resource integration and collaborative innovation. Investigating the contributions of influencing factors to innovation space agglomeration and their spatial differentiation has significant implications for improving urban innovation quality. Taking the Nanjing central urban area as a case study, this research applied gradient boosting regression trees (GBRT) and multiscale geographically weighted regression (MGWR) models to explore the contributions of influencing factors to innovation space agglomeration and its spatial differentiation. Findings demonstrated that (1) Innovation platforms and patents emerged as the most significant driving factors, collectively accounting for 54.8% of the relative contributions; (2) The contributions of influencing factors to innovation space agglomeration exhibited marked nonlinear characteristics, specifically categorized into five distinct patterns: Sustained Growth Pattern, Growth-Stabilization Pattern, Growth-Decline Pattern, Global Stabilization Pattern, and Global Decline Pattern. The inflection thresholds of marginal effects across factors ranged from approximately 12% to 55% (e.g., 40% for metro stations, 13% for integrated commercial hubs); (3) Each influence factor’s contribution mechanism showed pronounced spatial heterogeneity across different regions. Based on these discoveries, governments should optimize innovation resource allocation according to regional characteristics and enhance spatial quality to promote efficient resource integration and transformation. This research provides a novel perspective for understanding innovation space agglomeration mechanisms and offers actionable references for urban policymakers to implement context-specific innovation economic development strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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20 pages, 6510 KiB  
Article
Research on the Operating Performance of a Combined Heat and Power System Integrated with Solar PV/T and Air-Source Heat Pump in Residential Buildings
by Haoran Ning, Fu Liang, Huaxin Wu, Zeguo Qiu, Zhipeng Fan and Bingxin Xu
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2564; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142564 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 386
Abstract
Global building energy consumption is significantly increasing. Utilizing renewable energy sources may be an effective approach to achieving low-carbon and energy-efficient buildings. A combined system incorporating solar photovoltaic–thermal (PV/T) components with an air-source heat pump (ASHP) was studied for simultaneous heating and power [...] Read more.
Global building energy consumption is significantly increasing. Utilizing renewable energy sources may be an effective approach to achieving low-carbon and energy-efficient buildings. A combined system incorporating solar photovoltaic–thermal (PV/T) components with an air-source heat pump (ASHP) was studied for simultaneous heating and power generation in a real residential building. The back panel of the PV/T component featured a novel polygonal Freon circulation channel design. A prototype of the combined heating and power supply system was constructed and tested in Fuzhou City, China. The results indicate that the average coefficient of performance (COP) of the system is 4.66 when the ASHP operates independently. When the PV/T component is integrated with the ASHP, the average COP increases to 5.37. On sunny days, the daily average thermal output of 32 PV/T components reaches 24 kW, while the daily average electricity generation is 64 kW·h. On cloudy days, the average daily power generation is 15.6 kW·h; however, the residual power stored in the battery from the previous day could be utilized to ensure the energy demand in the system. Compared to conventional photovoltaic (PV) systems, the overall energy utilization efficiency improves from 5.68% to 17.76%. The hot water temperature stored in the tank can reach 46.8 °C, satisfying typical household hot water requirements. In comparison to standard PV modules, the system achieves an average cooling efficiency of 45.02%. The variation rate of the system’s thermal loss coefficient is relatively low at 5.07%. The optimal water tank capacity for the system is determined to be 450 L. This system demonstrates significant potential for providing efficient combined heat and power supply for buildings, offering considerable economic and environmental benefits, thereby serving as a reference for the future development of low-carbon and energy-saving building technologies. Full article
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22 pages, 6378 KiB  
Article
Cross-Modal Insights into Urban Green Spaces Preferences
by Jiayi Yan, Fan Zhang and Bing Qiu
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2563; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142563 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 287
Abstract
Urban green spaces (UGSs) and forests play a vital role in shaping sustainable and livable cities, offering not only ecological benefits but also spaces that are essential for human well-being, social interactions, and everyday life. Understanding the landscape features that resonate most with [...] Read more.
Urban green spaces (UGSs) and forests play a vital role in shaping sustainable and livable cities, offering not only ecological benefits but also spaces that are essential for human well-being, social interactions, and everyday life. Understanding the landscape features that resonate most with public preferences is essential for enhancing the appeal, accessibility, and functionality of these environments. However, traditional approaches—such as surveys or single-data analyses—often lack the nuance needed to capture the complex and multisensory nature of human responses to green spaces. This study explores a cross-modal methodology that integrates natural language processing (NLP) and deep learning techniques to analyze text and image data collected from public reviews of 19 urban parks in Nanjing. By capturing both subjective emotional expressions and objective visual impressions, this study reveals a consistent public preference for natural landscapes, particularly those featuring evergreen trees, shrubs, and floral elements. Text-based data reflect users’ lived experiences and nuanced perceptions, while image data offers insights into visual appeal and spatial composition. By bridging human-centered insights with data-driven analysis, this research provides a robust framework for evaluating landscape preferences. It also underscores the importance of designing green spaces that are not only ecologically sound but also emotionally resonant and socially inclusive. The findings offer valuable guidance for the planning, design, and adaptive management of urban green infrastructure in ways that support healthier, more responsive, and smarter urban environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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77 pages, 2935 KiB  
Review
Assessment Methods for Building Energy Retrofits with Emphasis on Financial Evaluation: A Systematic Literature Review
by Maria D. Papangelopoulou, Konstantinos Alexakis and Dimitris Askounis
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2562; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142562 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 515
Abstract
The building sector remains one of the largest contributors to global energy consumption and CO2 emissions, yet selecting optimal retrofit strategies is often hindered by inconsistent evaluation practices and limited integration of environmental and social impacts. This review addresses that gap by [...] Read more.
The building sector remains one of the largest contributors to global energy consumption and CO2 emissions, yet selecting optimal retrofit strategies is often hindered by inconsistent evaluation practices and limited integration of environmental and social impacts. This review addresses that gap by systematically analyzing how various assessment methods are applied to building retrofits, particularly from a financial and environmental perspective. A structured literature review was conducted across four major scientific databases using predefined keywords, filters, and inclusion/exclusion criteria, resulting in a final sample of 50 studies (green colored citations of this paper). The review focuses on the application of Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA), Cost–Benefit Analysis (CBA), and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), as well as additional indicators that quantify energy and sustainability performance. Results show that LCCA is the most frequently used method, applied in over 60% of the studies, often in combination with LCA (particularly for long time horizons). CBA appears in fewer than 25% of cases. More than 50% of studies are based in Europe, and over 60% of case studies involve residential buildings. EnergyPlus and DesignBuilder were the most common simulation tools, used in 28% and 16% of the cases, respectively. Risk and uncertainty were typically addressed through Monte Carlo simulations (22%) and sensitivity analysis. Comfort and social impact indicators were underrepresented, with thermal comfort included in only 12% of studies and no formal use of tools like Social-LCA or SROI. The findings highlight the growing sophistication of retrofit assessments post-2020, but also reveal gaps such as geographic imbalance (absence of African case studies), inconsistent treatment of discount rates, and limited integration of social indicators. The study concludes that future research should develop standardized, multidimensional evaluation frameworks that incorporate social equity, stakeholder values, and long-term resilience alongside cost and carbon metrics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
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28 pages, 5554 KiB  
Article
Displacement Response Characteristics and Instability Risk Assessment of Excavation Face in Deep-Buried Shield Tunnel
by Chenyang Zhu, Xin Huang, Chong Xu, Guangyi Yan, Jiaqi Guo and Qi Liang
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2561; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142561 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 378
Abstract
To prevent the occurrence of excavation face instability incidents during shield tunneling, this study takes the Bailuyuan tunnel of the ‘Hanjiang-to-Weihe River Water Diversion Project’ as the engineering background. A three-dimensional discrete element method simulation was employed to analyze the tunneling process, revealing [...] Read more.
To prevent the occurrence of excavation face instability incidents during shield tunneling, this study takes the Bailuyuan tunnel of the ‘Hanjiang-to-Weihe River Water Diversion Project’ as the engineering background. A three-dimensional discrete element method simulation was employed to analyze the tunneling process, revealing the displacement response of the excavation face to various tunneling parameters. This led to the development of a risk assessment method that considers both tunneling parameters and geological conditions for deep-buried shield tunnels. The above method effectively overcomes the limitations of finite element method (FEM) studies on shield tunneling parameters and, combined with the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), enables rapid tunnel analysis and assessment. The results demonstrate that the displacement of the excavation face in shield tunnel engineering is significantly influenced by factors such as the chamber earth pressure ratio, cutterhead opening rate, cutterhead rotation speed, and tunneling speed. Specifically, variations in the chamber earth pressure ratio have the greatest impact on horizontal displacement, occurring predominantly near the upper center of the tunnel. As the chamber earth pressure ratio decreases, horizontal displacement increases sharply from 12.9 mm to 267.3 mm. Conversely, an increase in the cutterhead opening rate leads to displacement that first rises gradually and then rapidly, from 32.1 mm to 121.1 mm. A weighted index assessment model based on AHP yields a risk level of Grade II, whereas methods from other scholars result in Grade III. By implementing measures such as adjusting the grouting range, cutterhead rotation speed, and tunneling speed, field applications confirm that the risk level remains within acceptable limits, thereby verifying the feasibility of the constructed assessment method. Construction site strategies are proposed, including maintaining a chamber earth pressure ratio greater than 1, tunneling speed not exceeding 30 mm/min, cutterhead rotation speed not exceeding 1.5 rpm, and a synchronous grouting range of 0.15 m. Following implementation, the tunnel construction successfully passed the high-risk section without any incidents. This research offers a decision-making framework for shield TBM operation safety in complex geological environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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29 pages, 3759 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Asset Management: Rapid Seismic Assessment of Heterogeneous Portfolios
by Marco Gaspari, Margherita Fabris, Elisa Saler, Marco Donà and Francesca da Porto
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2560; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142560 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 265
Abstract
The seismic risk assessment of large building stocks is crucial for informed asset management in earthquake-prone regions, providing decision-support for retrofit intervention planning. Many existing methodologies focus on a single structural typology or asset class (e.g., ordinary buildings or industrial facilities), thus limiting [...] Read more.
The seismic risk assessment of large building stocks is crucial for informed asset management in earthquake-prone regions, providing decision-support for retrofit intervention planning. Many existing methodologies focus on a single structural typology or asset class (e.g., ordinary buildings or industrial facilities), thus limiting their applicability to mixed portfolios. This study proposes a comprehensive and adaptable methodology for the seismic assessment of diverse building stocks—a cross-typology approach encompassing masonry, reinforced concrete (r.c.), precast r.c., and steel structures. The approach integrates deficiency-based qualitative evaluations with simplified mechanical models tailored for each building class. Where validated methodologies were unavailable, new assessment tools were developed. The proposed framework was applied to an industrial-oriented building stock comprising 79 structural units at regional scale, demonstrating its capability to identify priority structures for retrofitting interventions. By overcoming the constraints of typology- or asset-specific approaches, this methodology enables a more comprehensive and scalable assessment. This ultimately contributes to effective risk mitigation planning and seismic resilience enhancing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seismic Resistance and Vulnerability Assessments of Building Structures)
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17 pages, 2728 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Personalized Office Spaces on Faculty Productivity, Performance, and Satisfaction in Universities’ Educational Facilities: Case Study of Al Yamamah University, Riyadh, KSA
by Dalia Abdelfattah
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2559; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142559 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 493
Abstract
Educational facilities are the physical environment that supports the academic process for a better education. The quality of offices as workspaces is crucial in creating a supportive environment to enhance the staff and students’ experience. This paper aims to study the concept of [...] Read more.
Educational facilities are the physical environment that supports the academic process for a better education. The quality of offices as workspaces is crucial in creating a supportive environment to enhance the staff and students’ experience. This paper aims to study the concept of space personalization and its impact on faculty members’ productivity, performance, and satisfaction in universities’ educational facilities. To achieve this aim, the research applied the qualitative research method of semi-structured interviews to gather comprehensive data about user experience. Approaching 39 faculty members within Al Yamamah University across three departments within the College of Engineering (Architecture, Industrial, and Computer). Data were analyzed using thematic analysis for qualitative insights, focusing on environmental aspects (such as: natural lighting, ventilation, noise control, etc.), psychological factors (such as: privacy, aesthetic appeal, etc.), and architectural settings (such as: area, space layout, materials, etc.). The research proposes a methodological framework for design considerations for office spaces in universities, fostering more flexible and personalized designs for enhancing sense of ownership and well-being. Findings indicate that personalized office spaces significantly enhance faculty satisfaction and productivity. Qualitative data highlighted that a lack of privacy in standardized offices adds stress and an overwhelming environment. These findings suggest that universities should consider flexible office designs to optimize academic work environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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29 pages, 5417 KiB  
Article
Developing Multi-Modal Communication Tools for Retrofit Guidance in Ageing Bushfire-Prone Communities
by Shuang Wu, Mona Salam, Aso Hajirasouli, Iina Lohi, Alison Wain, Sara Wilkinson, Gregory M. Morrison and Saeed Banihashemi
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2558; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142558 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 309
Abstract
The increasing frequency and severity of bushfires in Australia, combined with an ageing population in bushfire-prone regions, creates an urgent need for targeted resilience guidance for older Australians. The outcome of this research is a developed and validated user-friendly toolkit for bushfire retrofitting, [...] Read more.
The increasing frequency and severity of bushfires in Australia, combined with an ageing population in bushfire-prone regions, creates an urgent need for targeted resilience guidance for older Australians. The outcome of this research is a developed and validated user-friendly toolkit for bushfire retrofitting, tailored to the specific needs of this vulnerable older demographic. A qualitative multi-method approach was employed, incorporating a systematic literature review (SLR) and participatory design method. Two bushfire-prone regions, Bega Valley and Noosa Shire, were used as the case study contexts for this research. Data collection in these two regions involved focus groups with participants over the age of sixty and on-site fieldwork assessments of bushfire-prone properties. Several types of data including interview transcripts, physical artefacts, documents, and archival records were collected. The data was then analysed using thematic and content analysis to identify key areas of focus for the toolkit. Findings revealed that existing bushfire retrofit resources inadequately address the implementation capabilities of older people. The adapted toolkit design therefore presents a novel approach that addresses the current gaps in the literature by providing a scalable approach to retrofitting that is tailored to varied retrofitting capabilities. By effectively integrating technical building compliance standards with age-specific design considerations, the toolkit promotes the effective implementation and adoption of retrofit measures by older people, ultimately improving individual and community resilience against bushfires. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the “24th International Conference on Construction Applications of Virtual Reality—CONVR2024”)
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17 pages, 1884 KiB  
Article
A Habitat-Template Approach to Green Wall Design in Mediterranean Cities
by Miriam Patti, Carmelo Maria Musarella and Giovanni Spampinato
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2557; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142557 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 327
Abstract
Integrating nature-based solutions into sustainable urban design has become increasingly important in response to rapid urbanization and climate-related environmental challenges. As part of these solutions, green walls not only enhance the thermal and acoustic performance of buildings but also contribute to urban ecosystem [...] Read more.
Integrating nature-based solutions into sustainable urban design has become increasingly important in response to rapid urbanization and climate-related environmental challenges. As part of these solutions, green walls not only enhance the thermal and acoustic performance of buildings but also contribute to urban ecosystem health by supporting biodiversity. In this context, the careful selection of plant species is essential to ensure ecological efficiency, resilience, and low maintenance. This study presents a model for selecting plant species suitable for natural green walls in Mediterranean cities, with a focus on habitats protected under Directive 92/43/EEC. The selection followed a multi-phase process applied to the native flora of Italy, using criteria such as chorological type, life form, ecological indicator values, altitudinal range, and habitat type. Alien and invasive species were excluded, favoring only native Mediterranean species adapted to local pedoclimatic conditions and capable of providing ecosystem, esthetic, and functional benefits. The outcome of this rigorous screening led to the identification of a pool of species suitable for green wall systems in Mediterranean urban settings. These selections offer a practical contribution to mitigating the urban heat island effect, improving air quality, and enhancing biodiversity, thus providing a valuable tool for designing more sustainable and climate-adaptive buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural-Based Solution for Sustainable Buildings)
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25 pages, 9567 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Characterization and Theoretical Study of Friction Pile Groups in Coastal Areas Based on Finite Element Analysis
by Jun Wu, Yanfeng Li, Jia Zhao, Guangzuo Feng, Yuanhui Li, Jialong Li and Jiaxu Jin
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2556; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142556 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 233
Abstract
Field foundation pile loading tests were conducted in the context of an actual bridge pile foundation project. The test data were analyzed to determine the reasons for the variation in the complex geological conditions of the seashore. Moreover, finite element analysis was conducted [...] Read more.
Field foundation pile loading tests were conducted in the context of an actual bridge pile foundation project. The test data were analyzed to determine the reasons for the variation in the complex geological conditions of the seashore. Moreover, finite element analysis was conducted to evaluate the influence of pile length and diameter on the settlement of coastal friction foundation piles. Increasing the pile length from 65 m to 75 m reduced the settlement by 25.7%, while increasing the diameter from 1.5 m to 2.0 m led to a 35.9% reduction. Increasing the pile spacing reduced the amount of structural settlement. Group pile foundation pile spacings should be 2.5–3.0 D. Pile group superposition reduced the most obvious effects and the settlement reduction rate was the fastest. Under seismic conditions, the pile group foundation exhibited 5.60 times greater horizontal displacement, 3.57 times higher bending moment, and 5.30 times increased shear force relative to static loading. The formula for predicting the settlement of oversized friction pile group foundations was modified based on settlement values calculated using finite elements. The revised formula is suitable for calculating the settlement of friction pile group foundations in coastal areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
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26 pages, 6009 KiB  
Article
Integrated Mechanical and Eco-Economical Assessments of Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete
by Qasim Shaukat Khan, Raja Hilal Ahmad, Asad Ullah Qazi, Syed Minhaj Saleem Kazmi, Muhammad Junaid Munir and Muhammad Hassan Javed
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2555; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142555 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 304
Abstract
This research evaluates the mechanical properties, environmental impacts, and cost-effectiveness of Hub Coal fly ash (FA)-based geopolymer concrete (FAGPC) as a sustainable alternative to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete. This local FA has not been investigated previously. A total of 24 FAGPC mixes [...] Read more.
This research evaluates the mechanical properties, environmental impacts, and cost-effectiveness of Hub Coal fly ash (FA)-based geopolymer concrete (FAGPC) as a sustainable alternative to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete. This local FA has not been investigated previously. A total of 24 FAGPC mixes were tested under both ambient and heat curing conditions, varying the molarities of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution (10-M, 12-M 14-M and 16-M), sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide (Na2SiO3/NaOH) ratios (1.5, 2.0, and 2.5), and alkaline activator solution to fly ash (AAS/FA) ratios (0.5 and 0.6). The test results demonstrated that increasing NaOH molarity enhances the compressive strength (CS.) by 145% under ambient curing, with a peak CS. of 32.8 MPa at 16-M NaOH, and similarly, flexural strength (FS.) increases by 90% with a maximum FS. of 6.5 MPa at 14-M NaOH. Conversely, increasing the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio to 2.5 reduced the CS. and FS. of ambient-cured specimens by 12.5% and 10.5%, respectively. Microstructural analysis revealed that higher NaOH molarity produced a denser, more homogeneous matrix, supported by increased Si–O–Al bond formation observed through energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry. Environmentally, FAGPC demonstrated a 35–40% reduction in embodied CO2 emissions compared to OPC, although the production costs of FAGPC were 30–35% higher, largely due to the expense of alkaline activators. These findings highlight the potential of FAGPC as a low-carbon alternative to OPC concrete, balancing enhanced mechanical performance with sustainability. New, green, and cheap activation solutions are sought for a new generation of more sustainable and affordable FAGPC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
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19 pages, 1942 KiB  
Article
Adaptive Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning with Graph Neural Networks for Dynamic Optimization in Sports Buildings
by Sen Chen, Xiaolong Chen, Qian Bao, Hongfeng Zhang and Cora Un In Wong
Buildings 2025, 15(14), 2554; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15142554 - 20 Jul 2025
Viewed by 420
Abstract
The dynamic scheduling optimization of sports facilities faces challenges posed by real-time demand fluctuations and complex interdependencies between facilities. To address the adaptability limitations of traditional centralized approaches, this study proposes a decentralized multi-agent reinforcement learning framework based on graph neural networks (GNNs). [...] Read more.
The dynamic scheduling optimization of sports facilities faces challenges posed by real-time demand fluctuations and complex interdependencies between facilities. To address the adaptability limitations of traditional centralized approaches, this study proposes a decentralized multi-agent reinforcement learning framework based on graph neural networks (GNNs). Experimental results demonstrate that in a simulated environment comprising 12 heterogeneous sports facilities, the proposed method achieves an operational efficiency of 0.89 ± 0.02, representing a 13% improvement over Centralized PPO, while user satisfaction reaches 0.85 ± 0.03, a 9% enhancement. When confronted with a sudden 30% surge in demand, the system recovers in just 90 steps, 33% faster than centralized methods. The GNN attention mechanism successfully captures critical dependencies between facilities, such as the connection weight of 0.32 ± 0.04 between swimming pools and locker rooms. Computational efficiency tests show that the system maintains real-time decision-making capability within 800 ms even when scaled to 50 facilities. These results verify that the method effectively balances decentralized decision-making with global coordination while maintaining low communication overhead (0.09 ± 0.01), offering a scalable and practical solution for resource management in complex built environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
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