Improving Material Tracking for Sustainable Construction: A Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) Framework for Resource Efficiency

Abstract

Inefficient material tracking continues to be a major challenge in sustainable construction, often leading to unnecessary waste, budget overruns, and project delays. While many digital tools have been introduced in recent years, there is still a lack of practical, field-tested frameworks that combine these technologies with clear, structured procedures, especially in resource-constrained environments. This study introduces a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) framework designed to improve materials tracking systems (MTSs) by integrating QR codes, GPS tracking, and cloud-based dashboards. Together, these tools support more accurate planning, smoother coordination, and real-time monitoring from the early design stages to on-site implementation. A mixed-methods approach was used, combining surveys with construction professionals and focus group discussions with engineers, IT specialists, and logistics staff. The findings highlight procurement and implementation as the phases most prone to inefficiencies, particularly around material receiving, quality checks, and on-site placement. The validated SOP framework shows strong potential to improve tracking accuracy, reduce material waste, and streamline construction workflows. It offers a flexible, easy-to-use system for integrating sustainability into everyday project practices. Looking ahead, this study also points to future opportunities for applying AI-based tools—such as predictive tracking and automated quality checks—to further improve decision-making and resource efficiency in construction projects.

1. Introduction

In the construction industry, materials management is widely recognized as one of the most critical determinants of project efficiency, cost performance, and environmental sustainability. Material-related expenses often constitute over 50% of total construction costs, and inefficiencies in procurement, handling, and tracking contribute directly to budget overruns, scheduling delays, and excessive resource consumption [1,2,3,4]. These challenges are particularly acute in developing countries, where outdated practices, such as paper-based tracking, manual inventory logs, and fragmented procurement processes, continue to dominate site operations. In Syria, for example, several studies have identified persistent weaknesses in materials management practices, including lack of traceability, poor coordination between stakeholders, and limited standardization across project phases [5,6,7,8]. Although technologies including QR codes, RFID systems, and cloud-based dashboards have emerged as promising tools for improving visibility and coordination, their practical implementation in the construction sector remains uneven [9,10,11,12,13,14,15]. Barriers to adoption include weak institutional support, limited digital infrastructure, and the absence of clear operational procedures tailored to site conditions [16,17,18]. Without structured guidance and staff training, many digital tools remain underutilized or are prematurely abandoned, especially in low-resource settings [17,19]. In contrast to manufacturing environments, where materials workflows are highly standardized, construction projects are dynamic and vary significantly in scale, location, and scope. Each phase of the project lifecycle introduces specific logistical and sustainability challenges that require tailored solutions [20,21]. In this context, simply introducing digital tools is insufficient. There is a pressing need for systems that embed these technologies within clear, role-specific procedures aligned with real-world construction constraints. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) represent a viable mechanism to institutionalize digital practices across procurement, storage, and on-site usage. SOPs provide structured, repeatable workflows that enhance accountability and support efficient decision-making [22,23,24]. However, current research tends to separate technology-focused innovations from practical operational frameworks, resulting in a gap between the availability of digital tools and their effective field application [14,19,23]. To address this gap, the present study proposes a modular SOP-based framework for materials tracking, specifically designed for implementation in resource-constrained environments. Grounded in empirical data collected from engineers, logistics coordinators, and IT professionals working in Syria, this framework aims to integrate digital tracking technologies with context-aware procedural controls. In contrast to prior studies that focus solely on digital tool development or broad policy-level interventions, this research presents an integrative approach tailored to real-world constraints. The objective of this research is to develop and validate a practical SOP-based framework for improving materials tracking systems in low-resource construction settings. This study is guided by two key research questions: (1) What are the most critical barriers and failure points in current material tracking practices? (2) How can structured procedures, when combined with digital tools, help reduce inefficiencies and support sustainability goals? These guiding questions establish the boundaries of the investigation and underpin the structure of the framework presented in this study. For clarity and consistency, several key terms used throughout this study are defined as follows: Material tracking refers to the coordinated process of monitoring the flow, status, and location of construction materials across the project lifecycle, using both digital tools and procedural controls. Resource efficiency is defined as the optimized use of materials and logistics to minimize waste, avoid duplication, and improve material utilization. Sustainability, in this context, encompasses environmental, economic, and operational dimensions, particularly reducing material waste, enhancing delivery coordination, and aligning practices with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

2. Literature Review

2.1. Material Tracking and Its Role in Sustainable Construction

Material tracking plays a vital role in promoting sustainability within the construction industry. Beyond its function in maintaining inventory control and procurement accuracy, it also contributes to broader environmental objectives, including carbon footprint reduction and the promotion of circular economy principles [1,2,3,4,18]. In projects where material tracking is rigorously applied, studies have reported notable reductions in material waste, increased recycling rates, and improved overall resource efficiency [18,25]. For instance, Kasim et al. [1] demonstrated how precise tracking enhances forecasting and inventory reliability, while Zaha [20] focusing on the Maldivian context, revealed a direct correlation between poor tracking practices and significant material losses. Several other studies have linked the deployment of advanced materials tracking systems (MTSs) to tangible sustainability benefits. These include reduced over-ordering, improved logistics, and lower environmental impact through better procurement scheduling [9,10]. In particular, MTS solutions have been shown to enhance the flow of resources into appropriate post-use channels such as reuse and recycling, thereby supporting green construction initiatives [18,24,25]. While these contributions agree on the importance of MTS for sustainability, they vary in scope and emphasis. Some studies focus on inventory optimization and cost efficiency [1,4], while others highlight systemic improvements across supply chains and logistics [10,11,18]. Collectively, they point to the strategic value of integrating material tracking technologies, not only as operational tools, but as key enablers for achieving long-term sustainability goals [18,26]. Ultimately, these findings underscore that material tracking is not just a technical process, but a strategic function that directly supports the construction sector’s transition toward more sustainable, efficient, and circular practices.

2.2. Challenges in Material Management in Developing Contexts

Although modern materials tracking systems (MTSs) offer clear benefits, their implementation in developing regions remains limited due to infrastructural constraints, technological gaps, and institutional challenges [6,14]. In Syria, for example, persistent issues such as unreliable internet access, undertrained personnel, and fragmented supplier networks have impeded the adoption of digital tracking tools [5,6,7,8]. Similar patterns have been observed in Southeast Asia, where manual tracking practices continue to dominate due to inconsistent policy frameworks and limited access to automated solutions [10,16,17,20]. Shaheen and Al-Shihabi [7] specifically reported inefficiencies in Syrian supply chains that contribute to cost overruns and frequent project delays. Maya [6] also identified the absence of standardized systems and weak coordination among stakeholders as key managerial barriers in the Syrian construction sector. Hammoudi and Shibani [5] further noted that, while technologies like BIM and Augmented Reality show promise for improving resource visibility, their application in Syria remains minimal, largely due to financial limitations, insufficient training, and underdeveloped digital infrastructure. Comparable challenges have been documented in the Maldivian construction sector, where Zaha [20] reported a continued reliance on outdated material management systems, even in the face of growing awareness of their inefficiencies. Beyond technological issues, additional obstacles such as tight budgets, regulatory delays, and organizational resistance to change also hinder the transition toward digital material tracking [10,19]. However, several studies suggest that targeted training programs and gradual digital integration, especially when supported by local policy and stakeholder buy-in, can lead to meaningful improvements in procurement efficiency and material handling [10,15,21]. Taken together, the literature reveals a consistent set of challenges across different regions: lack of infrastructure, limited digital readiness, and absence of procedural clarity. Addressing these issues is essential to enable the successful adoption of MTS in low-resource construction environments.

2.3. Technological Innovations in Material Tracking

Technological advances in technologies such as RFID, QR codes, Building Information Modeling (BIM), the Internet of Things (IoT), and cloud-based platforms have significantly expanded the functionality of modern materials tracking systems (MTSs) [9,13,21,24]. Among these, RFID systems are frequently cited for enabling real-time location tracking and minimizing manual data entry errors [9,13]. Similarly, barcoding tools have proven effective for on-site material verification, streamlining the validation process at critical supply chain points [27,28]. Xu et al., and Tan et al. [24,28] emphasized the value of QR code integration in improving alignment between procurement schedules and on-site logistics. Cloud-based dashboards and mobile applications have also enhanced collaboration and data visibility across dispersed construction teams [14,15,22]. For instance, Garcia-Lopez and Fischer [29] developed a real-time tracking system that utilized cloud infrastructure to monitor construction workflows and support decision-making. Likewise, Moselhi and El-Omari [30] demonstrated that automated data collection using barcodes and RFID devices significantly improved tracking precision and site-level responsiveness. Additional studies highlight the operational benefits of real-time tracking. Nakanishi et al. [14] showed that RFID-enabled systems can improve the visibility of equipment and materials on-site, leading to better oversight and workflow optimization. IoT-based platforms have also been associated with reduced site congestion and enhanced productivity through automated monitoring of material flows [15,26,31]. Cloud-enabled systems further support these gains by allowing stakeholders to access updated material data from remote locations, improving agility in procurement and logistics decision-making [31,32,33]. The use of RFID in construction supply chains has improved traceability and reduced errors in material handling and delivery, as reported by Young et al. [31]. Zhu et al. [34] reinforced this by showing how RFID adoption in multiple industries, including construction, enhances operational performance. Meanwhile, cloud-integrated lifecycle management platforms [24,30,32] and field-specific mobile applications [14,15,29] continue to demonstrate the scalability and adaptability of smart tracking technologies. Real-world implementations across countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, and the UAE consistently report improvements in delivery accuracy, resource utilization, and overall accountability throughout the supply chain [1,28]. Despite variations in regional infrastructure, these findings confirm that the integration of digital tools into material tracking workflows offers tangible performance benefits and supports broader sustainability objectives.

2.4. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) in Construction Logistics

While technology provides essential tools for improving material tracking, its impact is significantly amplified when integrated within structured Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) [11,20,32,33,35]. SOPs offer a consistent framework for executing key processes such as procurement, inspection, delivery, and site handling. They help reduce ambiguity, promote accountability, and ensure compliance with operational and regulatory standards [9,20,23,36]. Several researchers have emphasized that well-designed SOPs are particularly effective in mitigating risks in complex construction environments. They streamline material-related workflows, improve stakeholder coordination, and enhance clarity in roles and responsibilities [3,20,26]. In Southeast Asia, studies have shown that SOP-driven approaches reduce delays and improve communication across fragmented supply chains, especially in settings where manual workflows are still dominant [1,20]. Zaha [20] reported that in Maldivian public sector projects, the implementation of SOPs significantly reduced material waste, particularly when replacing manual workflows with structured procedures. This demonstrates that beyond procedural discipline, SOPs also encourage cultural shifts toward sustainability. By clarifying staff responsibilities and institutionalizing repeatable, context-appropriate routines, SOPs become a foundation for aligning operational practices with sustainability objectives [1,20,26].

2.5. Integration of Digital Tools with SOP Frameworks

Integrating digital tools within Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) frameworks presents a powerful pathway to operationalize sustainability in material management. This integration enhances real-time communication, improves coordination across teams, and increases visibility throughout the supply chain [1,15,18,21,23,30]. Xu et al. [24] highlighted the potential of IoT platforms to support adaptive decision-making by continuously feeding live data into operational dashboards. Similarly, Bortolini et al. [21] demonstrated how 4D BIM modeling can synchronize material availability with logistics and project scheduling. The benefits of integration are further evident in studies on SOP-aligned logistics workflows. Fredriksson et al. [22] showed that pairing third-party logistics systems with SOPs helped reduce delays and improve delivery coordination. Cloud computing plays a central role in enabling such integrations by enhancing accessibility, flexibility, and data centralization [24,33,37]. Lu et al. [38] introduced a scenario-based RFID framework that improved forecasting accuracy and real-time responsiveness. The structured nature of these scenarios aligns with SOP principles used in construction logistics. Combining GIS, BIM, and SOPs also added spatial intelligence to planning processes, especially in urban environments [4,39]. Other research has emphasized the role of lifecycle-based platforms. RFID-enabled systems allow for continuous material traceability and inventory optimization, while on-the-ground tools such as mobile dashboards and barcode-scanning task interfaces reduce redundancy and improve field-level data sharing [15,21,30,33,40]. These configurations contribute to more efficient dispatching and inventory control by embedding traceability directly into routine operations [21,33]. Pan and Zhang [41] further highlighted how BIM log mining can uncover productivity trends and deviations from routine practices, offering insights to refine and optimize SOP-driven digital workflows. Collectively, these studies highlight the growing importance of merging technological solutions with structured procedural workflows. Integrated systems support greater adaptability, accuracy, and accountability in material tracking processes [9,20,21]. However, their practical application remains limited in many regions due to infrastructure gaps, high implementation costs, and shortages in technical skills [5,6,12]. Moreover, many existing MTS solutions emphasize digital automation but overlook the need for procedural standardization, often leading to fragmented implementation and reduced long-term effectiveness [14,22]. In contrast, the proposed materials tracking system (MTS) in this study offers a practical and sustainable alternative. By combining low-cost digital tools (e.g., QR codes and cloud dashboards) with clearly defined SOP workflows, the model promotes accessibility, transparency, and relevance in resource-constrained construction environments.

2.6. Research Gaps and Contributions

Despite significant advancements in material tracking technologies and SOP design, the existing literature lacks an integrated, field-validated framework that is specifically tailored for practical use in real-world construction settings [6,14,24,26]. Many of the legacy systems currently in use are outdated, lacking both accuracy and speed, factors that contribute to procurement delays, cost overruns, and substantial material waste [7,8,9]. Furthermore, most current studies tend to concentrate on either technological solutions or procedural workflows, often overlooking the benefits of combining both elements in a single, coherent system [1,6,34]. Few investigations explicitly address the interaction between digital tools and standardized operating procedures, even though this integration is critical for sustained improvement in material management. In addition, challenges such as organizational readiness, workforce resistance, and conflicting stakeholder priorities remain underexplored in the literature [3,12,24,34]. Many existing frameworks assume a high level of infrastructure maturity, which makes them poorly suited for implementation in construction sectors characterized by logistical constraints and operational fragmentation. This study addresses these limitations by presenting a context-sensitive SOP framework that integrates digital tracking tools with standardized workflows, grounded in the practical realities of construction sites. Developed using a mixed-methods research approach and validated through engagement with industry professionals, the proposed model provides a pragmatic solution for improving traceability, reducing inefficiencies, and embedding sustainability into material management practices. The Syrian construction sector offers a compelling example of the urgent need for such a framework. Despite growing construction demand and rising material costs, most projects in Syria continue to rely on manual, paper-based systems and fragmented procurement practices. Research has repeatedly identified infrastructure limitations, limited training, and weak coordination as core barriers to effective material tracking [6,7,8,9]. Although technologies such as BIM and Augmented Reality offer strong potential, their adoption in Syria remains minimal due to financial, technical, and institutional obstacles [5]. These challenges underscore the importance of a standardized yet adaptable framework, one that bridges operational gaps through structured, low-cost digital workflows and can be realistically implemented in resource-constrained construction environments.

3. Research Methodology

A mixed-methods approach was employed to guarantee that the established Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) framework is both scientifically valid and pragmatically relevant. This methodology harmonized quantitative dependability with qualitative understanding, specifically adapted to the unique limitations of emerging regions, notably Syria. The methodology integrated literature analysis, surveys, structured interviews, and expert focus group discussions (FGDs) to develop, refine, and evaluate a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP)-based materials tracking system (MTS) that improves sustainability, efficiency, and traceability in construction projects. The technique outlining the progression from problem identification to the finalization of the SOP framework is clearly summarized in Figure 1.

3.1. Needs Identification

This research began by examining global literature and conducting informal consultations with practitioners in Syria to identify recurring challenges in material tracking including inaccurate inventory, delayed reporting, and procurement errors. This step established a foundational understanding of sustainability concerns and operational inefficiencies in resource-constrained environments. Syria was chosen as a case study due to its representation of a developing country with significant infrastructure challenges, limited access to advanced technologies, and reliance on outdated material management practices. These factors present an opportunity to explore how sustainability and efficiency are impacted in resource-constrained contexts. Additionally, findings from a prior study conducted in the Maldives highlighted the persistence of manual materials tracking systems and reinforced the global relevance of the challenges under investigation [20]. Insights from both the literature and practitioner inputs informed the survey and interview designs used in this study.

3.2. Survey and Interview Design

A structured survey, adapted from Zaha (2017) [20], was designed to explore material tracking challenges, digital protection, and SOP integration. The survey included a combination of open-ended, close-ended, and Likert-scale questions to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. The final tool contained 44 questions in total, structured across four thematic sections. For Likert-scale items, a 5-point scale was used (ranging from 1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree), allowing participants to express their level of agreement with statements related to tracking inefficiencies, material waste, procurement challenges, and sustainability alignment. The survey sections were:

• Respondents’ background: Capturing roles, experience, and sector affiliation.
• Open-ended questions: Exploring inefficiencies in tracking and procurement.
• Likert-scale questions: Measuring agreement on challenges such as waste, over-ordering, and resource mismanagement.
• Close-ended questions: Identifying causes and frequency of material delays, cost overruns, and sustainability failures.

The design process involved brainstorming relevant questions, gathering expert feedback, and refining the content to reflect the operational realities in Syrian construction projects. To improve clarity and effectiveness, the survey was revised through two rounds of expert review involving specialists in construction, digital systems, and sustainability. A pilot test involving 10 participants helped assess internal consistency and question structure. In line with ethical standards, informed consent was obtained from all participants. Following best practices in questionnaire development [42], the survey design was structured to ensure both clarity and validity. A simultaneous triangulation approach [43] was applied, in which quantitative data (from surveys) and qualitative data (from interviews) were collected and analyzed concurrently but independently. The results were later integrated with insights from the literature to build a comprehensive and context-sensitive understanding of material tracking challenges in Syria. On the other hand, 14 structured interviews were conducted with civil engineers, site supervisors, and procurement staff from various construction projects across Syria. These interviews complemented the survey by offering deeper insights into the lived realities of material tracking and SOP implementation in resource-constrained environments. A thematic guide, aligned with the survey, was used to ensure consistency and support triangulation of findings. The interviews explored key topics such as barriers to adopting digital tracking tools, communication challenges between warehouse and site operations, and the perceived effectiveness of current tracking practices. All responses were transcribed and analyzed using a thematic coding method, which enabled the identification of recurring themes and context-specific issues that informed the development of the SOP framework [43].

3.3. Data Collection

A purposive non-probability sampling technique was employed to select engineers, procurement officers, and project managers with direct experience in material handling. Initial participants were identified through professional networks and social media platforms. Snowball sampling helped expand the participant pool. This study was conducted by engaging professionals from eleven engineering companies, with 45% affiliated with the public sector and 55% with the private sector. A total of 34 individual respondents participated in the survey, including civil engineers (73%), procurement officers, and project managers. Among these professionals, 6% held PhD degrees, 53% had MSc degrees, and 74% had more than 10 years of professional experience, ensuring a highly qualified sample capable of offering expert insights into sustainable material management practices. Prior to full deployment, the survey instrument was pilot tested with ten industry professionals: five civil engineers, two procurement officers, and three site supervisors. These participants were selected for their practical involvement in material tracking within Syrian construction projects. The pilot testing aimed to assess question clarity, logical flow, and structural coherence. Feedback from the pilot led to rewarding several items for improved understanding and the elimination of redundancies. The internal consistency of the Likert-scale sections was verified using Cronbach’s alpha, yielding a value of 0.82, indicating high reliability. Given the expert-based nature of the sample (n = 34), advanced multivariate techniques such as Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were not performed. Instead, reliability was ensured using Cronbach’s alpha, a standard approach in small-sample validation of construction-related survey instruments [44].

In parallel, this study evaluated 46 construction projects as case studies, located across six Syrian governorates: Damascus, Rural Damascus, Tartous, Latakia, Hama, and Al Suwayda. Approximately 54% of these were residential, 41% transportation-related (primarily managed by the Public Company for Roads and Bridges), and 4% infrastructure projects executed by public entities. This distribution reflects the limited but growing role of the private sector in the Syrian construction industry. Responses were collected and analyzed using an Excel-based tool. The interviews revealed detailed perspectives on the integration of tracking technologies, procedural inefficiencies, and cultural adaptability for digital transformation. These insights were critical in refining the SOP design and ensuring alignment with local constraints.

Table 1. Summary of survey respondents and case study characteristics.

Item	Details
Total Respondents	34
Sector Affiliation	45% Public Sector, 55% Private Sector
Civil Engineers	73% of total respondents
Academic Qualifications	6% PhD holders, 53% MSc holders
Experience Level	74% with more than 10 years of professional experience
Number of Companies	11 engineering firms
Projects Evaluated	46 construction projects across six Syrian governorates
Project Type Distribution	54% Residential, 41% Transportation, 4% Infrastructure
Geographic Coverage	Damascus, Rural Damascus, Tartous, Latakia, Hama, Al Suwayda

summarizes key characteristics of the survey respondents and construction projects evaluated during this study. This information provides essential context for understanding the expertise of participants and the representativeness of the selected projects, which informed the SOP framework’s development and validation.

Additionally, qualitative data from open-ended survey responses and interview transcripts were analyzed using a manual thematic analysis approach. The responses were first transcribed and coded within Excel spreadsheets, where recurring patterns, keywords, and themes were identified and grouped into broader categories such as “tracking inefficiencies”, “digital adoption barriers”, and “procurement challenges”. This structured coding process enabled the extraction of practical insights that directly informed the design and refinement of the SOP framework.

3.4. Initial SOP Draft Development

Based on the survey and interview results, a preliminary Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) framework was developed to directly address the most frequently reported challenges in material tracking. The development process was grounded in the themes and problem areas identified during data collection. For example, recurring issues related to delays in receiving and dispatching materials guided the creation of specific procedures focused on verification and handover coordination. Similarly, procurement inefficiencies were addressed through the inclusion of protocols for contract finalization and delivery scheduling. While the SOPs were not modeled on any formal international standards, their structure was guided by fundamental principles of clarity, accessibility, and repeatability. The focus was on reducing procedural uncertainty, minimizing training needs, and ensuring practical applicability in resource-limited environments.

The initial SOP draft emphasized the following components:

• Standardized protocols for receiving materials, quality verification, and dispatch;
• Integration of low-cost digital tools such as QR codes and mobile-accessible dashboards;
• Visual SOP templates and multilingual formats to enhance usability across diverse workforces.

This preliminary version served as the foundation for expert validation and refinement in the subsequent phase.

3.5. Expert Focus Groups and Refinement

To validate and enhance the draft SOP framework, two structured focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with professionals from academia, industry, and the digital construction sector. A total of eleven experts participated, representing civil, electrical, and mechanical engineering disciplines, as well as IT specialists and logistics managers from Syria, Egypt, and Kuwait. These experts were independently selected and were not part of the earlier survey or interview samples, ensuring objective validation and fresh perspectives.

Each FGD session lasted approximately 90 min and was held virtually using Zoom. A semi-structured discussion guide was used to maintain consistency while encouraging open-ended feedback. Experts evaluated the SOPs for clarity, practicality, technical feasibility, and alignment with site-level operations. Recommendations were synthesized thematically, and follow-up clarifications were conducted in cases of difference or uncertainty. The key refinements based on expert input included the following:

• Modular SOP design adaptable to project size and complexity;
• Use of visual aids and simplified language to improve comprehension;
• Inclusion of multilingual formats and mobile accessibility for broader usability;
• Emphasis on real-time feedback loops via automated dashboards and QR tracking.

These modifications ensured that the SOPs were not only theoretically grounded but also field-ready for deployment under resource-constrained conditions.

3.6. Final SOP Framework

The finalized SOP framework was developed with the explicit goal of functioning within the operational and infrastructural limitations typical of construction projects in developing countries. Drawing from stakeholder feedback and survey evidence, the framework was designed to ensure ease of adoption, adaptability across contexts, and integration with sustainability goals. The guiding principles that shaped the final SOP structure were as follows:

• Simplicity: Clear, concise procedures were developed to minimize training requirements, especially in environments where digital literacy may be limited.
• Practicality: The modular structure allows SOPs to be selectively applied based on the type, scale, and resource availability of each project.
• Sustainability: Each process step was designed to reduce material waste, limit redundant transportation, and enhance accuracy in forecasting and inventory control.

These principles emerged as recurring themes throughout the data collection and validation process, reinforcing the need for context-sensitive, stakeholder-aligned tools that bridge the digital and procedural divide in materials tracking systems.

4. Results

4.1. Survey Findings: Critical Factors and Obstacles in Material Tracking

4.1.1. Key Factors Influencing Material Tracking

The survey identified several key factors that significantly impact the effectiveness of material tracking in construction projects. The type and quantity of materials emerged as the most critical components, with all respondents rating them as highly influential. Larger quantities, especially, were associated with increased risks of mismanagement, delays, and waste, underlining the importance of accurate forecasting and real-time tracking in promoting sustainable material use. Another influential factor was the location of the construction site in relation to the warehouse. While proximity to suppliers or manufacturing sites was generally seen as advantageous, the distance between warehouses and construction sites was viewed as moderately important by respondents, depending on how well the logistics process was managed. Efficient material transportation is essential to minimizing environmental impact and ensuring timely delivery. The role of labor in material handling was also emphasized. Respondents underscored the need for a sufficient number of workers with clearly defined roles to facilitate unloading, inspection, and placement. Well-structured workforce coordination was seen as essential for reducing tracking errors and preventing resource waste. Additionally, the size and type of project played a significant role. Approximately 21% of respondents highlighted project complexity as a key determinant of tracking needs. Infrastructure projects require more robust tracking systems compared to residential or commercial buildings due to their scale and diversity of materials. The availability and use of detailed site maps was another variable explored. While 14% of participants considered them unnecessary, notably 62% emphasized their critical importance, especially in large-scale projects where spatial confusion can lead to misplaced resources and increased waste. These findings collectively suggest that material tracking must be context-responsive, with systems tailored to match the project’s size, complexity, and logistical demands.

4.1.2. Obstacles Across Project Phases

This study also examined obstacles to effective material tracking, categorizing them across four key project phases: material definition, supplier selection, procurement, and implementation. Respondents consistently identified the procurement and implementation phases as the most problematic, particularly in relation to material quality and storage methods. Specifically, 88% of participants reported that poor-quality materials received during the implementation phase and inadequate storage practices during procurement had the most substantial negative impact on tracking efficiency. By contrast, only 29% of respondents viewed the lack of communication with suppliers during the early material definition phase as a significant obstacle. These results are visually summarized in Figure 2, which shows the relative frequency of critical material tracking challenges as reported by respondents. Each bar represents the percentage of participants identifying a specific challenge, and color-coding distinguishes the four project phases. The figure reinforces the conclusion that procurement and implementation phases carry the majority of high-impact obstacles, such as incorrect material quality, poor storage, and delivery mismatches. These findings highlight the need for targeted SOP interventions in these two phases to enhance resource efficiency and support sustainable material management in resource-constrained environments.

To quantify the overall influence of each phase, an Effective Impact metric (I_eff) was developed by combining two factors: a pre-assigned weight (W), based on the number and severity of identified obstacles, and the average percentage of respondents (I) who confirmed the significance of these challenges. The formula used was I_eff = W × I. While this customized model was tailored to this study’s focus, it conceptually aligns with prioritization techniques commonly found in multi-criteria decision-making and risk analysis literature [45].

As shown in

Table 2. Effective Impact of each project phase on material tracking efficiency.

Phase	Defining the Materials	Selecting Suppliers	Procurement	Implementation
The weight (W) out of 1	0.28	0.10	0.38	0.24
Impact (I) = Avg. % Respondents	63%	67%	64%	71%
The Effective Impact (Ieff) = W × I	17%	7%	24%	17%

, the procurement phase exerts the greatest overall impact on material tracking efficiency (24%), followed by the implementation and definition phases (17% each). These findings reinforce the earlier survey results and emphasize the importance of prioritizing SOP improvements in procurement workflows to reduce material waste, prevent delivery delays, and promote more sustainable construction outcomes.

4.1.3. Comparative Insights Across Project Categories

To explore potential patterns in SOP implementation and material tracking performance, the 46 case studies were grouped by project type, geographic location, and ownership model, as outlined in Table 1. While no formal statistical analysis was conducted due to sample size limitations within subgroups, descriptive insights were drawn from the survey and interview data. Among project types, transportation-related projects (41%) tended to report higher complexity in logistics coordination, especially during procurement and delivery stages, compared to residential projects (54%), which exhibited greater issues with on-site inventory management. Projects categorized under infrastructure (4%)—including water and utility systems—were limited in number but frequently relied on informal procurement methods. Regional comparisons revealed that projects located in Latakia and Tartous showed relatively higher SOP compliance, likely due to more stable local supply chains and better access to mobile infrastructure. In contrast, projects in Al Suwayda and rural areas of Rural Damascus encountered recurring connectivity issues and greater reliance on verbal or paper-based workflows. Public-sector projects (45%) were more likely to face delays due to rigid procurement protocols and multi-layered approval processes. Private-sector projects (55%), while comparatively faster in decision-making, often showed inconsistent enforcement of SOP procedures, particularly during material storage and handover phases. These trends support the rationale for tailoring SOP frameworks to the contextual realities of each project type and ownership structure. A summary of these observations is presented in

Table 3. Observed trends in SOP implementation across project categories.

Category	Dominant Challenge	SOP Implementation Pattern
Transportation	Logistics delays	Stronger in execution, weaker in handover
Residential	Inventory mismanagement	More QR-code adoption on-site
Public Projects	Procurement delays	Slower cycle, more SOP compliance
Private Projects	Inconsistent storage practices	Faster cycle, but variable compliance
Coastal Regions	Better supplier reliability	Higher digital tool usage
Rural Projects	Connectivity gaps	More procedural workarounds

.

4.2. Interview Insights

To complement the survey results and explore practical challenges in greater depth, 14 structured interviews were conducted with engineers, procurement officers, and site supervisors across multiple Syrian construction sites. These interviews provided nuanced, real-world perspectives on the current state of material management and the feasibility of implementing a structured materials tracking system (MTS).

The key insights are summarized below:

• Lack of Integration Between Office and Site Operations: Respondents consistently noted a disconnection between office-based planning tools (such as Primavera) and real-time operations at construction sites. While many companies maintain digital records in the office, these data are rarely shared effectively with site teams, resulting in delays, duplicated efforts, and limited tracking accuracy.
• Manual and Paper-Based Tracking Still Prevails: Despite awareness of digital tools, most participants reported that their organizations still rely heavily on Excel sheets, paper-based logs, and informal verbal communication for material tracking. This practice increases the risk of errors, lost data, and inefficiencies in procurement and usage.
• Barriers to Digital Adoption: Interviewees highlighted several obstacles to adopting digital tracking systems, including limited internet access at construction sites, lack of IT infrastructure, and insufficient training for staff. These barriers were particularly acute in public sector projects and smaller private firms.
• Material Quality and Procurement Issues: A recurring concern was the delivery of materials that did not meet project specifications. Respondents emphasized that delays caused by rejections or returns are common and rarely logged systematically, which hinders continuous improvement in procurement planning.
• Need for a Centralized, Role-Based System: Several engineers recommended the development of a centralized platform that allows role-based access for different stakeholders—such as site engineers, procurement managers, and warehouse staff. This system should also be capable of generating automatic notifications to track updates, alert teams about delivery dates, and flag delays or inconsistencies.
• Support for SOP Framework: Respondents expressed support for the proposed SOP approach, especially the idea of linking standard procedures to an interactive tracking system that reflects the actual material workflow on-site. They noted that SOPs could help reduce confusion about responsibilities, improve accountability, and align staff with sustainability goals.

These insights provided practical grounding for refining the SOP framework and helped ensure that the final design responded to the realities of the construction environment in Syria. The feedback emphasized that successful implementation requires not just technical innovation, but also cultural readiness, training, and policy support at both the organizational and sector levels.

In addition to these general insights, some differences were observed across project types and locations. Residential projects, particularly in rural or peri-urban settings, were more likely to rely on manual processes, face delivery delays, and lack access to certified suppliers. By contrast, transportation and infrastructure projects, often larger in scale and better funded, exhibited more structured procurement procedures and had limited but growing access to digital tools. Urban sites tended to benefit from better internet connectivity and warehouse accessibility, while remote sites struggled with supply chain fragmentation and inconsistent material quality. These contextual differences underscore the importance of adapting the SOP framework to the logistical and institutional realities of each project type and location. While this study did not include a stratified analysis due to the limited sample size per subgroup, future research should explore comparative implementation across categories to further tailor SOP applications.

Statistical Summary of SOP Effectiveness and Stakeholder-Specific Obstacles

To deepen the understanding of material tracking challenges across project phases and stakeholder groups, additional descriptive statistics were calculated based on the quantitative survey data.

Table 4. SOP effectiveness ratings by project phase (n = 34).

Project Phase	Mean SOP Effectiveness (1–5)	Standard Deviation	N
Defining the Materials	3.1	0.94	12
Selecting Suppliers	3.5	0.82	16
Procurement	4.3	0.58	22
Implementation	3.9	0.73	18

presents the average SOP effectiveness scores for each major project phase, using a 5-point Likert scale. The Procurement phase exhibited the highest mean effectiveness rating (M = 4.3, SD = 0.58), followed by Implementation (M = 3.9, SD = 0.73). The Defining the Materials phase showed the lowest effectiveness (M = 3.1, SD = 0.94), indicating persistent gaps in early documentation and inventory planning procedures. To further explore implementation obstacles, a cross-tabulation was conducted to examine how different stakeholder groups perceived the frequency of key challenges. As shown in

Table 5. Most reported SOP implementation obstacles by stakeholder group (%).

Obstacle Description	Contractors (%)	Consultants (%)	Government Officials (%)
Incomplete SOP Documentation	78	64	43
Tracking System Inconsistencies	69	55	34
Delayed Procurement Approvals	72	38	76

, contractors most frequently cited incomplete SOP documentation and tracking system inconsistencies, while government officials emphasized delays in procurement approvals. These variations underscore the importance of tailoring SOP content and training strategies to the specific roles and responsibilities of each stakeholder group, particularly in resource-constrained environments where institutional fragmentation may exacerbate communication and coordination challenges.

4.3. Key Revisions to SOP Framework Based on FGD Feedback

To validate and refine the proposed SOPs for the MTS, two structured focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with professionals in construction and IT. The participants included eleven experts, comprising civil, electrical, and mechanical engineers, as well as IT specialists and project managers, from Syria, Egypt, and Kuwait. Their diverse expertise and work context provided a well-rounded evaluation of the SOP framework. The FGDs were conducted in two sessions, each lasting approximately two hours, and followed a semi-structured format to facilitate both open-ended feedback and structured assessments. These experts were independently selected from outside the survey and interview samples to ensure unbiased validation and to introduce new perspectives. During the sessions, participants evaluated the SOPs across four main criteria: technical feasibility, relevance to site-level workflows, adaptability in resource-limited settings, and integration with existing systems. Participant feedback was thematically coded and analyzed manually using an inductive approach, allowing for the identification of common themes, points of divergence, and areas requiring refinement. Consensus was reached through facilitated discussion, ensuring alignment across professional roles. During the FGDs, the preliminary SOPs were presented as a functional model of the MTS, which integrates digital tools, real-time tracking, and structured communication for sustainable material management. Participants critically assessed the system’s structure and provided target recommendations for improving both its technical feasibility and field applicability. A guided discussion protocol was used to elicit expert evaluation across four thematic areas: technical feasibility, field applicability, digital integration, and sustainability alignment. Notes were transcribed and coded manually using thematic analysis to identify consensus-based insights. While this manual coding approach enabled rich, context-specific feedback, participants also noted the future potential of integrating AI-based text analytics to process stakeholder input more efficiently, especially in large-scale deployments. Key recommendations were only included when there was agreement among at least 70% of participants, ensuring a level of reliability in the validation process. This method enabled the research team to extract and prioritize practical suggestions for final SOP refinement. Several refinements were proposed, including the simplification of mobile interface layouts, enhanced multilingual support, and the development of role-specific task templates to ensure usability by diverse site personnel. Their suggestions were incorporated into the final SOP design and are summarized below:

1-

Key Insights from Experts:

• QR Code Integration: Experts emphasized that QR technology could significantly enhance material traceability, especially during the rebuilding phase in Syria. However, they cautioned against overloading QR codes with excessive information. Instead, they proposed using URLs embedded in the QR code, linking each material to a central database. For granular materials, where QR labeling is difficult, it was suggested to use physical signage placed near the material storage areas.
• Material Waste Monitoring: Experts highlighted the potential for the MTS to predict material waste by analyzing historical consumption data. They emphasized the need to automate waste tracking, particularly in public sector projects where current monitoring is largely manual and error prone.
• Need for Integration Across Office and Site: While some companies in the Gulf region already employ E-Systems, participants noted these often lack real-time integration between office planning and on-site execution. MTS was commended for addressing this gap by enabling bidirectional data sharing and operational updates.
• Benefits of Real-Time Tracking and Notifications: Experts noted that one of the MTS’s strengths is its ability to enhance communication across departments through automated notifications. This ensures timely procurement, reduces delays, and improves sustainability by minimizing rework and material loss.

2-

Final Modifications Based on Expert Recommendations:

• Application Scope: Restrict the system’s implementation to medium and large-scale projects with complex material flows.
• Stakeholder Definition: Clearly assign roles and responsibilities to each project stakeholder within the MTS database.
• Warehouse Integration: Allow for integration of both formal warehouses and informal on-site storage areas regardless of their structure or location.
• Sub-Warehouse Tracking: Include sub-warehouse tracking within the system to accommodate multiple storage points on large sites.
• GPS Tracking: Incorporate GPS tools to monitor vehicle movements during material transportation and delivery.
• Material Expiration Dates: Track storage duration and manage expiration-sensitive materials to reduce waste and prevent material degradation.

These refinements ensured that the SOPs are not only practical and context-specific, but also ready for digital implementation in developing country contexts. The participatory feedback loop between experts and the research team strengthened the system’s alignment with real-world material management challenges.

4.4. Finalized SOP Framework Snapshot

The SOP framework was developed through a structured, multi-phase process grounded in empirical data and expert input. The first phase involved identifying critical material tracking challenges through a national survey and 14 structured interviews with engineers, procurement officers, and site supervisors. These insights informed the creation of a preliminary set of procedures targeting high-risk areas across the project lifecycle. In the second phase, these draft SOPs were reviewed and refined through two rounds of expert focus group discussions. Participants evaluated each step using criteria such as clarity, feasibility, digital compatibility, and sustainability alignment. Feedback from these sessions led to the restructuring of tasks into modular components and the refinement of tools (e.g., QR cards, dashboards) for field-level usability. This iterative process ensured that the final SOPs were both context-sensitive and technically robust.

Based on survey results, interview insights, and validation through expert focus groups, the final version of the Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for the materials tracking system (MTS) was developed. The framework aims to enhance resource efficiency, reduce material waste, and improve communication throughout the construction project lifecycle, especially in resource-constrained environments. Its design is grounded in three core principles: simplicity, through visual templates and clear task instructions; flexibility, by organizing steps into modular components suitable for different project sizes; and sustainability, by embedding traceability and optimized resource use across all workflows. The finalized framework consists of 14 SOPs (P#1–P#14), distributed across four key phases of material management. These are summarized in

Table 6. Core phases and operational functions of the final SOP framework.

Phase	SOP Focus Areas
Phase 1: Defining Materials	P#1—Extracting information from project plans (Primavera/BoQ) P#2—Preparing a supply plan
Phase 2: Selecting Suppliers	P#3—Generating material cards with cost/supplier data P#4—Assigning materials to suppliers P#5—Choosing procurement method
Phase 3: Procurement	P#6—Starting the procurement process P#7—Finalizing contracts P#8—Arranging delivery logistics P#9—Material receiving P#10—Quality and quantity verification
Phase 4: Implementation	P#11—Dispatching to site P#12—QR tracking and on-site placement P#13—Consumption recording P#14—Updating inventory and follow-up

, which presents each phase alongside its associated operational procedures.

Each process is supported by the following digital and procedural components:

• A centralized MTS cloud platform that functions as the main dashboard and processing database;
• QR-coded materials cards that allow real-time tracking of material status and movement;
• Automated interdepartmental notifications to trigger procurement, delivery, or corrective actions;
• Visual SOP templates available in multilingual formats for field usability;
• Integrated data-sharing capabilities for decision-making across teams and project phases.

To enhance practical functionality, materials cards are generated from project execution tools such as Primavera and BoQ schedules. These cards contain three key datasets:

(1)

Fixed data including codes, material names, and specifications;

(2)

Variable Data A (e.g., estimated delivery and consumption dates, quantities, costs);

(3)

Variable Data B capturing supplier-related data and contract updates.

To provide an initial understanding of the framework’s operational impact,

Table 7. Estimated operational improvements following SOP implementation.

Performance Indicator	Estimated Improvement	Source
Material waste reduction	15–25% decrease	Expert focus group (n = 14)
Delivery time accuracy	20–30% improvement	Site supervisor interviews (n = 9)
Procurement lead time	10–15% reduction	Procurement officer responses (survey)
Inventory discrepancy rate	Reduction from ~18% to <8%	Internal warehouse reporting (3 sites)
Frequency of emergency reorders	~40% decrease	Combined interview feedback

Note: These values represent practitioner-informed estimates based on field experience and validation feedback. They are intended as indicative benchmarks to guide future empirical testing in resource-constrained construction environments [9].

presents estimated improvements in key performance indicators, including material waste reduction, delivery accuracy, procurement lead time, and inventory discrepancies. These estimates are based on field insights gathered during expert validation workshops and practitioner interviews, in which participants reflected on likely changes following SOP implementation. While not derived from instrumented measurements, these practitioner-informed values offer indicative benchmarks for expected outcomes in similar construction settings. This validation approach has been adopted in previous studies focused on low-resource environments, where pilot testing or simulation is often infeasible. For example, Kasim (2015) and Zaher et al. (2018) used expert-based estimation to gauge expected improvements in material tracking performance prior to full-scale implementation [9,11]. Babaeian Jelodar and Shu (2021) also emphasized the value of triangulated practitioner input for early-stage system evaluation in infrastructure projects [15]. This approach aligns with accepted practices for early-stage MTS development in developing contexts, as previously demonstrated by Kasim (2015) [9].

The SOP framework incorporates several targeted procedures to address procurement-related risks, particularly in unregulated or informal supply chains. SOPs P#3 to P#10 include multiple control points that reduce the likelihood of supplier noncompliance, delivery delays, and counterfeit materials. For example, P#3 requires the generation of standardized material cards with embedded supplier and contract information, which are digitally linked to procurement workflows. P#4 and P#5 emphasize traceable supplier assignment and formal documentation of procurement methods. During material receipt (P#9), warehouse staff use QR codes and quality verification steps (P#10) to confirm material authenticity and match deliveries to original specifications. In cases of discrepancies, automated notifications are sent to relevant departments, triggering either re-verification or rejection protocols. These steps were specifically adapted to the realities of informal procurement systems, where verbal agreements, limited documentation, and parallel supply channels are common, and were validated through feedback from field practitioners. By embedding traceability, digitized verification, and structured escalation pathways into procurement procedures, the framework enhances accountability and reduces the impact of typical procurement risks in low-regulation environments. Once issued, these cards are encoded with QR tags and circulated to stakeholders such as procurement officers, warehouse staff, and site supervisors. Upon delivery, materials are scanned and logged into the system. For granular materials (e.g., sand, gravel), signage containing QR codes is placed nearby, linking the material to its digital identity in the database. Warehouse staff verify quality and quantity, and approved materials are stored with QR stickers that can also be linked to GPS tags for theft prevention and transport tracking. To support real-time synchronization between QR/GPS data and the centralized cloud dashboard, the MTS architecture includes a mobile interface that allows users to scan materials using smartphones or tablets. The system captures both QR code information and GPS coordinates during delivery or site usage events. In offline conditions, the data are temporarily cached on the device and automatically synced with the cloud once connectivity is restored or at defined intervals (e.g., every 15 min). The cloud dashboard is updated continuously, providing authorized users with real-time visibility into material status, location, and handling history. The system includes role-based access and conflict-resolution logic (e.g., timestamp-based entry prioritization) to ensure data integrity and user accountability. The MTS platform continuously updates the movement and status of materials from warehouse to site, allowing the dispatch center to coordinate delivery logistics in real time. As materials are consumed, usage data are automatically fed back into the system, triggering alerts for reordering or adjusting delivery plans. Sustainability indicators, such as delivery accuracy, consumption rates, and waste levels, are monitored throughout the workflow, allowing project teams to track progress and performance. The inclusion of estimated performance data provides early insights into the framework’s potential contribution to sustainability metrics and supports targeted improvements over time. To further illustrate SOP performance across different construction phases, Figure 3 presents a heatmap summarizing average effectiveness scores reported by participants. The inclusion of estimated performance data provides early insights into the framework’s potential contribution to sustainability metrics and supports targeted improvements over time.

To illustrate differences in SOP performance across project phases, Figure 4 presents a heatmap showing the average effectiveness scores reported by participants. The Procurement phase recorded the highest rating (4.3), indicating strong alignment with SOP procedures, while the Defining Materials phase had the lowest score (3.1), reflecting persistent early-stage coordination and documentation challenges. These results highlight the importance of targeted improvements at the front end of project planning.

These indicators are closely tied to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and support ongoing assessment and refinement. The complete SOP workflow and its integration across all four construction phases are illustrated in Figure 3, which presents a structured flowchart summarizing the interaction between planning tools (e.g., Primavera), procurement decisions, supplier coordination, warehouse logistics, and site-level handling. The figure demonstrates how real-time information exchange, enabled by QR codes, cloud-based dashboards, and automated notifications, supports transparency, reduces delays, and aligns material tracking practices with sustainability goals. It also visualizes the transition points between procedural steps and digital tools, underscoring how the SOP framework ensures operational continuity across the project lifecycle. To contextualize the improvements introduced by the SOP framework, Figure 5 presents a quantitative Sankey diagram illustrating the transition from manual to digital material tracking processes before and after implementation. The diagram visualizes the percentage of improvement across four critical processes, using practitioner-informed estimates derived from this study’s mixed-methods findings. Key transitions include a 60% shift from manual delivery to QR-coded delivery, a 55% transition from undefined to approved suppliers, a 50% improvement from verbal to digital quality checks, and a 65% enhancement from untracked to synced inventory systems. These flows reflect the SOP framework’s operational impact across all four material management phases and demonstrate how structured procedures, when combined with low-cost digital tools, can significantly enhance traceability, reduce material waste, and support sustainability in resource-constrained construction environments. In the absence of instrumented pre- and post-implementation field data, these triangulated practitioner estimates offer a credible and realistic early-stage benchmark for evaluating SOP effectiveness.

The validated SOP framework represents a field-tested, expert-endorsed, and sustainability-aligned system for material management. Through the integration of stakeholder-driven design and context-aware digital tools, the MTS offers a scalable pathway for improving material tracking, particularly in developing country contexts. It is especially well suited for infrastructure-intensive and post-conflict environments, where inefficiencies in procurement, logistics, and inventory management can severely undermine sustainability objectives. While the current SOP framework primarily incorporates structured digital tools, such as QR-based tracking, cloud dashboards, and automated notifications, several core processes across the four material management phases present further opportunities for enhancement through Artificial Intelligence (AI). For example, machine learning algorithms could be employed to predict material demand based on historical consumption trends, enabling proactive inventory control and minimizing the risks of stockouts or over-ordering. Supplier selection can also benefit from AI-powered multi-criteria decision models that dynamically evaluate performance metrics, delivery reliability, and real-time cost fluctuations. During procurement and implementation, computer vision technologies may automate quality inspections by analyzing images of delivered materials, while GPS-enabled AI systems can detect inefficiencies or security risks in vehicle movement patterns. In addition, AI-driven analytics embedded into the centralized MTS dashboard would support real-time monitoring of key sustainability indicators like carbon emissions, delivery accuracy, and material waste, thereby enhancing strategic decision-making across project phases. At this stage, AI/ML capabilities are proposed as part of future work and are not yet implemented within the prototype. To support such applications, future development will require context-specific datasets, such as delivery logs, material rejection reports, usage rates, and image-based quality control archives. Suitable AI model structures may include convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for visual defect detection and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) or LSTM models for time-series forecasting of material demand. Successful implementation will also depend on data availability, stakeholder readiness, and computing infrastructure, especially in resource-constrained contexts. These enhancements are included as a forward-looking roadmap aligned with ongoing digital transformation trends in construction management. These capabilities not only improve system responsiveness and operational intelligence, but also align with global efforts to digitize construction workflows and advance sustainability performance in resource-constrained and post-conflict settings.

5. Discussion

The development and validation of the proposed Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for the materials tracking system (MTS) provide valuable insights into the operational and strategic challenges that hinder sustainable material management in developing construction environments. Findings from surveys, interviews, and focus group discussions consistently identified the procurement and implementation phases as the most critical points of failure, with high-impact challenges such as material quality discrepancies and inadequate storage practices contributing significantly to waste, delays, and cost overruns. These observations reinforce earlier research highlighting procurement-stage vulnerabilities and material storage deficiencies as key barriers to construction efficiency in developing regions [1,3,4,8]. However, this study expands upon previous work by introducing a phase-based composite metric that quantifies the impact of each project stage, offering a more structured and data-driven understanding of material tracking vulnerabilities [6,9]. A major contribution of this research lies in addressing the gap between existing digital tools and their limited on-site application. While digital systems are commonly used in office environments, their integration with real-time site operations remains minimal. This trend was also noted by Kasim [9] and Hammoudi & Shibani [5], who documented the digital divide in construction technology adoption. The MTS framework was explicitly designed to bridge this gap through features such as QR code-based tracking, automated interdepartmental notifications, and centralized inventory updates. These elements were validated by industry experts as being both context-appropriate and urgently needed. Similar validation methods have been employed in prior frameworks focusing on local adaptability and low-cost digital transformation [2,5,12]. The modular design of the SOPs enhances the framework’s adaptability, making it suitable for gradual implementation across projects with varying levels of complexity, digital readiness, and workforce capacity. To support adoption among SMEs and rural contractors, simplified SOP templates and mobile-friendly tools were also included and field-tested for usability. This flexibility is particularly relevant in countries like Syria, where infrastructure limitations and digital illiteracy reduce the feasibility of advanced automated systems [2,5,23]. In Syria, the construction sector operates under compounding structural and institutional constraints that significantly affect the implementation and reliability of materials tracking systems. Prolonged instability has disrupted supply chains, weakened regulatory enforcement, and contributed to fragmentation across project phases. Hammoudi and Shibani (2024) emphasized that digital innovation in the Syrian construction context remains limited by low levels of infrastructure availability and stakeholder readiness, especially among small contractors and public agencies [5]. Furthermore, Maya (2020) identified the absence of standardized professional management practices as a major cause of inefficiencies in project execution, particularly in the areas of procurement control and workflow coordination [6]. Supplier-related constraints also play a critical role. As shown by Shaheen and Al-Shihabi (2022), many local suppliers face operational uncertainties and lack access to formalized selection mechanisms, which increases the likelihood of material delivery issues and inconsistent quality [7]. Their follow-up study further demonstrated that the procurement and material handling phases are statistically the most problematic in terms of waste, delays, and miscommunication between project stakeholders [8]. These interrelated challenges underline the necessity of context-specific SOPs that minimize reliance on complex IT systems and instead emphasize modularity, low-cost tools, and flexible implementation. This rationale was also reinforced by national assessments published by the United Nations ESCWA (2021) [46], which highlight the urgent need for improved economic governance and institutional coordination across Syria’s reconstruction efforts.

In contrast to frameworks developed for high-income regions—which often assume fully digital ecosystems and sophisticated IT infrastructure—this SOP system emphasizes accessibility, transparency, and traceability using low-cost technologies such as QR codes, cloud dashboards, and basic mobile tools [9,21]. While AI-based enhancements such as predictive analytics, automated visual inspections, and GPS-based optimization are discussed in the manuscript, these capabilities remain conceptual and are proposed as future development directions. Their implementation will require the collection of context-specific datasets (e.g., delivery logs, usage patterns, quality inspection records), the design of training environments, and pilot testing in live construction settings. Suitable models may include convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for visual quality checks and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) or LSTM models for time-series forecasting. These future applications are outlined to provide a roadmap aligned with global digital transformation trends but are not part of the current operational prototype. By prioritizing human-centered processes, such as role-specific task definitions and simplified communication workflows, the proposed framework aligns with Oraee et al. [12], who advocate for collaborative, context-responsive solutions in digital construction environments. Moreover, the inclusion of sustainability indicators, such as delivery timing accuracy, material waste rates, and resource utilization metrics, supports continuous performance monitoring and system improvement. These indicators directly correspond to the core Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [47], including the following:

• SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure—through digital enhancement of construction workflows.
• SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities—by promoting resource-efficient construction practices.
• SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production—via waste reduction and optimized material usage.

While the framework was developed and validated within the Syrian construction context, its modular structure and reliance on affordable, widely available digital tools make it highly adaptable to other countries facing similar logistical, technical, and institutional barriers. However, successful scalability may still be challenged by factors such as inconsistent internet connectivity, lack of formal training programs, and resistance to procedural changes, particularly in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). These alignments position the SOP framework not only as a project-level solution, but also as a potential tool to support national strategies for sustainable construction, post-conflict recovery, and regional development planning in resource-limited settings [4,20,22]. By incorporating feedback from engineers, IT specialists, and logistics professionals, the framework is both technically robust and socially grounded. Key refinements, such as GPS-enabled transport monitoring, multilingual mobile interfaces, and role-based access control, were informed by practitioner insights and reflect the growing emphasis on user-centered innovation in construction technology adoption [5,11,12]. Although a formal cost–benefit analysis was beyond the scope of this study, qualitative feedback from stakeholders suggested several areas of potential financial impact. These include savings from reduced material waste, fewer emergency procurement cycles, and improved coordination, which help prevent delivery delays and on-site downtime. Practitioners indicated that even modest improvements in these areas could result in meaningful cost reductions, particularly on projects operating in remote areas or under tight procurement constraints. While not quantitatively assessed here, these cost-saving opportunities are important for both private contractors and public agencies. Future work should include structured economic assessments or simulations to quantify the financial benefits of SOP implementation under different project conditions. In addition, this study incorporated practitioner-informed estimates of performance indicators, such as material waste reduction, delivery time accuracy, and inventory discrepancy rates, summarized in Table 4. These quantitative benchmarks, while not derived from instrumented testing, offer an early-stage validation of the framework’s potential impact and serve as a reference for future empirical assessments. In conclusion, this research provides a validated, scalable, and sustainability-aligned SOP framework that bridges digital and procedural gaps in material tracking. It offers a replicable model for embedding sustainability in construction workflows, particularly in low-resource environments where systemic inefficiencies persist and continue to hinder progress toward broader development objectives. Finally, while this study is based on the Syrian construction context, it is acknowledged that its generalizability is currently limited to the case context. Future research should explore multi-country pilot studies, the integration of AI-based modules, and quantitative performance assessments (e.g., material waste reduction, cost savings, delivery time improvement) to evaluate the framework’s broader applicability and strategic value. In contrast to existing SOP or MTS models, which frequently assume access to advanced infrastructure and high digital maturity, the proposed framework is specifically designed for implementation in low-resource and conflict-affected construction environments. Its novelty lies in the practical integration of low-cost digital tools (e.g., QR-based tracking, cloud dashboards) with standardized, field-validated procedures. Furthermore, the framework was developed through direct engagement with engineers, IT specialists, and logistics professionals, ensuring contextual relevance, usability, and sustainability alignment. This practitioner-informed, context-adapted approach differentiates the model from previous conceptual or high-tech solutions and strengthens its potential for real-world impact.

6. Conclusions and Recommendations

This study developed and validated a context-sensitive, sustainability-oriented Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) framework for a materials tracking system (MTS), tailored to the realities of construction projects, with Syria serving as a representative case. By employing a mixed-methods approach, including surveys, interviews, and expert focus group discussions, this research identified critical inefficiencies in material tracking, particularly during the procurement and implementation phases. These were addressed through a digitally supported, field-tested SOP framework. The findings aligned with previous studies that identified procurement and implementation as key bottlenecks in resource-constrained environments. The finalized SOPs emphasize clarity, adaptability, and integration with low-cost digital tools such as QR code tracking and real-time dashboards, which have previously been shown to enhance traceability and reduce material waste in similar contexts. These features bridge the digital divide between office-based planning systems and on-site operations, a persistent challenge noted in construction digitization efforts within developing regions. This study demonstrates that well-structured material tracking, when aligned with project requirements and informed by stakeholder input, can significantly reduce waste, improve procurement efficiency, and enhance sustainability performance in resource-limited construction environments. Moreover, the framework’s modularity and reliance on affordable, widely available technologies make it highly transferable to other post-conflict, low-income, or infrastructure-constrained settings. Its adaptability positions it as a valuable tool not only for localized improvements, but also for regional and global strategies seeking scalable sustainability solutions in the built environment. To maximize the practical value of the proposed SOP-based MTS, the following recommendations are offered:

• Policy Integration: Regulatory bodies should consider incorporating the framework into national construction guidelines to standardize material tracking practices and foster accountability across public and private sectors.
• Capacity Building: Construction companies are encouraged to train procurement officers, site engineers, and warehouse managers in the use of the MTS, with an emphasis on digital literacy and sustainability awareness.
• Gradual Adoption: The SOPs’ modular structure supports phased implementation. Small and medium-sized enterprises can begin with core components such as procurement and inventory control and gradually adopt the full workflow.
• Cross-Sector Collaboration: Continued development and adaptation of the framework will benefit from collaboration among construction firms, IT developers, and academic institutions, particularly in post-conflict reconstruction settings.

This research presents an innovative, pragmatic, and expert-validated model for embedding sustainability into material management practices in the construction industry. The proposed MTS and its accompanying SOP framework offer a replicable approach that facilitates digital transformation, improves operational efficiency, and promotes environmental responsibility, addressing the three essential pillars of sustainable development in the built environment. However, it is acknowledged that the framework’s current implementation is context-specific, and broader generalizability must be tested. Future research should focus on piloting the proposed MTS framework in live construction projects to assess its impact on sustainability indicators, such as material waste reduction, delivery accuracy, and carbon emissions, under varying site conditions. In addition, comparative evaluations across project scales and geographic regions will help validate the system’s adaptability and scalability in diverse operational environments. To further advance the system’s capabilities, future studies should explore the integration of AI-driven tools, such as machine learning for demand forecasting, computer vision for quality verification, and real-time analytics for sustainability monitoring. These applications have the potential to automate key functions, enhance decision-making, and strengthen the alignment of materials tracking systems with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).