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Identification and Characterization of MmuPV1 Causing Papillomatosis Outbreak in an Animal Research Facility
Potential for Core Fucose-Targeted Therapy Against HBV Infection of Human Normal Hepatocytes
Broadly Sarbecovirus-Neutralizing Antibodies Induced by Ancestral SARS-CoV-2 Infection
Dysregulation of microRNAs in the Brains of Mice Infected with Powassan Virus
Immune Responses and Replication of Rescued Torque Teno Virus (TTSuV1) in Mice

Journal Description

Viruses

Viruses is a peer-reviewed, open access journal of virology, published monthly online by MDPI. The Spanish Society for Virology (SEV), Canadian Society for Virology (CSV), Italian Society for Virology (SIV-ISV), Australasian Virology Society (AVS), Brazilian Society for Virology (BSV) and others are affiliated with Viruses and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, MEDLINE, PMC, Embase, PubAg, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Virology) / CiteScore - Q1 (Virology/Infectious Diseases)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 18.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journal: Zoonotic Diseases.

Impact Factor: 3.5 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.7 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 1999-4915

Latest Articles

18 pages, 1561 KB

Open AccessReview

Context-Specific Diversity of Antimicrobial Functions of Interferon-Stimulated Genes

by Munesh K. Harioudh and Saumendra N. Sarkar

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1635; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121635 (registering DOI) - 17 Dec 2025

Interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) were initially discovered for their role in antiviral functions. However, recent studies show evidence of a diverse and context-specific regulatory function of these genes in antiviral and antibacterial protection. The molecular mechanisms of such activities vary depending on the pathogen, [...] Read more.

Interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) were initially discovered for their role in antiviral functions. However, recent studies show evidence of a diverse and context-specific regulatory function of these genes in antiviral and antibacterial protection. The molecular mechanisms of such activities vary depending on the pathogen, cell type, isoform, and species. In this review, we summarize the context-specific functions of several prominent and well-known ISG families, including OAS, IFITs, ISG15, viperin, ADAR1, and Mx proteins. We provide examples of distinct enzymatic or regulatory mechanisms that are employed by these ISGs to carry out their diverse functions, including nucleic acid sensing, RNA degradation, translation inhibition, membrane remodeling, etc. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interferon Signaling in Viral Pathogenesis)

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22 pages, 2099 KB

Open AccessReview

The Dual Role of A20 (TNFAIP3) in Viral Infection: A Context-Dependent Regulator of Immunity and Pathogenesis

by Haesung Jeon and Choongho Lee

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1634; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121634 (registering DOI) - 17 Dec 2025

A20 (TNFAIP3) is a ubiquitin-editing enzyme that plays a central role in the regulation of inflammation and cell death, primarily through modulation of NF-κB signaling. In the context of viral infection, A20 exhibits a dual nature: it can both suppress antiviral immune responses [...] Read more.

A20 (TNFAIP3) is a ubiquitin-editing enzyme that plays a central role in the regulation of inflammation and cell death, primarily through modulation of NF-κB signaling. In the context of viral infection, A20 exhibits a dual nature: it can both suppress antiviral immune responses to facilitate viral replication and act as a host-protective factor to prevent immunopathology. This review synthesizes current findings on the context-dependent roles of A20, focusing on its capacity to switch between antiviral and proviral functions. We examine how specific determinants—including viral genetic makeup, the infected cell type, and the temporal stage of infection—dictate whether A20 protects the host or facilitates viral persistence. We propose a systematic framework for understanding A20 as a dynamic regulator that orchestrates the balance between pathogen clearance and tissue protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Virology and Viral Diseases)

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4 pages, 155 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Learning from the COVID-19 Pandemic—Through Sharing and Collaboration

by Julian W. Tang

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1633; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121633 (registering DOI) - 17 Dec 2025

During the COVID-19 pandemic (which some argue is still ongoing), I led three Special Issues (SIs) that were designed to cover the talking points that arose amongst many practitioners and researchers: (1) How can we maintain our usual diagnostic services in the face [...] Read more.

During the COVID-19 pandemic (which some argue is still ongoing), I led three Special Issues (SIs) that were designed to cover the talking points that arose amongst many practitioners and researchers: (1) How can we maintain our usual diagnostic services in the face of an ongoing pandemic [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Pandemic Measures on the Epidemiology and Seasonality of Other Viruses)

19 pages, 9776 KB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Microbiome Correspond with Diminished Lung Pathophysiology Following Early-Life Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection or Antibiotic Treatment: Microbiome Following RSV Infection

by Kazuma Yagi, Alexander D. Ethridge, Nobuhiro Asai, Carrie-Anne Malinczak, Llilian Arzola Martinez, Andrew J. Rasky, Susan B. Morris, Nicole R. Falkowski, Wendy Fonseca, Gary B. Huffnagle and Nicholas W. Lukacs

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1632; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121632 - 17 Dec 2025

Early-life respiratory syncytial virus (EL-RSV) infection has been implicated in long-term pulmonary disease in children. In these studies, neonatal BALB/c mice were infected at day 7 of life, leading to >35% losses in critical lung function, airway mucus metaplasia, and transcriptional hallmarks of [...] Read more.

Early-life respiratory syncytial virus (EL-RSV) infection has been implicated in long-term pulmonary disease in children. In these studies, neonatal BALB/c mice were infected at day 7 of life, leading to >35% losses in critical lung function, airway mucus metaplasia, and transcriptional hallmarks of mucus hypersecretion four weeks after RSV infection. While EL-RSV minimally reshaped the resident lung microbiota, it led to significant gut dysbiosis, including a long-term reduction of Proteobacteria that can be a source of protective metabolites related to barrier and immune function. Subsequent studies assessing whether a common infant antibiotic (ampicillin) could mitigate EL-RSV-induced lung alterations revealed further severe gut microbiome alterations and, on its own, later in life, recapitulated the full spectrum of RSV-associated alterations in lung function. Metagenomic inference showed that both RSV and ampicillin administered during early life reduced biosynthetic pathways for microbiome-derived metabolites, which are known to reinforce tight junctions, regulate inflammation, and preserve extracellular matrix elasticity. The shared loss of these metabolic programs provides a mechanistic bridge linking distinct early-life exposures to the microbiome changes and airway mechanical deficits later in life. Collectively, the data suggest that RSV and/or antibiotic-triggered gut dysbiosis is the primary insult that likely promotes improper lung maturation/repair through a metabolite-mediated mechanism and may suggest metabolite restoration as a strategy to promote proper developmental lung function. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Virology and Viral Diseases)

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18 pages, 2953 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evidence from COVID-19 Patients and Murine Studies for a Continuing Trend Towards Targeting of Nasopharyngeal Ciliated Epithelial Cells by SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Sublineages

by Agnes Carolin, Cameron R. Bishop, Kexin Yan, Branka Grubor-Bauk, Mark P. Plummer, Bing Tang, Michael Leitner, Eamon Raith, Simon C. Barry, Christopher M. Hope, Wilson Nguyen, Daniel J. Rawle and Andreas Suhrbier

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1631; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121631 - 17 Dec 2025

We describe RNA-Seq analyses conducted on nasopharyngeal swabs collected from 37 patients admitted to an Australian intensive care unit from October 2022 to August 2023. During this time, the dominant omicron sublineage infections broadly progressed from BA.5 to BA.2-like, to XBB-like, then XBC, [...] Read more.

We describe RNA-Seq analyses conducted on nasopharyngeal swabs collected from 37 patients admitted to an Australian intensive care unit from October 2022 to August 2023. During this time, the dominant omicron sublineage infections broadly progressed from BA.5 to BA.2-like, to XBB-like, then XBC, consistent with global trends. Viral load and patient metadata correlations indicated this cohort was broadly representative of severe COVID-19 patients. Human gene expression analyses were complicated by the large range (>5 log) and variability in viral reads. Nevertheless, the comparison of XBC and BA.5 samples that had comparable viral read counts, revealed differentially expressed genes and a cellular deconvolution signature that indicated increased targeting of ciliated epithelial cells by XBC. To obtain more evidence for increased targeting of ciliated epithelial cells by the later omicron sublineage viruses, a series of mouse strains were infected with a BA.5 or a XBB isolate. Increased infection of the nasal turbinates and ciliated epithelial cells by XBB was demonstrated by viral titrations and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Compared with previous lineages, the omicron lineage showed increased targeting of ciliated epithelia in the upper respiratory tract, with the data presented herein suggesting this trend continued for the omicron sublineages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Coronaviruses)

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4 pages, 172 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Canine Distemper Virus: Special Issue Editorial

by Mónica G. Candela and Nieves Ortega

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1630; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121630 - 17 Dec 2025

This Special Issue of Viruses focuses on canine distemper virus (CDV) in a context where the disease continues to challenge clinical practice, epidemiology, and wildlife conservation, despite more than half a century of systematic vaccination [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Canine Distemper Virus)

15 pages, 2223 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cardiac Tissue Damage in a Female Animal Post-COVID Model: Relevance of Chemokine-Mediated Inflammation

by Silvia Flaj-Prados, Esperanza Herradón Pliego, Carlos Goicoechea Garcia, Eva M. Sánchez-Robles, Lars Arendt-Nielsen, César Fernández-de-las-Peñas and Visitación López-Miranda

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1629; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121629 - 16 Dec 2025

Post-COVID cardiac complications have emerged as a significant and persistent clinical concern, yet their underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Animal models can act as proxies to investigate the pathophysiology of the human, post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC). The aim of this experimental [...] Read more.

Post-COVID cardiac complications have emerged as a significant and persistent clinical concern, yet their underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Animal models can act as proxies to investigate the pathophysiology of the human, post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC). The aim of this experimental study was to evaluate the expression of inflammatory biomarkers in cardiac tissue 28 days after SARS-CoV-2 infection in a female hACE2 mouse model, with a focus on chemokine-mediated immune activation. Twelve female C57BL/6 hACE2 mice were infected with the Omicron variant (BA.1.17 lineage) of SARS-CoV-2, and eleven non-infected mice served as controls. Cardiac tissue was analyzed via Western blot for markers of innate immune activation (TLR4, MyD88, NF-κB) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-18, IL-1β, TNF-α, CD11d). Cardiac tissue injury markers (iNOS, PAI-1 and Connexin43) were also analyzed. Compared to non-infected mice, cardiac tissue from infected mice showed significantly higher expression of IL-6 (p = 0.028), indicating an inflammatory state, and CD11d (p = 0.016), suggesting an inflammatory stage accompanied by sustained activation of chemokine-mediated inflammatory signaling. No significant differences in TLR4 (p = 0.340), MyD88 (p = 0.410), NF-κB p65 (p = 0.780), IL-18 (p = 0.548), IL-1β (p = 0.455), and TNF-α (p = 0.125) expressions were observed Similarly, no changes in cardiac damage markers (iNOS: p = 0.4684; PAI-1: p = 0.5345; Connexin 43: p = 0.2879) were found. The results of this experimental study would support the hypothesis of persistent low-grade inflammation as a contributor to post-COVID cardiac sequelae in females that is not accompanied by severe tissue damage, as also observed in clinical studies. This study also reinforces the need for studies evaluating the functional and structural evolution of the myocardium after an acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Coronaviruses)

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28 pages, 1298 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Receptor Recognition Mechanisms in Coronaviruses

by Jie Liu, Wenjing Luo, Jianming Li, Bingyi Cai, Zhiwei Lei, Shiyun Lin, Zhuohong Chen, Zhaoyang Yue, Xulin Chen, Yongkui Li, Zhen Luo, Qiwei Zhang and Xin Chen

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1628; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121628 - 16 Dec 2025

Cellular receptor recognition exerts fundamental roles during coronavirus infection. Clarifying the regulatory mechanism of virus receptor helps to better understand viral infection, transmission and pathogenesis; predict potential host and how viral escape from immune system; prevent coronavirus infection or develop treatment therapy. Herein, [...] Read more.

Cellular receptor recognition exerts fundamental roles during coronavirus infection. Clarifying the regulatory mechanism of virus receptor helps to better understand viral infection, transmission and pathogenesis; predict potential host and how viral escape from immune system; prevent coronavirus infection or develop treatment therapy. Herein, we summarize current understanding of host receptor recognition mechanisms in the different genera of coronavirus family. And we also review diverse methodologies of identification and clarification of virus receptors. The integration of structural biology, multi-omics, computational predictions, synthetic biology and artificially engineered viral receptors, provide a powerful framework for elucidating coronavirus‒receptor interactions. This also supports the development of broad-spectrum antiviral agents, smart biosensors, and intervention strategies against emerging coronaviruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coronaviruses Pathogenesis, Immunity, and Antivirals (2nd Edition))

9 pages, 3088 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Hollow Protein Fibers Templated Synthesis of Pt/Pd Nanostructures with Peroxidase-like Activity

by Beizhe Huang, Mengting Fan, Yuhan Li, Ting Zhang and Jianting Zhang

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1627; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121627 - 16 Dec 2025

Supramolecular proteins have emerged as promising templates for guiding metal ion mineralization into well-defined nanomaterials because of their structural versatility and chemical diversity. However, the precise control of metal ion nucleation on the different reactive sites of protein templates remains challenging. In this [...] Read more.

Supramolecular proteins have emerged as promising templates for guiding metal ion mineralization into well-defined nanomaterials because of their structural versatility and chemical diversity. However, the precise control of metal ion nucleation on the different reactive sites of protein templates remains challenging. In this study, a genetically engineered hollow tobacco mosaic virus protein fiber (TMVF) with excellent structural stability was employed to achieve selective mineralization of noble metal nanostructures either on its external surface or within its internal channel. Moreover, the Pt/Pd bimetallic nanowire (NW) was also successfully prepared by co-depositing Pt and Pd on the TMVF. The bimetallic NWs demonstrated a peroxidase-like activity, which enabled their application for cholesterol detection by cooperating with cholesterol oxidase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Genetically Engineered Plant Viruses)

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13 pages, 1608 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics and Influencing Factors Among Newly Diagnosed HIV-1 Patients with Non-Marital, Non-Commercial Heterosexual Contact in Lishui, China (2020–2024)

by Jianhua Mei, Jinkai Li, Xiaolei Chen, Liyang Qiu, Haifang Zhang, Jie Yu, Ling Ye, Deyong Zhang, Dongqing Cheng and Xiuying Chen

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1626; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121626 - 16 Dec 2025

The increasing proportion of HIV-1 infections transmitted via non-marital non-commercial heterosexual contact (NMNCHC) in China necessitates a deeper understanding of its local characteristics. This study investigated the epidemiological, molecular network, and drug-resistant profiles among 400 newly diagnosed HIV-1 patients infected via non-marital heterosexual [...] Read more.

The increasing proportion of HIV-1 infections transmitted via non-marital non-commercial heterosexual contact (NMNCHC) in China necessitates a deeper understanding of its local characteristics. This study investigated the epidemiological, molecular network, and drug-resistant profiles among 400 newly diagnosed HIV-1 patients infected via non-marital heterosexual contact (NMHC), specifically its non-commercial subtype, in Lishui from 2020–2024. HIV-1 pol gene sequences were analyzed for subtypes, drug resistance mutations, and transmission clusters using phylogenetic and network methods (genetic distance threshold: 0.9%). The overall prevalence of transmitted drug resistance (TDR) was 13.3%, an intermediate level exceeding the national average, driven predominantly by NNRTI resistance (6.3%). High-level resistance to NVP (3.0%) and EFV (2.75%) was observed. CRF08_BC (43.8%) was the dominant subtype. Multivariate analysis identified female gender and higher education as significant risk factors for NMNCHC acquisition. Molecular network analysis incorporated 55.3% of cases, revealing clusters predominantly composed of middle-aged and elderly males, with CRF08_BC and CRF01_AE showing higher NMNCHC transmission risk within networks. These findings underscore an evolving epidemic with significant TDR and highlight the urgent need for targeted interventions, including enhanced resistance surveillance and focused strategies for the concealed NMNCHC population, to curb local HIV-1 transmission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Virology and Viral Diseases)

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17 pages, 3263 KB

Open AccessArticle

TSWV Infection Differentially Reshapes the Symbiotic Microbiome of Two Frankliniella Thrips Species

by Eeshita Mandal, Nuttapol Noirungsee, Terd Disayathanoowat and Eui-Joon Kil

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1625; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121625 - 16 Dec 2025

Vectoring tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) by two well-known thrips species, Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande and F. intonsa Trybom (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), is facilitated in different ways. Symbiotic bacteria positively influence thrips fitness, but the interaction between these bacteria and tospovirus inside the thrips’ body [...] Read more.

Vectoring tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) by two well-known thrips species, Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande and F. intonsa Trybom (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), is facilitated in different ways. Symbiotic bacteria positively influence thrips fitness, but the interaction between these bacteria and tospovirus inside the thrips’ body remains unknown. Metagenomic profiling of symbionts in nonviruliferous and viruliferous Frankliniella thrips was performed to elucidate the interactions between symbiotic bacteria and the virus. A total of 97 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were identified by profiling the microbes, where Proteobacteria was the most abundant phylum, with a high richness in Serratia spp. F. occidentalis showed lower variation in bacterial diversity between nonviruliferous and viruliferous treatments than F. intonsa. RT-qPCR validation for Serratia and Escherichia revealed opposite abundance patterns between the two thrips species. In contrast, Enterobacteriaceae and Pantoea showed similar patterns with higher abundance in nonviruliferous conditions. Wolbachia was detected exclusively in F. intonsa, with a higher bacterial titer in the viruliferous sample. Our findings suggest that TSWV association may influence the abundance of different bacterial symbionts within the thrips’ body, potentially via induction of antimicrobial peptides in response to viral invasion, and to our knowledge this is the first report addressing this tripartite interaction. These findings improve our understanding of how virus–symbiont association contributes to thrips vector competence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Virus–Insect Interactions, 2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 721 KB

Open AccessReview

Does Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) Represent a Poly-Herpesvirus Post-Virus Infectious Disease?

by Maria Eugenia Ariza, Irene Mena Palomo and Marshall V. Williams

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1624; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121624 - 16 Dec 2025

Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is a debilitating multisystem illness with unknown etiology. An estimated 17–24 million people representing approximately 1% of the population are afflicted worldwide. In over half of cases, ME/CFS onset is associated with acute “flu-like” symptoms, suggesting a role [...] Read more.

Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is a debilitating multisystem illness with unknown etiology. An estimated 17–24 million people representing approximately 1% of the population are afflicted worldwide. In over half of cases, ME/CFS onset is associated with acute “flu-like” symptoms, suggesting a role for viruses. However, no single virus has been identified as the only etiological agent. This may reflect the approach employed or more strongly the central dogma associated with herpesviruses replication, which states that a herpesvirus exists in two states, either lytic or latent. The purpose of this review is to address the role that abortive lytic replication may have in the pathogenesis of ME/CFS and other post-acute viral infections and also to raise awareness that these syndromes might be poly-herpesviruses mediated diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Virology and Viral Diseases)

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14 pages, 1588 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Activity of the Staphylococcus aureus Phage vB_SaS_GE1 Against MRSA Clinical Isolates and Its Impact on the Formation of Dual-Species Biofilms with P. aeruginosa

by Nino Grdzelishvili, Davit Lazviashvili, Aleksandra Kurowska, Krzysztof Jakub Pawlik, Łukasz Łaczmanski, Elene Kakabadze, Elene Zhuravliova, Nina Chanishvili and Nata Bakuradze

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1623; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121623 (registering DOI) - 16 Dec 2025

Bacteriophage therapy is regarded as a promising alternative for treating and preventing antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the most prevalent and difficult-to-treat pathogens. S. aureus also contributes to the formation of both single- and mixed-species biofilms. Treating biofilms [...] Read more.

Bacteriophage therapy is regarded as a promising alternative for treating and preventing antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is one of the most prevalent and difficult-to-treat pathogens. S. aureus also contributes to the formation of both single- and mixed-species biofilms. Treating biofilms remains a major challenge for antibiotic-based eradication of pathogens, as the biofilm matrix provides a protective barrier for bacteria. The selection of highly active phages targeting S. aureus is therefore crucial for medical applications, given the high prevalence and drug resistance of this pathogen. In this study, S. aureus phage vB_SaS_GE1 (GE1) was isolated and characterized as a potential therapeutic agent. The phage was isolated and propagated, and its host range was determined using standard methods. Whole-genome sequencing and annotation of the phage DNA were performed. A time–kill assay and evaluation of the anti-biofilm activity of the Staphylococcus phage, both alone and in combination with Pseudomonas phage GEC_PNG3 (PNG3) on mixed-species biofilms, were conducted. The results indicated that GE1 is a lytic phage that does not carry virulence-determining genes. The time–kill assay demonstrated sustained lytic activity of GE1 without the emergence of phage-resistant mutants in the tested MRSA strains. Although phage treatment increased biofilm matrix production compared to the control, the viable cell count within the biofilms was reduced. Overall, the characteristics assessed indicate that vB_SaS_GE1 is safe and exhibits strong antibacterial activity against MRSA strains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Phage Therapy)

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11 pages, 495 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sociodemographic Associations and COVID-19 Symptoms Following One Year of Molecular Screening for SARS-CoV-2 Among Healthcare Workers

by Viviane Campos Barbosa de Sena, Michelle Oliveira, Rejane Alencar Saldanha, Larissa Vicenza, Tais Hanae Kasai Brunswick, Bernardo Tura, Helena Cramer Veiga Rey, Adriana Bastos Carvalho, Antônio Carlos Campos de Carvalho, Djane Braz Duarte, Dayde Lane Mendonça da Silva and Daniel Arthur Barata Kasal

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1622; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121622 - 16 Dec 2025

Background: During the COVID-19 pandemic, high rates of infection with SARS-CoV-2 were reported in healthcare workers (HCWs), among whom asymptomatic individuals had high potential to spread the virus while assisting high-risk patients. This study conducted routine SARS-CoV-2 screening among the staff of a [...] Read more.

Background: During the COVID-19 pandemic, high rates of infection with SARS-CoV-2 were reported in healthcare workers (HCWs), among whom asymptomatic individuals had high potential to spread the virus while assisting high-risk patients. This study conducted routine SARS-CoV-2 screening among the staff of a specialized cardiology hospital in Brazil during 2022 and 2023, while also evaluating variables associated with infection and the occurrence of symptoms. Methods: A prospective cohort study of 94 HCWs with biweekly RT-PCR screening was performed, employing RT-PCR from nasal swabs. Results: Participants aged 50.9 ± 10.2 years and were predominantly female (85.1%) and non-white (56.4%). The follow-up period was 576.4 ± 185.9 days, and most participants worked in the intensive care unit/emergency department (34%). Although the HCWs with the highest COVID-19 rates before inclusion were technicians/graduates (67.3%) and non-white individuals (57.7%), these groups presented lower infection rates at follow-up (p < 0.001, CI 95% 2.924–27.93; and p = 0.02, CI 95% 0.129–0.859, respectively). The number of asymptomatic cases increased during the study (p = 0.001), and simultaneous infection upsurges occurred in different hospital departments. Interpretation: These data highlight the association between educational level and the risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection in HCWs. The synchronicity of cases in different hospital departments offers insights about the nosocomial spread of SARS-CoV-2. The increase in the number of asymptomatic infections with repeated infections suggests that regular molecular screening may contribute to increasing the safety of both patients and HCWs in a pandemic context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2, 4th Edition)

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3 pages, 146 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Pestivirus 2024: Special Issue Editorial

by Benjamin J. Lamp and Christiane M. Riedel

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1621; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121621 - 16 Dec 2025

Pestiviruses are well known in the veterinary field and include some of the most economically significant pathogens of ungulates, such as classical swine fever virus (CSFV) and bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pestivirus 2024)

13 pages, 1121 KB

Open AccessBrief Report

Co-Circulation of Tick-Borne Bandaviruses and Orthonairoviruses Across Humans, Livestock, and Rats in Pakistan: Serologic Evidence and Public Health Implications

by Muhammad Ammar, Shengyao Chen, Muhammad Saqib, Jingyuan Zhang, Awais-Ur-Rahman Sial, Asad Zia, Yaohui Fang, Muhammad Khalid Mansoor, Abulimiti Moming, Asim Shahzad, Rehman Hafeez, Aneela Javed, Ali Hassan, Ben Hu, Ali Zohaib, Shu Shen and Fei Deng

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1620; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121620 - 15 Dec 2025

Tick-borne viruses (TBVs) pose significant public health and economic threats. Pakistan has endemic Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), but evidence suggests broader TBV circulation. This study assessed the seroprevalence of thirteen TBVs (seven are members of the genus Orthonairovirus and six are members [...] Read more.

Tick-borne viruses (TBVs) pose significant public health and economic threats. Pakistan has endemic Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), but evidence suggests broader TBV circulation. This study assessed the seroprevalence of thirteen TBVs (seven are members of the genus Orthonairovirus and six are members of the genus Bandavirus) in humans, livestock, and rats in Punjab, Pakistan. Serum samples (n = 794: 321 livestock, 253 human, and 220 rat) were collected from the Narowal, Lahore, and Faisalabad districts. Antibodies to viral NPs were detected using the luciferase immunoprecipitation system (LIPS). The overall seroprevalence was 19.14% (152/794); it was highest in livestock (27.10%), then humans (20.55%), and then rats (5.91%). The highest seroprevalence rates were 3.12% for CCHFV in livestock, 3.56% for Yezo virus (YEZV) in humans, and 0.91% for Tamdy virus (TAMV) and Tacheng tick virus 1 (TcTV-1) in rats. Neutralizing antibodies were detected against CCHFV (1 cattle, 4 humans), Bhanja virus (BHAV) (3 livestock, 1 rat), TAMV (1 cattle), Guertu virus (GTV) (1 cattle), and Dabie bandavirus (2 cattle). Sixteen samples showed antibodies to both orthonairoviruses and bandaviruses, indicating co-exposure. Further analysis showed that seropositivity was not randomly distributed. Livestock kept in commercial farming systems and people working mainly outdoors had distinctly higher exposure to TBVs than subsistence livestock and indoor workers. The results supported the circulation of TBVs among hosts within the close socio-economic/ecological integration area of Pakistan. These findings confirm the circulation of CCHFV, SFTSV, GTV, and TAMV; provide the first serologic evidence of BHAV in Pakistan; and underscore the need for further investigation into the potential circulation of additional TBVs. All results demonstrated that multiple TBVs have been circulating among humans, livestock, and rodents in Pakistan. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tick-Borne Viruses 2026)

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20 pages, 3953 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sequential Dengue Virus Infection in Marmosets: Histopathological and Immune Responses in the Liver

by Daniele Freitas Henriques, Livia M. N. Casseb, Milene S. Ferreira, Larissa S. Freitas, Hellen T. Fuzii, Carla Pagliari, Luciane Kanashiro, Paulo H. G. Castro, Gilmara A. Siva, Orlando Pereira Amador Neto, Valter M. Campos, Beatriz C. Belvis, Flavia B. dos Santos, Lilian R. M. de Sá and Pedro Fernando da Costa Vasconcelos

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1619; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121619 - 15 Dec 2025

This study evaluated hepatic pathological and phenotypic alterations, along with the inflammatory response, following sequential dengue virus (DENV) infection in Callithrix penicillata, a relevant model for human endemic scenarios. Twenty-six animals were initially infected subcutaneously with DENV-3. Thirteen were euthanized between 1 and [...] Read more.

This study evaluated hepatic pathological and phenotypic alterations, along with the inflammatory response, following sequential dengue virus (DENV) infection in Callithrix penicillata, a relevant model for human endemic scenarios. Twenty-six animals were initially infected subcutaneously with DENV-3. Thirteen were euthanized between 1 and 7 days post-infection (dpi) to assess the acute phase, and up to 60 dpi for the convalescent phase. The remaining animals received a secondary DENV-2 infection two months later. Liver samples underwent histopathological and immunohistochemical analysis. Viral antigens were identified in hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, and Councilman bodies. Observed liver changes included apoptosis, lytic necrosis, midzonal inflammation, Kupffer cell hyperplasia and hypertrophy, sinusoidal dilation, and hemosiderin deposition. Both primary and secondary infections increased activated macrophages, NK cells, S-100 protein, and B lymphocytes. Primary infection was associated with elevated CD4⁺ T cells, IFN-γ, TGF-β, IL-10, and Fas expression, whereas secondary infection induced higher IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-8, Fas, and VCAM levels. These findings mirror hepatic alterations in severe human dengue cases and underscore the role of direct viral effects and immune dysregulation in liver injury. The results support C. penicillata as a suitable non-human primate model for studying DENV pathogenesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Virology and Viral Diseases)

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16 pages, 8221 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Attenuated Recombinant Newcastle Disease Virus of Genotype VII Generated by Reverse Genetics

by Hongze Pang, Yidan Bo, Jiawei Chen, Yongzhi Xue, Baishi Lei, Kuan Zhao, Yu Huang, Wenming Jiang, Wuchao Zhang and Wanzhe Yuan

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1618; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121618 - 15 Dec 2025

Genotype VII Newcastle disease virus (NDV) has been confirmed as the predominant epidemic strain in China. Traditional vaccine strains fail to provide complete immune protection when challenged with an epidemic strain. NDV vaccines with phylogenetic relationships closer to those of the endemic viruses [...] Read more.

Genotype VII Newcastle disease virus (NDV) has been confirmed as the predominant epidemic strain in China. Traditional vaccine strains fail to provide complete immune protection when challenged with an epidemic strain. NDV vaccines with phylogenetic relationships closer to those of the endemic viruses demonstrate improved protective efficacy in reducing viral shedding and transmission. This research seeks to develop attenuated vaccine strains that are specifically aligned with NDV genotype VII. A reverse genetics system for the genotype VII NDV HB strain was developed, successfully rescuing the attenuated recombinant virus aHB by substituting the fusion protein (F) cleavage site motif “¹¹²R-R-Q-K-R↓F¹¹⁷” with “¹¹²G-R-Q-G-R↓L¹¹⁷.” Recombinant aHB virus attenuation was verified by assessing the mean death time (MDT) and intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI). The attenuated aHB strain demonstrated greater proliferation titers than did the virulent HB and rHB strains both in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, the genome exhibited significant genetic stability even after 10 passages in chicken embryos. When challenged with the HB strain of NDV genotype VII, the aHB-inactivated vaccine provided 100% protection to chickens and effectively prevented viral shedding. These findings indicate that recombinant aHB may serve as an effective vaccine candidate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Animal Viruses)

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14 pages, 7059 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in the Phenotype of Bacterial and Viral Sepsis—A Prospective, Multicenter, Observational Study

by Fabian Perschinka, Georg Franz Lehner, Timo Mayerhöfer, Andrea Köhler, Walter Hasibeder, Christoph Krismer, Julia Killian, Dietmar Fries, Johannes Bösch, Norbert Perschinka, Peter Hohenauer, Nadine Perschinka, Anna Lisa Hackl and Michael Joannidis

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1617; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121617 - 14 Dec 2025

Sepsis is defined as a dysregulated host response to an infection, leading to life-threatening organ dysfunction. While sepsis is most commonly the result of a bacterial infection, it may also be caused by viral pathogens. The aim of this study was to describe [...] Read more.

Sepsis is defined as a dysregulated host response to an infection, leading to life-threatening organ dysfunction. While sepsis is most commonly the result of a bacterial infection, it may also be caused by viral pathogens. The aim of this study was to describe differences in organ dysfunction patterns and inflammatory markers between bacterial and viral sepsis. In this prospective multicenter cohort study, adults meeting SEPSIS-3 criteria were recruited from four Austrian ICUs between 1 August 2021 and 1 April 2024, excluding those who were immunocompromised within the preceding 12 months. Ninety patients were enrolled, of whom 57 had bacterial and 33 viral sepsis. Inflammatory markers, including IL-6 and PCT, were higher at ICU admission in bacterial sepsis. Adjusted linear regression confirmed bacterial etiology as the only significant predictor of higher 48 h peak IL-6 and PCT values. Patients with viral sepsis typically fulfilled SEPSIS-3 criteria through respiratory and cardiovascular SOFA components, while other organ dysfunctions were less frequent. Significant differences in the phenotype of bacterial and viral sepsis were observed, characterized by distinct inflammatory profiles and differing patterns of organ dysfunction. These findings may support the improved differentiation of bacterial and viral etiologies in sepsis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cross-Pathogen Insights into Infectious Diseases: From Biomarkers to Burden and Therapeutic Strategies of Viral Pathogens)

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4 pages, 150 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue: “Innate Immunity to Virus Infection, 2nd Edition”

by Xinyu Zhang and Caijun Sun

Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1616; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121616 - 14 Dec 2025

The frequent emergence of highly pathogenic viruses globally has persistently threatened global health [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innate Immunity to Virus Infection 2nd Edition)

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