Pathogens

22 pages, 2737 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modulation of TvRAD51 Recombinase in Trichomonas vaginalis by Zinc and Cadmium as a Potential Mechanism for Genotoxic Stress Response

by Jonathan Puente-Rivera, José Jesús Flores-Vega, Marcos Morales-Reyna, Elisa Elvira Figueroa-Angulo, Yussel Pérez-Navarro, Alfonso Salgado-Aguayo, Ángeles Carlos-Reyes and Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 565; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060565 - 5 Jun 2025

Abstract

Trichomonas vaginalis, the protozoan responsible for trichomoniasis, encounters fluctuating levels of metal cations in the male urogenital tract, notably zinc (Zn²⁺) and cadmium (Cd²⁺), which may induce genotoxic stress. While zinc is a key physiological component of the [...] Read more.

Trichomonas vaginalis, the protozoan responsible for trichomoniasis, encounters fluctuating levels of metal cations in the male urogenital tract, notably zinc (Zn²⁺) and cadmium (Cd²⁺), which may induce genotoxic stress. While zinc is a key physiological component of the male reproductive tract, both Zn²⁺ and Cd²⁺ can become genotoxic at elevated concentrations. However, their effect on DNA repair mechanisms in T. vaginalis remains poorly understood. This study characterizes, for the first time, the expression and modulation of the recombinase TvRAD51, a homologous recombination (HR) key enzyme, in response to UV irradiation and sublethal concentrations of Zn²⁺ (1.6 mM) and Cd²⁺ (0.1 mM). In silico analyses confirmed the presence and conserved structure of the tvrad51 gene and its interaction with HR-related proteins, such as TvBLM and TvBRCA2. Quantitative RT-PCR, Western blot, and immunofluorescence assays revealed that TvRAD51 is upregulated at both transcript and protein levels following UV- and cation-induced DNA damage, with distinct temporal expression patterns for Zn²⁺ and Cd²⁺ exposure. Notably, TvRAD51 showed nuclear localization at early time points post-exposure, suggesting active participation in DNA repair processes. These findings demonstrate that TvRAD51 is a central component of the genotoxic stress response in T. vaginalis, potentially contributing to parasite survival and adaptation in hostile environments through homologous recombination repair pathways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virulence Mechanisms Used by Pathogens Related to Human, Animal, and Environmental Health)

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9 pages, 973 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection and Characterization of Paslahepevirus balayani (Hepatitis E Virus) in Dairy Products from Hebei Province, China

by Xinyue Hu, Jinfeng Wang, Yinuo Wang, Wanzhe Yuan, Jianchang Wang and Xiangdong Xu

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060564 - 5 Jun 2025

Abstract

Paslahepevirus balayani (hepatitis E virus), a zoonotic pathogen transmitted primarily via the fecal–oral route, has undergone shifting transmission dynamics in China, with foodborne and zoonotic routes becoming increasingly significant. To assess the potential risk of HEV transmission through dairy products, this study investigated [...] Read more.

Paslahepevirus balayani (hepatitis E virus), a zoonotic pathogen transmitted primarily via the fecal–oral route, has undergone shifting transmission dynamics in China, with foodborne and zoonotic routes becoming increasingly significant. To assess the potential risk of HEV transmission through dairy products, this study investigated HEV RNA presence in raw milk from cows, sheep, and goats in Hebei Province, China. From March 2024 to April 2025, we collected 102 cow milk, 18 sheep milk, and 59 goat milk samples, analyzing them using RT-qPCR, with positive samples confirmed by RT-Nested PCR and partial ORF2 sequencing. While no HEV RNA was detected in cow milk, 3/18 (16.67%) sheep milk and 1/59 (1.69%) goat milk samples tested positive. Phylogenetic analysis of two sheep-derived and one goat-derived HEV isolate showed 99.43–100% nucleotide identity to local swine HEV strains (HEV/HB-SJZ158/CHN/2021 and HEV/HB-CD28/CHN/2021), all clustering within genotype 4d, the dominant subtype in the region. This study provided the first evidence of HEV RNA in sheep and goat milk in Hebei Province, suggesting possible cross-species transmission from pigs to ruminants. These findings highlighted the need for further research on HEV transmission risks through dairy products and emphasize the importance of monitoring zoonotic HEV strains in food safety assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Mechanisms and Ecological Interventions in Zoonotic Pathogens)

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12 pages, 622 KiB

Open AccessReview

Is African Swine Fever Driven by Flying Hematophagous Insects?

by Marek Walczak, Maciej Frant, Krzesimir Szymankiewicz, Małgorzata Juszkiewicz, Katarzyna Podgórska and Marcin Smreczak

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 563; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060563 - 5 Jun 2025

Abstract

African swine fever (ASF) has become one of the most economically important diseases affecting swine and has a significant negative impact on the global pork production sector. In Europe, the main reservoir of the disease is the wild boar population, which poses a [...] Read more.

African swine fever (ASF) has become one of the most economically important diseases affecting swine and has a significant negative impact on the global pork production sector. In Europe, the main reservoir of the disease is the wild boar population, which poses a risk of transmitting the disease to pig farms. To date, no safe and effective vaccine is available on the market. Therefore, biosecurity measures and early recognition of the disease play a key role in preventing and combating ASF. In recent years, numerous insights into the nature of the virus have emerged; however, several knowledge gaps still need to be addressed. One of these gaps is an accurate understanding of all possible pathways through which the virus can reach a pig farm. Interrupting these pathways would significantly reduce the risk of disease outbreaks. Despite a general understanding of disease transmission, ASF can still affect farms with well-established high biosecurity measures. This article highlights the potential for mechanical transmission of ASF by flying hematophagous insects, considering several factors, including current knowledge of the putative role of insects in ASF transmission, insects’ abilities to transmit the virus, ASFV properties, the uncertainties regarding the effectiveness of indirect transmission, and the seasonality of disease outbreaks on domestic pig farms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laboratory Diagnostics in Epidemiological Diseases Caused by Animal Pathogens)

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11 pages, 1115 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Multiple Sexually Transmitted Pathogens Through Wastewater Surveillance

by Balghsim Alshehri, Olivia N. Birch and Justin C. Greaves

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 562; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060562 - 5 Jun 2025

Abstract

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) offers a promising tool for sexually transmitted infection (STI) surveillance, especially in settings where underdiagnosis or social stigma complicates conventional reporting. To assess its utility, we conducted a year-long study examining six STIs, Chlamydia trachomatis, Treponema pallidum, Neisseria [...] Read more.

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) offers a promising tool for sexually transmitted infection (STI) surveillance, especially in settings where underdiagnosis or social stigma complicates conventional reporting. To assess its utility, we conducted a year-long study examining six STIs, Chlamydia trachomatis, Treponema pallidum, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and herpes simplex virus (HSV), in weekly composite samples from the primary influent of a small-sized Midwestern wastewater treatment plant. Pathogen detection and quantification were performed via digital PCR. Among the tested targets, Gonorrhea, HIV, HCV, and HSV were detected at the highest frequencies, often in 40–50% of the samples, while Chlamydia and Syphilis appeared less frequently. Despite the variability in detection patterns, this study demonstrates that even infrequent signals can reveal community-level shedding of poorly reported or asymptomatic infections. Although month-to-month wastewater data were not strongly correlated with corresponding clinical records, which could potentially reflect delayed healthcare seeking and pathogen-specific shedding dynamics, the overall findings underscore WBE’s ability to complement existing surveillance by capturing infections outside traditional healthcare channels. These results not only advance our understanding of STI prevalence and population shedding but also highlight the practical benefits of WBE as an early warning and targeted intervention tool. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wastewater Surveillance and Public Health Strategies)

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14 pages, 290 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tick Species Identification and Zoonotic Bacteria Detection from Healthcare-Extracted Specimens from Humans in the Basque Country, Northern Iberian Peninsula

by Patirke Ibarrondo-Mendiola, Patricia Vázquez, Miriam Alkorta, Cristina Zugazaga, Ana L. García-Pérez, Jesús F. Barandika and Aitor Cevidanes

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 561; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060561 - 4 Jun 2025

Abstract

Hard ticks are vectors of a wide range of pathogens, with tick-borne bacteria being among the most frequently detected. This study presents a first approach to the identification of human-biting ticks in the Basque Country (northern Iberian Peninsula), where previous research has mainly [...] Read more.

Hard ticks are vectors of a wide range of pathogens, with tick-borne bacteria being among the most frequently detected. This study presents a first approach to the identification of human-biting ticks in the Basque Country (northern Iberian Peninsula), where previous research has mainly focused on ticks from vegetation and domestic and wild animals. The aim of this study was (i) to identify tick species collected in hospitals and health centres and (ii) to determine the presence and identify of pathogenic bacteria that they may carry using PCR, RLB and sequencing methods. A total of 181 ticks were collected and grouped in pools of one, two or three specimens, resulting in 157 samples. Morphological and molecular identification of collected ticks revealed that most specimens belonged to Ixodes ricinus (88.5%). Additionally, Rhipicephalus bursa, Haemaphysalis punctata, Dermacentor reticulatus and Dermacentor marginatus were also identified. A total of 25 samples (15.9%) tested positive for DNA from the targeted pathogens. The most prevalent vector-borne bacteria were Borrelia spp. (6.4%), followed by Rickettsia spp. (5.1%), Anaplasma phagocytophilum (2.5%) and Coxiella spp. (1.9%). Species identified included B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. miyamotoi, B. valaisiana, B. burgdorferi s. s., R. monacensis, “Candidatus R. rioja”, R. helvetica and R. massiliae. This study highlights the usefulness of combining molecular diagnostics with passive surveillance of human-attached ticks as an effective tool for regional monitoring of ticks and tick-borne pathogens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens in a Changing World)

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14 pages, 1735 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Grape Pomace Inclusion in the Diet of Ewes Naturally Infected with Gastrointestinal Nematodes During Lactation

by Mateus Oliveira Mena, Gustavo Gabriel de Oliveira Trevise, César Cristiano Bassetto, Willinton Hernan Pinchao Pinchao, Helder Louvandini, Ricardo Velludo Gomes de Soutello, Ana Cláudia Alexandre Albuquerque and Alessandro Francisco Talamini do Amarante

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060560 - 4 Jun 2025

Abstract

This study evaluated the feasibility of including grape pomace in the diet of Santa Inês ewes during lactation, aiming to reduce the effects of gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections and improve productive performance. Grape pomace, which contains phenolic compounds and tannins, was provided as [...] Read more.

This study evaluated the feasibility of including grape pomace in the diet of Santa Inês ewes during lactation, aiming to reduce the effects of gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections and improve productive performance. Grape pomace, which contains phenolic compounds and tannins, was provided as a dietary supplement, replacing 20% of the concentrate over 28 days of lactation, starting on day 7 after lambing. A total of 18 ewes were used, divided into two groups: supplemented (n = 8) and control (n = 10). The supplemented group showed significant reduction in fecal egg count on day 14 of lactation (p < 0.05) in comparison with the control group. Lambs from the supplemented group had higher weaning weights (p < 0.05). Additionally, the supplemented group showed higher values for packed cell volume and circulating eosinophils, indicating greater resilience to infections. Analysis of anti-L3 IgG against Haemonchus contortus revealed no significant differences between the groups. It is concluded that grape pomace supplementation demonstrated potential to improve hematological and productive parameters in lactating ewes, with more evident effects during early lactation. Although the results suggest a possible complementary role in controlling gastrointestinal nematodes, future studies are needed to confirm and optimize this nutritional strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Natural Products as Antiparasitic Agents: Efficacy Against Parasites of Veterinary and Public Health Significance)

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19 pages, 7482 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tuberculosis and Impact of COVID-19 on Spread of Epidemics in Kazakhstan

by Zhandarbek Bekshin, Albert Askarov, Yergali Abduraimov, Aralbek Rsaliyev, Gulmira Bissenova, Nurgul Amirkhanova, Zhadyrassyn Nurbekova and Aliya Temirbekova

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 559; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060559 - 4 Jun 2025

Abstract

This study examines the epidemiological situation of tuberculosis (TB) in the regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan over the past seven years (2018–2024), which cover the before-, during- and after-COVID-19 periods, with a focus on the risks of its emergence and spread. The [...] Read more.

This study examines the epidemiological situation of tuberculosis (TB) in the regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan over the past seven years (2018–2024), which cover the before-, during- and after-COVID-19 periods, with a focus on the risks of its emergence and spread. The analysis revealed that while TB incidence is declining, mortality remains high in the before- and during-COVID-19 periods, indicating a general decline in population health. The concentration of TB incidence in relation to geographic location was mainly in the northern, western and southern regions. Before COVID-19, TB incidence reached 48.2 cases and mortality reached a maximum of 2.4 cases per 100,000 people. In 2024, the incidence and mortality of tuberculosis significantly decreased to 33.5 (30.5%) and 1.0 (58.3%), respectively, reflecting an improvement in health indicators in the post-pandemic period. In the after-COVID-19 period, in regions with high unemployment, the incidence was higher than in the before- and during-COVID-19 periods. Nevertheless, it is important that the trend in tuberculosis incidence shows positive improvement after the COVID-19 period. In addition, a comparative analysis of tuberculosis incidence trends in different age groups and social factor groups shows that the adult population remains the most vulnerable category among the general population. The above-listed factors, as well as our analysis of tuberculosis incidence, shows that TB incidence does not always correlate with the level of vaccination in different regions of Kazakhstan, indicating a multifactorial influence on the tuberculosis epidemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

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17 pages, 1726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Human Papillomavirus in Urogenital Swabs from Male Patients in Northern Serbia

by Gordana Kovačević, Vladimir Vuković, Nataša Nikolić, Branka Bašica, Jelena Radovanov, Aleksandra Čolović Popadić, Milica Pejaković Budinski, Tihomir Dugandžija, Zoran Golušin and Aleksandra Patić

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 558; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060558 - 3 Jun 2025

Abstract

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections, affecting both men and women. However, in Serbia, the previous epidemiological and clinical research on HPV has primarily focused on women due to its established role in cervical cancer, while the [...] Read more.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections, affecting both men and women. However, in Serbia, the previous epidemiological and clinical research on HPV has primarily focused on women due to its established role in cervical cancer, while the data on HPV prevalence in men remain scarce. This study analyzed 634 samples from men (mean age: 30 years, SD = 9.98; range: 18–79) from between 2012 and 2024. Overall, 30.76% of the tested men were HPV–positive, with the highest percentage of cases being observed in those aged 25–29 years (32.82%). The most common genotypes were HPV 16 and HPV 31 (22.05% each), followed by HPV6 (20.51%), HPV 56, and HPV 52 (9.23% each). The prevalence of HPV was the highest in the samples from men with genital warts (40.77%). Among the available vaccines, the nonavalent Gardasil 9 provides the broadest protection, covering genotypes found in 82% of the HPV–positive cases identified in this study. Our findings underscore the importance of comprehensive HPV prevention and control measures for the male population, contributing to ongoing research efforts aimed at reducing the burden of HPV–associated diseases in our region. Increasing the vaccination coverage among Serbian men could substantially reduce the overall burden of HPV–related diseases in both sexes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in HPV Diagnostic Testing—Improving Access and Accuracy)

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31 pages, 783 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Global Epidemiology and Antimicrobial Resistance of Metallo-β-Lactamase (MBL)-Producing Acinetobacter Clinical Isolates: A Systematic Review

by Matthew E. Falagas, Dimitrios S. Kontogiannis, Maria Zidrou, Charalampos Filippou and Giannoula S. Tansarli

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 557; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060557 - 3 Jun 2025

Abstract

This systematic review assessed the global epidemiology of metallo-β-lactamase (MBL)-producing Acinetobacter clinical isolates and the associated antimicrobial resistance. A total of 475 relevant articles from the Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were identified and screened as potentially eligible [...] Read more.

This systematic review assessed the global epidemiology of metallo-β-lactamase (MBL)-producing Acinetobacter clinical isolates and the associated antimicrobial resistance. A total of 475 relevant articles from the Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were identified and screened as potentially eligible articles. Data from 85 articles were extracted for the analysis. Most reports on MBL-producing Acinetobacter clinical isolates originated from Asia [68/85 (80%) studies] and Africa [14/85 (16.5%) studies]. There were also scarce reports from Europe and America. The bla_VIM (in 31 studies), bla_IMP (in 29 studies), and bla_NDM (in 21 studies) genes were the most commonly identified genes. In 22 out of 28 (78.6%) studies with comparable data, the proportions of MBL-producing pathogens detected using phenotypic methods were numerically higher than those using genotypic methods. MBL-producing Acinetobacter isolates showed high resistance (up to 100%) to several antibiotic classes, including carbapenems, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, and monobactams. However, they showed low resistance to colistin [ranging from 0% (in six studies) to 14.3% (in one study)] and to tigecycline [0% (in three studies)]. No risk of bias assessment was conducted. The findings emphasize the global spread of MBL-producing Acinetobacter and the need for enhanced antimicrobial stewardship, infection control measures, and surveillance. Full article

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17 pages, 1593 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiple Mechanisms of HIV-1 Resistance to PGT135 in a Chinese Subtype B’ Slow Progressor

by Yuanyuan Hu, Shasha Sun, Ying Liu, Li Ren, Xintao Hu, Yuhua Ruan, Liying Ma, Hao Liang, Yiming Shao, Kunxue Hong, Sen Zou and Yanling Hao

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 556; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060556 - 3 Jun 2025

Abstract

We investigated HIV-1 immune evasion mechanisms in a slow progressor (CBJC515) by constructing pseudoviruses expressing autologous Env proteins. Intriguingly, all pseudoviruses exhibited resistance to the broadly neutralizing antibody (bNAb) PGT135. Using site-directed mutagenesis and chimeric Env construction, we identified distinct escape mechanisms: early [...] Read more.

We investigated HIV-1 immune evasion mechanisms in a slow progressor (CBJC515) by constructing pseudoviruses expressing autologous Env proteins. Intriguingly, all pseudoviruses exhibited resistance to the broadly neutralizing antibody (bNAb) PGT135. Using site-directed mutagenesis and chimeric Env construction, we identified distinct escape mechanisms: early 2005 strains lost the N332 glycan site, while 2006/2008 strains retained key epitopes but developed resistance through structural modifications in the V1/V4/C2 regions or acquired novel N-glycosylation sites (N398/N611). These findings provide insights into how HIV-1 can escape from N332-directed bNAb responses without altering the epitope itself. Furthermore, chimeric experiments also elucidated regional co-evolution and functional maintenance: the V1V2 region broadly interfered with envelope protein function, while the V3 region may exhibit compensatory activity, restoring functionality and mitigating deleterious polymorphisms in other regions to keep Env antigenic diversity. These results offer valuable mechanistic clues that may inform the development of next-generation HIV-1 vaccines. Full article

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20 pages, 387 KiB

Open AccessReview

Digestive Manifestations of Post-COVID-19: A Focus on Therapeutic Strategies

by Cristina Stasi and Massimo Bellini

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 555; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060555 - 3 Jun 2025

Abstract

Post-COVID-19 is a chronic infection-related syndrome, including exacerbations of pre-existing or newly diagnosed conditions that have been established after the acute phase of COVID-19 and have demonstrated a wide range of systemic effects beyond the lungs. SARS-CoV-2 attaches to its receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme [...] Read more.

Post-COVID-19 is a chronic infection-related syndrome, including exacerbations of pre-existing or newly diagnosed conditions that have been established after the acute phase of COVID-19 and have demonstrated a wide range of systemic effects beyond the lungs. SARS-CoV-2 attaches to its receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2). Transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) facilitates viral entry and spread. ACE-2 receptors are detectable in several tissues, including the respiratory mucosa, digestive tract, heart, kidney, and brain. Several investigations have demonstrated an increase in digestive manifestations post-acute COVID-19, likely related to an alteration in the intestinal microbiota following infection. These changes can lead to a loss of species diversity, resulting in an overgrowth of opportunistic pathogens and deprivation of commensal bacteria. In this context, post-infection irritable bowel syndrome shows an increased incidence compared to controls. Growing evidence also suggests the enduring presence of SARS-CoV-2 in the gut tissue. Studies are ongoing to investigate antiviral agents that counteract prolonged COVID-19 symptoms. Therefore, the objectives of this review were to summarize the digestive manifestations, focusing on irritable bowel syndrome and therapeutic strategies. This review gives an overview of studies published in English in the last two years on the PubMed database. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antiviral Strategies Against Human Respiratory Viruses)

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15 pages, 1350 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advancements in Pathogen Detection: Argonaute-Based Nucleic Acid Detection Technology

by Meng Hong, Guodi Wu, Yanli Ren, Shanshan Wu, Haihong Zhu and Zhi Chen

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060554 - 2 Jun 2025

Abstract

In recent years, global public health security has encountered significant challenges, with infectious diseases accounting for approximately 25% of global mortality annually. The worldwide pandemic instigated by the novel coronavirus, alongside the persistent threats posed by Ebola, influenza, and multidrug-resistant bacteria, has severely [...] Read more.

In recent years, global public health security has encountered significant challenges, with infectious diseases accounting for approximately 25% of global mortality annually. The worldwide pandemic instigated by the novel coronavirus, alongside the persistent threats posed by Ebola, influenza, and multidrug-resistant bacteria, has severely compromised human health, economic development, and social stability. Within this context, the development of rapid and precise pathogen detection technologies has emerged as a critical frontline defense for epidemic prevention and control, serving as a pivotal component in the implementation of the “early detection, early isolation, and early treatment” strategy. The Argonaute (Ago) protein, recognized as a programmable and target-specific activated nuclease, has demonstrated substantial potential in the realm of nucleic acid detection due to its distinctive biological properties, garnering considerable attention. In this study, we delineate the structural characteristics of Ago proteins and elucidate the mechanism underlying their nuclease activity. Furthermore, we review the principles of nucleic acid detection based on Argonaute and provide a comprehensive analysis of recent advancements in related detection systems. Additionally, we compare the advantages of detection based on Argonaute with other detection methodologies. Through a comprehensive analysis, we aim to provide a robust theoretical foundation and an advanced technical reference for the development of new-generation nucleic acid detection platforms with high sensitivity and high specificity. Full article

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18 pages, 326 KiB

Open AccessReview

Beyond Mosquitoes: A Review of Pediatric Vector-Borne Diseases Excluding Malaria and Arboviral Infections

by Giulia Carbone, Amina De Bona, Dragos Septelici, Alessandro Cipri, Andrea Nobilio and Susanna Esposito

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 553; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060553 - 2 Jun 2025

Abstract

Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) significantly impact global child health, with mosquito-transmitted infections like malaria and arboviruses accounting for a substantial portion of this burden. However, other arthropod-borne diseases—transmitted by vectors such as ticks, fleas, sand flies, lice, and triatomine bugs—also pose serious health risks [...] Read more.

Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) significantly impact global child health, with mosquito-transmitted infections like malaria and arboviruses accounting for a substantial portion of this burden. However, other arthropod-borne diseases—transmitted by vectors such as ticks, fleas, sand flies, lice, and triatomine bugs—also pose serious health risks to children worldwide. This review specifically excludes mosquito-borne diseases to concentrate on these less-discussed yet clinically important pediatric VBDs. We examine their clinical manifestations, diagnostic challenges, and treatment options, highlighting the unique vulnerabilities of children, including immature immune systems, behavioral factors, and communication barriers that can delay diagnosis. Additionally, we explore how environmental and anthropogenic factors, such as climate change and urbanization, are expanding the geographic range of these vectors, leading to the emergence of diseases like Lyme disease and leishmaniasis in new regions. By focusing on non-mosquito VBDs, this review aims to raise awareness and inform healthcare providers and public health practitioners about the comprehensive landscape of pediatric vector-borne diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Re-emerging Infections in Pediatrics)

15 pages, 1418 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection and Inhibition of Clostridium perfringens by Cocktail of Star Anise and Thymus Extracts in Chicken Meat Products

by Gamal M. Hamad, Shenoda Gaber Monir Henry, Gamal E. A. El-Rokh, Nadia H. A. Ramadan, Hany S. Abdel Raoof, Ahmed M. Sulaiman, Ahmed M. El-Mesallamy, Samy E. Elshaer, Sara M. Gaber, Ibrahim M. Rabah, Ahmed R. Mahmoud, Mahmoud S. A. Salama, Taha Mehany and Hesham E. A. Abdelfttah

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060552 - 1 Jun 2025

Abstract

Background: The presence of C. perfringens in chicken meat products leads to significant economic losses for the industry and is associated with human food poisoning. It inspires creative answers for novel substances and techniques, such natural antibacterials, for improved prospects in the future. [...] Read more.

Background: The presence of C. perfringens in chicken meat products leads to significant economic losses for the industry and is associated with human food poisoning. It inspires creative answers for novel substances and techniques, such natural antibacterials, for improved prospects in the future. The objective of this study was to examine the antibacterial properties of thymus and star anise extracts for the suppression of Clostridium perfringens in products made from chicken meat. Methods: Thymus and star anise extracts were phytochemically analyzed using the Folin–Ciocalteu spectrophotometric method, High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) to determine the phenolic compounds, DPPH to determine the antioxidant activity, and the agar disk diffusion assay to determine the antibacterial effect of the star anise. Following treatment with the mixture extract, an experimental application was conducted on chicken burgers. C. perfringens was also found in poultry samples. Lastly, the sensory evaluation of the chicken burger was detected. Results: The findings showed that Clostridium perfringens was present in a large number of chicken meat products, with a significant concentration in chicken thighs (84%), as well as in the mixture extract has the largest concentration of phytochemical components (TPC:123.88 ± 7.42 mg GAE/g, TFC: 69.04 ± 6.37 mg quercetin/g) with strong antibacterial action (the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the mixed extract was 3.12 mg/mL, with an inhibition zone of 13.06 ± 0.91 mm). Also, the addition of mix. extract to chicken burgers extends their shelf life, particularly when the mix content is high. Additionally, the mix. extract shows non-significant effect (p < 0.05) on the chicken burger’s sensory qualities. Conclusions: Finally, we can make use of the mix. extract of thymus and star anise as a natural preservative in chicken meat products especially the chicken burger. Full article

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12 pages, 766 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by Raffaele Vitale, Marco Denina, Laura Badiali, Matteo Sandei, Giulia Mazzetti, Carlotta Canavese, Aba Tocchet, Antonia Versace and Silvia Garazzino

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 551; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060551 - 1 Jun 2025

Abstract

Introduction: While influenza-associated encephalopathy (IAE) in children remains a serious concern, recent evidence suggests a shift in its epidemiology, with a possible decline in incidence and severity over time. Methods: This retrospective review includes patients aged 0–18 admitted to a tertiary hospital in [...] Read more.

Introduction: While influenza-associated encephalopathy (IAE) in children remains a serious concern, recent evidence suggests a shift in its epidemiology, with a possible decline in incidence and severity over time. Methods: This retrospective review includes patients aged 0–18 admitted to a tertiary hospital in Northern Italy between November 2023 and February 2025. Inclusion criteria were a positive influenza test, influenza-like symptoms, and neurological involvement. Findings are interpreted alongside current literature. Results: Twenty-five unvaccinated children met criteria for IAE (11 in 2023/24; 14 in 2024/25). Neurological comorbidities were present in 40%. All patients had pathological EEGs. Lumbar puncture was performed in 40%, with abnormalities in 33%. Brain imaging was conducted in 56% of cases, revealing findings in 15%. All received oseltamivir; 60% were also treated with dexamethasone. Severe complications occurred in 16%, while 12% had persistent symptoms or required therapy at discharge. After adjusting for seasonal peak timing, no significant inter-seasonal difference was observed. Discussion: Although IAE continues to present serious risks, recent trends suggest a changing burden. The lack of vaccination among cases underscores the need for prevention. Study limitations include its single-center design and the absence of long-term follow-up. Broader prospective studies are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Influenza A Virus: Updates and Insights)

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15 pages, 928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR) and Platelet-to-Lymphocyte Ratio (PLR) as Prognostic Markers of COVID-19 Disease Irrespective of Immunosuppression Status: A Case-Control Retrospective Single-Center Study

by Amalia Papanikolopoulou, Vasiliki Rapti, Polyxeni Alexiou, Charalampos M. Charalampous, Maria Effrosyni Livanou, Vissaria Sakka, Konstantinos N. Syrigos and Garyfallia Poulakou

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 550; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060550 - 1 Jun 2025

Abstract

Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR) have been studied as predictors for severe COVID-19 outcomes. The aim of the present study is to identify prognostic cut-off values of NLR and PLR for intubation and death in hospitalized COVID-19 patients, with or without [...] Read more.

Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR) have been studied as predictors for severe COVID-19 outcomes. The aim of the present study is to identify prognostic cut-off values of NLR and PLR for intubation and death in hospitalized COVID-19 patients, with or without immunosuppression. From June 2021 to December 2022, we retrospectively analyzed 393 consecutively admitted COVID-19 patients, who were divided in two cohorts according to immunosuppression status (hematological malignancy and/or autoimmune condition vs. non-immunocompromised), using a propensity score-matching in 1:2 ratio. Higher NLR and PLR values were observed on days 1 and 4 for severe COVID-19, irrespective of immunosuppression status. NLR on day 1 >5.06 and day 4 >6.40 (p < 0.001), as well as PLR on day 1 >262.2 and day 4 >217.3 (p = 0.003), were associated with a greater probability for intubation. Similarly, a higher probability for death was found in the subset of patients with NLR on day 1 >4.82 (p < 0.001) and day 4 >6.41 (p < 0.001) and PLR on day 1 >229 (p = 0.009) and day 4 >205.4 (p = 0.003). Both PLR and NLR exhibited consistently higher negative predictive values (NPVs) (>93%) compared to positive predictive values (PPVs) for intubation and death. NLR and PLR displayed strong prognostic potential in hospitalized COVID-19 patients regarding intubation and death, irrespective of immunosuppression status, thus the surveillance of these biomarkers may help clinicians identify high-risk COVID-19 patients at an early stage. Full article

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16 pages, 803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance of aEPEC/STEC Escherichia coli Pathotypes with Serotype Links to Shigella boydii 16 Isolated from Irrigation Water

by Yessica Enciso-Martínez, Edwin Barrios-Villa, Manuel G. Ballesteros-Monrreal, Armando Navarro-Ocaña, Dora Valencia, Gustavo A. González-Aguilar, Miguel A. Martínez-Téllez, Julián Javier Palomares-Navarro and Fernando Ayala-Zavala

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 549; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060549 - 1 Jun 2025

Abstract

Irrigation water can serve as a reservoir and transmission route for pathogenic Escherichia coli, posing a threat to food safety and public health. This study builds upon a previous survey conducted in Hermosillo, Sonora (Mexico), where 445 samples were collected from a [...] Read more.

Irrigation water can serve as a reservoir and transmission route for pathogenic Escherichia coli, posing a threat to food safety and public health. This study builds upon a previous survey conducted in Hermosillo, Sonora (Mexico), where 445 samples were collected from a local Honeydew melon farm and associated packing facilities. Among the 32 E. coli strains recovered, two strains, A34 and A51, were isolated from irrigation water and selected for further molecular characterization by PCR, due to their high pathogenic potential. Both strains were identified as hybrid aEPEC/STEC pathotypes carrying bfpA and stx1 virulence genes. Adhesion assays in HeLa cells revealed aggregative and diffuse patterns, suggesting enhanced colonization capacity. Phylogenetic analysis classified A34 within group B2 as associated with extraintestinal pathogenicity and antimicrobial resistance, while A51 was unassigned to any known phylogroup. Serotyping revealed somatic antigens shared with Shigella boydii 16, suggesting possible horizontal gene transfer or antigenic convergence. Antibiotic susceptibility testing showed resistance to multiple β-lactam antibiotics, including cephalosporins, linked to the presence of bla_CTX-M-151 and bla_CTX-M-9. Although no plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance genes were detected, resistance may involve efflux pumps or mutations in gyrA and parC. These findings are consistent with previous reports of E. coli adaptability in agricultural environments, suggesting potential genetic adaptability. While our data support the presence of virulence and resistance markers, further studies would be required to demonstrate mechanisms such as horizontal gene transfer or adaptive evolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virulence and Resistance Mechanisms in Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteria)

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14 pages, 1179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Whole-Genome Sequence-Based Diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Strains Isolated from a Central Western Region of Mexico

by Andrea Monserrat Negrete-Paz, Gerardo Vázquez-Marrufo, Adrián Rodríguez-Carlos, Bruno Rivas-Santiago and Ma. Soledad Vázquez-Garcidueñas

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060548 - 31 May 2025

Abstract

Tuberculosis remains a significant health issue in Mexico, which has one of the highest incidence rates in the Americas. This study aimed to analyze the circulating sublineages, spoligotypes, drug resistance, and transmission patterns of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Mexico’s Central Western region using whole-genome [...] Read more.

Tuberculosis remains a significant health issue in Mexico, which has one of the highest incidence rates in the Americas. This study aimed to analyze the circulating sublineages, spoligotypes, drug resistance, and transmission patterns of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Mexico’s Central Western region using whole-genome sequencing. Seventy-seven Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains underwent phenotypic drug susceptibility testing via MGIT. Genotypic resistance was assessed with TB-Profiler and Mykrobe, while phylogenetic relationships were reconstructed using Snippy and RaxML. SpoTyping identified circulating SITs and families, with a 5-SNP threshold defining genomic transmission clusters. The predominant sublineages were 4.1.1.3 (X-type, n = 19) and 4.1.2.1 (LAM, n = 11), with rare sublineages (EAI5, EAI2-Manila, and Beijing) also observed. Resistance to at least one first-line drug was found in 63.3% of strains, with streptomycin mono-resistance (24.5%) being notable. Multidrug-resistant TB was identified in 16.3% (n = 8) of strains. Five genomic clusters, involving 18.7% of strains, were identified. This study highlights the sublineage diversity in Mexico, emphasizing its importance in global databases and resistance research. The findings, such as SIT47 in GC1, underscore the value of localized genomic studies for effective TB control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

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14 pages, 794 KiB

Open AccessReview

Cryptococcal Endocarditis in Humans—A Narrative Review

by Petros Ioannou, Afroditi Ziogou, Alexios Giannakodimos, Ilias Giannakodimos, Andreas G. Tsantes and George Samonis

Pathogens 2025, 14(6), 547; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14060547 - 31 May 2025

Abstract

Background: Cryptococcus species constitute opportunistic fungi that seldom cause infections in individuals with competent immune systems. In the rare case of cryptococcal endocarditis, the fungus infiltrates the endocardium. This disease occurs almost exclusively in patients with active immunosuppression, implanted cardiac devices, or prosthetic [...] Read more.

Background: Cryptococcus species constitute opportunistic fungi that seldom cause infections in individuals with competent immune systems. In the rare case of cryptococcal endocarditis, the fungus infiltrates the endocardium. This disease occurs almost exclusively in patients with active immunosuppression, implanted cardiac devices, or prosthetic valves. Objectives: This study aims to analyze all documented cases of Cryptococcus spp. endocarditis in humans, emphasizing the epidemiology, microbiology, clinical manifestations, therapeutic approaches, and infection outcomes. Methods: A comprehensive review was performed by searching the PubMed and Scopus databases. Results: A total of 16 studies reported data on 16 patients diagnosed with cryptococcal endocarditis. The mean patient age was 46.6 years, with males comprising 81.25% of cases. Immunosuppression was the most prevalent predisposing factor (31.25%), followed by a history of end-stage renal disease and prosthetic cardiac valves (25%). The most commonly affected intracardiac sites were the mitral (60%) and aortic valve (46.6%), while in 33.3% of cases, multiple-valve infection was observed. Cryptococcus neoformans was detected as the causative organism in the majority of cases (87.5%). The most frequently administered antifungal treatments included amphotericin B (87.5%) and fluconazole (43.75%), with combination therapy used in 62.5% of cases. Overall mortality was relatively high at 56.25%, with 50% of deaths directly attributed to the infection. Conclusions: Considering the ability of Cryptococcus spp. to induce severe systemic infections, healthcare providers should consider this pathogen in the differential diagnosis when yeast microorganisms are identified in microbiological samples. This is particularly crucial for patients with underlying comorbidities or immunodeficiency, as early recognition is crucial to ensure precise diagnosis and treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Fungal Pathogens)

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