Pathogens

26 pages, 459 KiB

Open AccessReview

Invasive Candidiasis Coinfection in Patients with Severe COVID-19 Disease: Scoping Review

by Omar Esteban Valencia-Ledezma, María del Rocío Reyes-Montes, Gustavo Acosta-Altamirano, María Guadalupe Frías-De-León, Eduardo García-Salazar, Esperanza Duarte-Escalante, Jesús Santiago-Abundio, Zuleyma González-Miguel, María de Lourdes García-Hernández, Rebeca Martínez-Quezada, Oscar Uriel Torres-Páez, Evelyn Galindo-Oseguera, Patricia Meza-Meneses and Nicolás Santiago-González

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050466 (registering DOI) - 10 May 2025

Abstract

Coinfection rates of candidiasis in patients affected by COVID-19 had a significantly increase during the sanitary contingency. The objective of this scoping review is to analyze the available scientific evidence around the coinfection of invasive candidiasis in hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19 disease. [...] Read more.

Coinfection rates of candidiasis in patients affected by COVID-19 had a significantly increase during the sanitary contingency. The objective of this scoping review is to analyze the available scientific evidence around the coinfection of invasive candidiasis in hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19 disease. Online databases such as PubMed, EBSCO, SciFinder, Scopus, and SciELO were used to analyze the different scientific studies published from January 2020 to December 2022, selecting 48 publications that reported comorbidity between invasive candidiasis and COVID-19 as a study variable. Based on the PRISMA-ScR extension for scoping reviews, we identified more than half of the publications (57%) as observational, descriptive, and analytic studies, while 43% were systematic reviews. Overall, up to 169,468 adult patients admitted to the intensive care unit were examined. Coinfection was due mainly to Candida albicans (75%), but some more species were reported such as Meyerozyma parapsilosis (formerly Candida parapsilosis); Meyerozyma guilliermondii (formerly Candida guilliermondii); Nakaseomyces glabratus (formerly Candida glabrata); Candida tropicalis; Candida dubliniensis; Clavispora lusitaniae (formerly Candida lusitaniae); and Pichia kudriavzevii (formerly Candida krusei). We concluded that patients infected by SARS-CoV-2 had a higher incidence of fungal coinfections, thus increasing the mortality rate, disease severity, and length of hospital stay in the intensive care unit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue An Update on Fungal Infections)

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13 pages, 490 KiB

Open AccessArticle

First Animal Source Metagenome Assembly of Lawsonella clevelandensis from Canine External Otitis

by Adrienn Gréta Tóth, Norbert Solymosi, Miklós Tenk, Zsófia Káldy and Tibor Németh

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050465 (registering DOI) - 10 May 2025

Abstract

External otitis is one of the most common conditions in dogs to be presented to the veterinarian. Moreover, the disorder is often challenging to manage. The range and role of microorganisms involved in the pathogenesis are currently not fully understood. Therefore, the condition [...] Read more.

External otitis is one of the most common conditions in dogs to be presented to the veterinarian. Moreover, the disorder is often challenging to manage. The range and role of microorganisms involved in the pathogenesis are currently not fully understood. Therefore, the condition has been studied using third-generation sequencing (Oxford Nanopore Technology) to gain a more complete picture of the pathogens involved. Throughout the metagenome assembly of a sample from the ear canal of an 11-year-old female Yorkshire terrier suffering from chronic external otitis, a genome of Lawsonella clevelandensis was compiled. To our knowledge, this result is the first of its type of animal origin. The outcome of the assembly is a single circular chromosome with a length of 1,909,339 bp and 1727 predicted genes. One open reading frame associated with antimicrobial resistance could have been identified. Comparing all available genomes, the species can be associated with three main genome clusters. The finding contributes to the extending knowledge bank about this often-overlooked pathogen and raises attention to the role of nanopore sequencing by the identification and characterization of microorganisms that are difficult to culture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)

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36 pages, 885 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Epithelial Immune Response to Human Papillomavirus Infection

by Shyantani Roy-Biswas and Merilyn Hibma

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050464 - 9 May 2025

Abstract

The skin is a complex organ, containing an intricate network of immune cells that are crucial for host barrier function and defence against pathogens. Human papillomavirus (HPV) exclusively infects the skin, and its lifecycle is intimately associated with epithelial cell division and differentiation. [...] Read more.

The skin is a complex organ, containing an intricate network of immune cells that are crucial for host barrier function and defence against pathogens. Human papillomavirus (HPV) exclusively infects the skin, and its lifecycle is intimately associated with epithelial cell division and differentiation. There are over 450 HPV types, 12 of which are classified as carcinogenic. The primary focus of this review is the epithelial immune response to HPV infection of the cervix during the initial stages of infection, productive infection, and disease progression. During the early stages of infection, cells are HPV-positive; however, there are no attributable histological changes to the epithelium. The HPV-infected cells have the capacity for innate sensing and signalling through toll-like receptors in response to viral nucleic acids. However, HPV has evolved multiple mechanisms to evade the innate response. During productive infection, all viral antigens are expressed and there are visible histological changes to the epithelium, including koilocytosis. Disease regression is associated with Tbet positive cells in the infected epithelium and the presence of CD4 and CD8 T cells in the lamina propria. Disease progression is associated with the overexpression of the E6 and E7 oncoproteins after integration of viral genomes into the host chromosomal DNA. Histologically, the epithelium is less differentiated, and changes to cells include a higher nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio and an increased mitotic index. Immune changes associated with disease progression include increased numbers of cells expressing suppressor molecules, such as FoxP3, Blimp-1, and HMGB1, and myeloid cell infiltrates with an M2-like phenotype. This review highlights the gaps in the understanding of the immune response in HPV-positive cervical neoplasia, and in regression and progression of disease. This knowledge is critical for the development of effective immunotherapies that reliably cause HPV-positive cervical neoplasia to regress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

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33 pages, 2982 KiB

Open AccessReview

Fungi-Based Bioproducts: A Review in the Context of One Health

by Thais Kato de Sousa, Adriane Toledo da Silva and Filippe Elias de Freitas Soares

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050463 - 9 May 2025

Abstract

Entomopathogenic fungus-based biopesticides are an excellent alternative to synthetic pesticides and are widely used in insect pest control. With the transformations of the agri-food system, it is important to consider the One Health approach, which recognizes that health threats are shared at the [...] Read more.

Entomopathogenic fungus-based biopesticides are an excellent alternative to synthetic pesticides and are widely used in insect pest control. With the transformations of the agri-food system, it is important to consider the One Health approach, which recognizes that health threats are shared at the interface between people, animals, plants, and the environment. The safety and environmental impact of fungi-based insecticides should be assessed comprehensively, taking into account not only their effects on non-target organisms and human health but also their environmental fate. This includes how these substances degrade, persist, or dissipate in soil, water, and air and their potential to bioaccumulate or leach into groundwater. Such assessments are essential to ensure that their long-term use does not pose unintended risks to ecosystems or public health. This systematic review aims to identify and analyze available studies on the potential One Health hazards associated with fungal biopesticides. A total of 134 articles were selected: 84 bioassay articles (63%), 36 case reports (27%), 10 field studies (7%), and 4 other types of studies (3%). Of these articles, 59 were studies on vertebrate animals and 65 studies on invertebrate animals, 6 studies on diverse organisms, 2 studies focused specifically on risk assessment for non-target organisms in the environment, while 2 other studies looked at the toxicological hazards associated with human exposure to the metabolites of the fungus present in air. The United States had the highest number of publications (33). Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae followed by the fungi Cordyceps fumosorosea (Paecilomyces fumosoroseus) and B. brongniartii were the most prevalent fungal species in the studies. This review highlights that case reports of infections in humans and other vertebrates by fungi are not related to the use of fungal biopesticides. A predominance of studies with bees was identified due to the importance of these insects as pollinators. The findings indicate that fungal biopesticides pose minimal risks when used appropriately. Nevertheless, the necessity for standardized safety assessments is emphasized. In order to ensure greater effectiveness, it is essential to develop unified protocols and bioassays with specific risk indicators aligned with the One Health approach. This includes evaluating potential effects on pollinators, vertebrate toxicity, and the environmental persistence of metabolites. In future research, the development of integrated guidelines that simultaneously consider human, animal, and environmental health is recommended. Full article

13 pages, 566 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plasmodium spp. Infections Among Mbalmayo Inhabitants of Central Region in Cameroon: Discrepancies Between Rapid Diagnostic Tests and Molecular Methods

by Lidia Stopyra, Wanesa Wilczyńska, Daria Kołodziej, Assamba Noel and Krzysztof Korzeniewski

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050462 - 9 May 2025

Abstract

Malaria remains a major public health threat in Cameroon, with an estimated 3 million new cases of Plasmodium spp. infections reported each year. The aim of this study was to assess the occurrence of Plasmodium infections in Cameroon in a group of symptomatic [...] Read more.

Malaria remains a major public health threat in Cameroon, with an estimated 3 million new cases of Plasmodium spp. infections reported each year. The aim of this study was to assess the occurrence of Plasmodium infections in Cameroon in a group of symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals, residents of the town of Mbalmayo, located in the Central Region of Cameroon. Screening was conducted in December 2024 at the Mbalayo District Hospital. This study involved a total of 93 people aged between 1 and 70 years old, who voluntarily agreed to have their blood samples taken and tested for malaria. As part of this study, the demographic variables of the participants were taken, malaria rapid diagnostic tests (mRDTs) were performed, and blood samples were applied to the Whatman FTA cards for further real-time PCR diagnostics. The occurrence of Plasmodium infections in the residents of Mbalmayo differed depending on the diagnostic method used (30.1% with mRDT vs. 60.2% when RT-PCR assays were performed). A total of 55 malaria cases were found to be caused by P. falciparum, while one case was found to be caused by P. vivax. Nearly half of the study participants exhibited no signs or symptoms of malaria, whereas 35.7% reported fever, 17.9% respiratory symptoms, and 10.7% gastrointestinal symptoms. The prevalence of malaria remains high in populations inhabiting the Central Region in Cameroon. P. falciparum is the dominant species in the region. A considerable proportion of infected individuals are asymptomatic, which supports the finding that asymptomatic carriers play a critical role in disease transmission. The differences between the results depending on the diagnostic method used (mRDT vs. RT-PCR) suggest that there is a need to use a combination of different methods for the identification of malaria, especially in cases of low parasitemia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

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13 pages, 560 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rickettsia and Ehrlichia of Veterinary and Public Health Importance in Ticks Collected from Birds in the Great Plains of the United States

by Tucker Taylor, Scott R. Loss and Bruce H. Noden

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050461 - 8 May 2025

Abstract

As the incidence of tick-borne disease expands globally, comprehensive understanding of pathogen reservoir hosts is crucial to protect humans and wildlife. While many components are understood, there are gaps in our knowledge regarding the role of alternative, non-mammalian hosts such as birds. Within [...] Read more.

As the incidence of tick-borne disease expands globally, comprehensive understanding of pathogen reservoir hosts is crucial to protect humans and wildlife. While many components are understood, there are gaps in our knowledge regarding the role of alternative, non-mammalian hosts such as birds. Within the United States, birds have been identified as reservoirs for Borrelia and Rickettsia; however, local studies rarely examine the potential of birds as reservoirs and transporters of Ehrlichia-infected ticks, unlike studies in Europe and South America. To address this research gap, we extracted and sequenced important microorganisms within 90 larval and nymphal ticks which were removed from passerine and near-passerine birds in the Great Plains region of the United States between May and October 2023. We found that 11% of birds hosted ticks infected with one or more Rickettsia or Ehrlichia species. Additionally, we collected a larval Haemaphysalis leporispalustris infected with Ehrlichia chaffeensis from a Northern Cardinal, the first North American songbird implicated in the Ehrlichia transmission cycle. Our research intertwines multiple bird and tick species in the North American pathogen system, highlighting the need for continued research focusing on birds as tick hosts and pathogen reservoirs in understudied parts of the United States. Full article

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16 pages, 737 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Q Fever-Related Community Infections: United States Exposure to Coxiella burnetii

by Charles F. Dillon and Gwendolyn R. Dillon

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050460 - 8 May 2025

Abstract

Coxiella burnetii is a significant infectious pathogen that causes Q fever. Q fever is thought to be uncommon in the US and most human cases are believed to occur in agricultural livestock workers. However, the extent of US community exposure to C. burnetii [...] Read more.

Coxiella burnetii is a significant infectious pathogen that causes Q fever. Q fever is thought to be uncommon in the US and most human cases are believed to occur in agricultural livestock workers. However, the extent of US community exposure to C. burnetii is not known with certainty. Using nationally representative 2003–2004 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey serologic, demographic, and occupational history data, the magnitude of US adult general population exposure to C. burnetii, excluding agricultural-sector workers, was estimated. Exposure was defined as positive serum IgG antibodies in an immunofluorescence assay (e.g., current or past infection). A total of 3.0% (95% CI: 2.0–4.4) of the US population met the criteria for C. burnetii exposure, representing some 6.2 million persons. Overall, 86.9% (95% CI: 75.5–98.4) of the seropositive persons had no lifetime history of work in the agricultural sector (5.5 million persons). This was consistently true across all US demographic groups: aged 20–59 years, 87.3%; aged 60+ years, 85.7%; men, 86.1%; women, 87.6%; non-Hispanic Whites, 82%; non-Hispanic Blacks, 95.8%; Mexican Americans, 89.4%; immigrants from Mexico, 83.5%; and other immigrants, 96.8%. As a proportion of C. burnetii infections result in acute Q fever and chronic Q fever conveys significant mortality, the community-level risks to the general public may be significant. It is recommended that a 6-year sample of the most recent NHANES stored sera be analyzed to determine the current community C. burnetii exposure rates. Also, analyzing an additional 2005–2008 stored sera sample would provide an opportunity to assess the time trends and long-term health impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases)

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9 pages, 1118 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Laboratory Diagnosis of Animal Tuberculosis in Tracing Interspecies Transmission of Mycobacterium bovis

by Ewelina Szacawa, Nina Kozieł, Sylwia Brzezińska, Ewa Augustynowicz-Kopeć, Marcin Weiner, Krzysztof Szulowski and Monika Krajewska-Wędzina

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050459 - 7 May 2025

Abstract

Mycobacterium is one of the most dangerous pathogens of both animals and humans. Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is a disease caused by mycobacteria belonging to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC), which spreads mainly among domestic cattle but also to mammals other than cattle. The [...] Read more.

Mycobacterium is one of the most dangerous pathogens of both animals and humans. Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is a disease caused by mycobacteria belonging to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC), which spreads mainly among domestic cattle but also to mammals other than cattle. The transmission of MTBC between different species requires research and epidemiological investigations to control its spread. When multiple species are a reservoir of infection, it poses a significant public health and veterinary concern. In this study, the diagnosis of alpaca, cattle, horses, dogs, a sheep and a cat from one farm suspected of bovine tuberculosis was performed. The animals (except for one horse, the dogs and the cat) were euthanised after the intradermal tuberculin tests. Mycobacterial isolation from animal tissue samples was performed. The obtained Mycobacterium strains were genotyped using spoligotyping and mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit–variable number tandem repeat (MIRU-VNTR) methods. The isolates from a horse, two cows, a sheep and an alpaca were classified as Mycobacterium (M.) bovis. The single M. bovis spoligotype SB0666 pattern was isolated, and the MIRU-VNTR results presented the same 222632237401435 patterns. The molecular investigation uncovered information on the relationship of Mycobacterium bovis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laboratory Diagnostics in Epidemiological Diseases Caused by Animal Pathogens)

8 pages, 243 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence of Tritrichomonas foetus Among Cats in Poland Between 2020 and 2024

by Dawid Jańczak, Klaudiusz Szczepaniak, Jagoda Jeleniewska and Olga Szaluś-Jordanow

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050458 - 7 May 2025

Abstract

Tritrichomonas foetus is a parasitic protozoan that causes large-bowel disorders in domestic cats worldwide. Between 2020 and 2024, 1606 feline stool samples were tested for T. foetus. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of T. foetus infection among [...] Read more.

Tritrichomonas foetus is a parasitic protozoan that causes large-bowel disorders in domestic cats worldwide. Between 2020 and 2024, 1606 feline stool samples were tested for T. foetus. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of T. foetus infection among cats with diarrhea reported within the last 6 months, and to assess age and sex as risk factors for T. foetus infection. The diagnostic method of choice was nested PCR with modifications to reduce potential reaction inhibition. Overall, T. foetus DNA was detected in 10.6% (170/1606) of cats, with the highest prevalence observed in animals younger than one year, 14.9% (106/711). This study confirms that T. foetus infection is common in domestic cats in Poland. Therefore, this parasite should be included in the differential diagnosis protocol for feline patients with large-bowel diarrhea. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Parasitic Pathogens)

18 pages, 5798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Surveillance for Potential Zoonotic Pathogens in Troglophilus Bats: Detection and Molecular Characterization of Bat Coronaviruses in Southern Italy

by Francesco Mira, Francesca Gucciardi, Giorgia Schiró, Rosario Grasso, Maria Teresa Spena, Gábor Kemenesi, Claudia Vaiana, Davide Anzá, Laura Di Paola, Santina Di Bella, Annalisa Guercio and Giuseppa Purpari

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050457 - 7 May 2025

Abstract

The recent COVID-19 pandemic has renewed interest in bats, as they are natural hosts for numerous viruses, some of which have crossed species boundaries. Despite continued efforts in the past, the ecology of bat-related viruses in a significant part of national territories, such [...] Read more.

The recent COVID-19 pandemic has renewed interest in bats, as they are natural hosts for numerous viruses, some of which have crossed species boundaries. Despite continued efforts in the past, the ecology of bat-related viruses in a significant part of national territories, such as Italy, remains largely unexplored. Herein, we describe the detection and molecular characterization of bat coronaviruses, identified during a viral survey on selected potential zoonotic pathogens (lyssavirus and coronaviruses) carried out in Sicily, southern Italy. A total number of 330 samples were collected from 149 bats in a period (November 2020–April 2023) overlapping the COVID-19 pandemic. All samples tested negative for lyssavirus and SARS-CoV-2, while 12 bats (8.05%) tested positive to a pan-coronavirus assay. Both alphacoronaviruses and betacoronaviruses were identified in samples from three species (Miniopterus schreibersii, Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, and Rhinolophus hipposideros). Strain sequences were related to coronaviruses detected in the last decade in northern Italy as well as in other countries bordering the Mediterranean basin, suggesting a widespread diffusion of these strains. This study supports the need for further monitoring efforts and early detection of circulating coronavirus genotypes, particularly for those which have been repeatedly emerging as zoonotic spillovers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Viral Pathogens)

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20 pages, 1097 KiB

Open AccessReview

Research Progress on Hepatitis E Virus Culture

by Jie Zhang, Ziteng Liang, Fan Liu, Youchun Wang, Weijin Huang and Jianhui Nie

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050456 - 6 May 2025

Abstract

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a zoonotic pathogen and the main cause of acute viral hepatitis in China, resulting in a significant burden on public health. Developing a highly efficient in vitro culture system for HEV is crucial for understanding the determinants of [...] Read more.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a zoonotic pathogen and the main cause of acute viral hepatitis in China, resulting in a significant burden on public health. Developing a highly efficient in vitro culture system for HEV is crucial for understanding the determinants of HEV infection in humans and other animals, the pathogenic mechanisms, as well as the screening and evaluation of antiviral drugs. In this paper, the research progress on HEV in vitro culture systems is reviewed to provide a convenient reference for further research on HEV, aiding comprehensive efforts toward the widespread prevention and control of related diseases. Full article

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55 pages, 11246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Taxonomic Approaches to Gastrointestinal and Urinary Capillariid Nematodes from Wild and Domestic Mammals

by Masae Tamaru, Seiho Sakaguchi, Yasuhiro Souzu, Koichi Murata, Muchammad Yunus, Imron Rosyadi and Hiroshi Sato

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050455 - 6 May 2025

Abstract

Fine nematodes of the family Capillariidae parasitize various organs and tissues in fish, reptiles, avians, and mammals. Currently classified into more than 20 genera, these nematodes are primarily distinguished based on the caudal structures of male worms. Morphological and molecular analyses were conducted [...] Read more.

Fine nematodes of the family Capillariidae parasitize various organs and tissues in fish, reptiles, avians, and mammals. Currently classified into more than 20 genera, these nematodes are primarily distinguished based on the caudal structures of male worms. Morphological and molecular analyses were conducted on 15 mammal-parasitic species belonging to the genera Aonchotheca (A. putorii, A. suzukii n. sp., A. suis n. comb. (syn. Capillaria suis), A. riukiuensis, and A. bilobata), Pearsonema (P. neoplica n. sp., P. feliscati, P. iharai n. sp., and P. toriii n. sp.), Liniscus (L. himizu), Calodium (C. hepaticum), Echinocoleus (E. yokoyamae n. sp.), and Eucoleus (E. kaneshiroi n. sp., E. aerophilus, and Eucoleus sp.), using specimens from various wild and domestic animals in Japan and brown rats in Indonesia. As demonstrated in this study, nearly complete SSU rDNA sequencing is a powerful tool for differentiating closely related species and clarifying the phylogenetic relationships among morphologically similar capillariid worms. Additionally, most capillariid worms detected in dogs and cats are suspected to be shared with their respective wildlife reservoir mammals. Therefore, molecular characterization, combined with the microscopic observation of these parasites in wildlife mammals, provides a robust framework for accurate species identification, reliable classification, and epidemiological assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pets, Wildlife and Parasites—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 350 KiB

Open AccessReview

Hepatitis A and E Viruses Are Important Agents of Acute Severe Hepatitis in Asia: A Narrative Review

by Reina Sasaki-Tanaka, Tatsuo Kanda, Takeshi Yokoo, Hiroyuki Abe, Kazunao Hayashi, Akira Sakamaki, Hiroteru Kamimura and Shuji Terai

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050454 - 6 May 2025

Abstract

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) and acute liver failure (ALF) are severe hepatitis that occur in patients with and without chronic liver diseases and/or cirrhosis, respectively, and both often result in death. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection can cause [...] Read more.

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) and acute liver failure (ALF) are severe hepatitis that occur in patients with and without chronic liver diseases and/or cirrhosis, respectively, and both often result in death. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection can cause these severe conditions. We reviewed the role of HAV and HEV, which infect humans through the fecal–oral route, in ALF and ACLF in Asian countries. This narrative review was the derived from a traditional non-systematic review. Hepatitis A should be recognized as one of the sexually transmitted infections, especially among men who have sex with men. HAV genotype IIIA infection seems to present a more severe clinical manifestation. Acute HEV-1 infection is associated with ALF in pregnant women in India. HEV-4, rather than HEV-3, was found in severe hepatitis in Japan. HEV also plays a role as a cause of acute insult and/or chronic liver disease in immunocompromised patients with ACLF. Further studies are needed for the development of vaccines and antivirals against HAV and HEV infections. Despite the limitations of the recording of cases and the extent of specific vaccinations, multidisciplinary cooperation, involving hepatologists, virologists, experts in public health, etc., may improve the treatment of HAV and HEV infection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Hepatitis Among Specific Populations: Epidemiology, Transmission, Treatment, and Prevention)

9 pages, 234 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

Ex Vivo Drug Susceptibility of Plasmodium malariae Isolates to Antimalarial Drugs in Gabon

by Yudi T. Pinilla, Anton Hoffmann, Maxim Viehweg, Nathanaël Saison, Stravensky Terence Boussougou Sambe, Ange Gatien Doumba Ndalembouly, Barclaye Ngossanga, Florence Awamu, Ayola Akim Adegnika and Steffen Borrmann

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050453 - 6 May 2025

Abstract

Plasmodium malariae is a neglected human malaria parasite despite its global distribution and propensity for persistent, sub-microscopic infections, which are associated with a mild but significant disease burden. Artemisinin-based therapies appear to be efficacious, but the susceptibility profiles of field isolates are largely [...] Read more.

Plasmodium malariae is a neglected human malaria parasite despite its global distribution and propensity for persistent, sub-microscopic infections, which are associated with a mild but significant disease burden. Artemisinin-based therapies appear to be efficacious, but the susceptibility profiles of field isolates are largely unknown. We performed ex vivo assays with isolates collected from asymptomatic volunteers in Gabon. The mean concentrations required to inhibit 50% of growth (IC50) with chloroquine (n = 21), artesunate (n = 20), atovaquone (n = 21), and lumefantrine (n = 14) were 7.2 nM, 2.7 nM, 3.1 nM, and 7.4 nM, respectively. Our study provides novel data on the ex vivo susceptibility of P. malariae to several key antimalarials, including the first dataset for atovaquone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Parasitic Pathogens)

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15 pages, 3320 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Neglected Avian Blood Parasites (Onchocercidae and Trypanosomatidae) in Migratory Passerines of the Temperate Zone, Eastern Baltic Region

by Rasa Bernotienė, Tatjana Iezhova, Vytautas Eigirdas, Vytautas Jusys, Margarita Kazak and Rasa Binkienė

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 452; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050452 - 5 May 2025

Abstract

Passerine birds (n = 3335) of 19 species were caught and investigated for the presence of Trypanosomatidae and Onchocercidae parasites using the buffy coat method, microscopy and PCR in Ventės Ragas, Lithuania. Data on the spread patterns of these parasites are still lacking. [...] Read more.

Passerine birds (n = 3335) of 19 species were caught and investigated for the presence of Trypanosomatidae and Onchocercidae parasites using the buffy coat method, microscopy and PCR in Ventės Ragas, Lithuania. Data on the spread patterns of these parasites are still lacking. The prevalences of Trypanosoma parasites in birds of different species varied from 2.2% to 36.1%, while the prevalences of Onchocercidae parasites varied from 0% to 17.3%. Statistically significant differences between spring and autumn in the prevalences of Trypanosomatidae were determined for Acrocephalus schoenobaenus, Hirundo rustica and Turdus philomelos. No significant differences between the prevalences of Onchocercidae in spring and autumn were determined. The prevalence of Trypanosoma was significantly higher for long-distance migrant birds compared with short-distance migrants, for omnivorous birds compared with insectivorous birds, and for open-nesting birds compared with birds nesting in nest boxes. The prevalences of Onchocercidae parasites did not differ for the same bird groups except for the prevalence in omnivorous birds, which was higher compared with insectivorous birds. Both groups of parasites were detected in juveniles, showing the presence of transmission in the study area. The diet, breeding behaviour and migration features of avian hosts can influence the prevalence of avian blood parasites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Updates on Zoonotic Parasites)

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15 pages, 10062 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Practical Framework for ASFV Disinfectant Evaluation: Differentiating Cytopathic Effects from Cytotoxicity via Integrated Analytical Methods

by Sok Song, Kyu-Sik Shin, Su-Jeong Kim, Yong Yi Joo, Bokhee Han, So-Hee Park, Hyun-Ok Ku, Wooseog Jeong and Choi-Kyu Park

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 451; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050451 - 4 May 2025

Abstract

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a highly virulent DNA virus that has spread globally since its introduction into Georgia in 2007, causing substantial economic losses in the swine industry. In the absence of an effective vaccine, chemical disinfection remains a key strategy [...] Read more.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a highly virulent DNA virus that has spread globally since its introduction into Georgia in 2007, causing substantial economic losses in the swine industry. In the absence of an effective vaccine, chemical disinfection remains a key strategy for disease control. However, in cell-based disinfectant efficacy testing, distinguishing between disinfectant-induced cytotoxicity and virus-induced cytopathic effects (CPEs) remains a major challenge, leading to the potential misinterpretation of results. To address this, we developed a multi-step analytical framework to differentiate CPEs from cytotoxicity using a Vero cell-adapted ASFV strain. Virkon^® S was tested at three dilutions—375×, 275× (manufacturer-recommended), and 175×—and evaluated through CPE observation, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assays, and antigen detection via lateral flow immunoassay (p30) and immunofluorescence (p54). Notably, the 375× dilution achieved effective viral inactivation with significantly lower cytotoxicity, demonstrating that this framework can facilitate a more refined determination of disinfectant working dilutions. Furthermore, increased p30 signals after disinfection and the observation of lower cytotoxicity in virus-plus-disinfectant groups compared to disinfectant-only groups highlight the complexity of virus-disinfectant interactions and the potential for misinterpretation. This study provides a standardized and interpretable strategy for assessing ASFV disinfectant efficacy and offers a practical basis for evaluating other enveloped viruses in future disinfection studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Epidemiology, Control, and Global Impact of African Swine Fever and Other Transboundary Swine Diseases)

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9 pages, 3651 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Alveolar Echinococcosis in 11-Month-Old Dog—Clinical Case

by Zuzana Šufliarska, Štefan Tóth, Michaela Gentil and Filip Humeník

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050450 - 2 May 2025

Abstract

In the present work, we describe the clinical–pathological case of an 11-month-old Border Collie dog, which was presented by its owner to a private veterinary clinic for the purpose of determining the diagnosis and subsequent therapy. The owner reports anamnestic data of abdominal [...] Read more.

In the present work, we describe the clinical–pathological case of an 11-month-old Border Collie dog, which was presented by its owner to a private veterinary clinic for the purpose of determining the diagnosis and subsequent therapy. The owner reports anamnestic data of abdominal enlargement, persistent apathy, fatigue, and vomiting. A complete examination of the patient was performed, consisting of clinical, hematological, and biochemical blood tests, X-ray, and USG examinations. Based on the findings, a probatory laparotomy was indicated, during which a large multi-lobular cystic irregular mass was detected, affecting the entire liver parenchyma, including macroscopic metastatic foci of the omentum and diaphragm. Due to the inoperable finding, the patient was humanely euthanized during the surgical procedure. Subsequently, an autopsy was performed with the collection of samples for histopathological and PCR examination of the tissue. Serological examination was also performed. The results confirmed a rare generalized form of alveococcosis (Echinococcus multilocularis) in the dog as an intermediate host. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasites and Zoonotic Diseases)

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15 pages, 2319 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution of Equid Exposure to Rickettsia spp. in Goiás State, Midwestern Brazil

by Gracielle Teles Pádua, Mariana Avelar Tavares, Nicolas Jalowitzki de Lima, Warley Vieira de Freitas Paula, Gabriel Cândido dos Santos, Lucianne Cardoso Neves, Raphaela Bueno Mendes Bittencourt, Raquel Loren dos Reis Paludo, Ennya Rafaella Neves Cardoso, Bianca Barbara Fonseca da Silva, Bruno Rodrigues de Pádua, Ana Carolina Borsanelli, Filipe Dantas-Torres, Gina Paola Polo and Felipe da Silva Krawczak

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050449 - 2 May 2025

Abstract

This study sought to investigate the presence of anti-Rickettsia spp. antibodies in georeferenced serum samples from equids across all regions of the state of Goiás, while also presenting variables that indicate risk factors for the circulation of rickettsiae, and evaluating the presence [...] Read more.

This study sought to investigate the presence of anti-Rickettsia spp. antibodies in georeferenced serum samples from equids across all regions of the state of Goiás, while also presenting variables that indicate risk factors for the circulation of rickettsiae, and evaluating the presence of rickettsial DNA in ticks collected from equids and the surrounding environment in the municipalities of Uruaçu and Porangatu, located in the northern region of the state. A total of 1156 equid serum samples provided by the Goiás Agricultural Defense Agency (Agrodefesa) were analyzed for antibodies against 4 Rickettsia antigens. Additionally, 39 blood samples were collected from equids during a 3-day field expedition in January 2024, alongside 938 ticks collected from both animals and the environment. In total, 297 adult ticks were randomly selected for molecular analysis and tested by qPCR targeting the rickettsial gltA gene. Positive samples were further analyzed using cPCR to target the ompA and gltA genes. Results revealed that 9.6% (111/1156) of the serum samples were seroreactive to at least one Rickettsia antigen. Among these, 36% had antibodies against Rickettsia rickettsii, 18.9% against Rickettsia parkeri, 69.4% against Rickettsia amblyommatis, and 14.4% against Rickettsia bellii. Furthermore, the possible antigen responsible for a homologous reaction was found in 3.6% of equids for R. rickettsii, and in the same proportion for R. bellii, while 23.4% of animals showed antibodies for R. amblyommatis, and none exhibited a homologous reaction to R. parkeri. Meanwhile, 28.2% of the serum samples collected during the field expedition had antibodies against R. amblyommatis, with 72.7% identifying R. amblyommatis as the antigen involved in the homologous reaction. In the logistic regression analysis, the variables of education level, altitude below 500 m, and presence of female mules demonstrated a positive effect on seropositivity. Ticks from animals were identified as Amblyomma cajennense sensu lato, Amblyomma sculptum, Dermacentor nitens, and Rhipicephalus microplus, while environmental ticks were identified as A. cajennense s.l., A. sculptum, and Amblyomma nodosum. In the qPCR assays, two specimens of A. cajennense s.l., one of A. sculptum, and one of D. nitens amplified a fragment of the gltA gene. Of these, one A. cajennense s.l. specimen amplified a fragment of both the ompA and gltA genes, and one A. sculptum specimen amplified a fragment of the gltA gene through conventional PCR. Sequencing confirmed the detection of R. amblyommatis. These findings highlight the presence of anti-Rickettsia spp. antibodies in equid serum samples from all regions of the state of Goiás, emphasizing the important role of equids as sentinels for Rickettsia spp. To our knowledge, this study represents the largest effort to detect anti-Rickettsia spp. antibodies in equid serum samples in Brazil. Additionally, it is the first nationwide investigation of its kind conducted in collaboration with the Agricultural Defense Agency (Agrodefesa), serving as a significant example of the One Health approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Rickettsia and Related Organisms)

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18 pages, 3890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Remote Sensing-Derived Environmental Variables to Estimate Transmission Risk and Predict Malaria Cases in Argentina: A Pre-Certification Study (1986–2005)

by Ana C. Cuéllar, Roberto D. Coello-Peralta, Davis Calle-Atariguana, Martha Palacios-Macias, Paul L. Duque, Liliana M. Galindo, Mario O. Zaidenberg and María J. Dantur-Juri

Pathogens 2025, 14(5), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14050448 - 1 May 2025

Abstract

Early warning systems rely on statistical prediction models, with environmental risks and remote sensing data serving as essential sources of information for their development. The present work is focused on the use of remote sensing for the estimation of transmission risk and the [...] Read more.

Early warning systems rely on statistical prediction models, with environmental risks and remote sensing data serving as essential sources of information for their development. The present work is focused on the use of remote sensing for the estimation of transmission risk and the prediction of malaria cases in northwest Argentina. This study was conducted in the city of San Ramón de la Nueva Orán, where cases of the disease have been reported from 1986 to 2005. The relationship between reported malaria cases and climatic/environmental variables—including the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), normalized difference water index (NDWI), and land surface temperature (LST)—obtained from Landsat 5 and 7 satellite images was analyzed using multilevel Poisson regression analyses. An increased abundance of reported malaria cases was observed in summer. An ARIMA (autoregressive integrated moving average) temporal series model incorporating environmental variables was developed to forecast malaria cases in the year 2000. The analysis of the relationship between malaria cases and environmental and climatic factors showed that malaria cases were associated with increases in LST and mean temperature and a decrease in the NDVI. Early warning systems that provide information about spatial and temporal predictions of epidemics could help to control and prevent malaria outbreaks. Based on these findings, this study is expected to support the development of future prevention and control measures by health officials. Full article

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