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Applied Time Series Analyses (2000–2017) of Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus (Pathogenic and Non-Pathogenic Strains) in the Eastern Oyster, Crassostrea virginica
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Dietary Dill Weed (Anethum graveolens) Stimulated Disease Resistance of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) Against Edwardsiellosis Infection
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Comparative Analysis of Endophytic Curtobacterium Species Reveals Commonalities and Adaptations
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Deciphering the Structural and Functional Paradigms of Clostridioides difficile Toxins TcdA and TcdB
Journal Description
Bacteria
Bacteria
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on bacteriology published quarterly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus and other databases.
- Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q2 (Immunology and Microbiology (miscellaneous))
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 25.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 8.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
- Recognition of Reviewers: APC discount vouchers, optional signed peer review, and reviewer names published annually in the journal.
- Bacteria is a companion journal of Pathogens and Microorganisms.
Latest Articles
Isolation and Identification of Pathogenic Bacteria Aeromonas veronii in Ctenopharyngodon idella (Grass Carp) and Chinese Herbal Medicine Antibacterial Experiment
Bacteria 2025, 4(3), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4030034 (registering DOI) - 12 Jul 2025
Abstract
Grass carp in aquaculture exhibited symptoms of bacterial infection leading to mortality. To investigate the cause of the disease and control grass carp infections, samples from diseased grass carp were collected, and a bacterial strain named XH-1 was isolated from the internal organs
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Grass carp in aquaculture exhibited symptoms of bacterial infection leading to mortality. To investigate the cause of the disease and control grass carp infections, samples from diseased grass carp were collected, and a bacterial strain named XH-1 was isolated from the internal organs of the infected fish. Artificial infection experiments were conducted to determine whether the isolated strain XH-1 was the pathogenic bacterium. The biological characteristics of the isolated strain were studied through a 16S rRNA sequence analysis, physiological and biochemical identification, and phylogenetic tree construction. Extracts from 14 traditional Chinese herbs were tested to evaluate their bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects on the isolated strain. The regression infection experiment confirmed that the isolated strain XH-1 was the pathogenic bacterium causing the grass carp disease. Biological characterization studies identified the bacterium as Aeromonas veronii, which is clustered with A. veronii MW116767.1 on the phylogenetic tree. Among the 14 Chinese herbal extracts, Lignum sappa, Pericarpium granna, Artemisia argyi, Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi, Coptis chinensis, and Artemisiacapillaris thunb exhibited significant bacteriostatic effects on XH-1. Lignum sappa showed the highest sensitivity to A. veronii, with the largest inhibition zone diameter, and its minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were 7.813 mg/mL and 15.625 mg/mL, respectively. As the concentration of Lignum sappa extract increased, its bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects strengthened. When the concentration exceeded 14 mg/mL, it maintained strong bactericidal activity over 32 h. This study on A. veronii XH-1 provides theoretical insights for the prevention of grass carp aquaculture diseases and the use of traditional Chinese herbs for treatment.
Full article
Open AccessSystematic Review
Potential Risks Associated with the Growth of Nitrifying Bacteria in Drinking Water Distribution Lines and Storage Tanks: A Systematic Literature Review
by
Amandhi N. Ekanayake, Wasana Gunawardana and Rohan Weerasooriya
Bacteria 2025, 4(3), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4030033 (registering DOI) - 12 Jul 2025
Abstract
Nitrifying bacteria, including ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB), are players in the nitrogen cycle but pose serious health risks when colonizing drinking water distribution networks (DWDNs). While the global impact of these bacteria is increasingly recognized, a significant research gap remains
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Nitrifying bacteria, including ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB), are players in the nitrogen cycle but pose serious health risks when colonizing drinking water distribution networks (DWDNs). While the global impact of these bacteria is increasingly recognized, a significant research gap remains concerning their effects in tropical regions, particularly in developing countries. This study aims to bridge that gap by systematically reviewing the existing literature on nitrifying bacteria in DWDNs, their behavior in biofilms, and associated public health risks, particularly in systems reliant on surface water sources in tropical climates. Using the PRISMA guidelines for systematic reviews, 51 relevant studies were selected based on content validity and relevance to the research objective. The findings highlight the critical role of nitrifying bacteria in the formation of nitrogenous disinfection by-products (N-DBPs) and highlight specific challenges faced by developing countries, including insufficient monitoring and low public awareness regarding safe water storage practices. Additionally, this review identifies key surrogate indicators, such as ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate concentrations, that influence the formation of DBPs. Although health risks from nitrifying bacteria are reported in comparable studies, there is a lack of epidemiological data from tropical regions. This underscores the urgent need for localized research, systematic monitoring, and targeted interventions to mitigate the risks associated with nitrifying bacteria in DWDNs. Addressing these challenges is essential for enhancing water safety and supporting sustainable water management in tropical developing countries.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Bacteria)
Open AccessCommunication
Helicobacter pylori Isolate from Endoscopy-Examined Patients in Bahir Dar, Northwest Ethiopia
by
Mulat Erkihun, Desalegn Nigatu Chanie and Yesuf Adem Siraj
Bacteria 2025, 4(3), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4030032 - 10 Jul 2025
Abstract
Background: Helicobacter pylori infection is widely prevalent across the globe and is a major etiological agent of various gastric pathologies. This bacterium colonizes the human stomach, where it induces a range of mucosal abnormalities observable upon clinical examination. Accordingly, the present study
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Background: Helicobacter pylori infection is widely prevalent across the globe and is a major etiological agent of various gastric pathologies. This bacterium colonizes the human stomach, where it induces a range of mucosal abnormalities observable upon clinical examination. Accordingly, the present study aimed to assess the prevalence and clinical implications of H. pylori infection among patients undergoing endoscopic evaluation. Method: A cross-sectional study was conducted from January to May 2019 at endoscopy service-providing health institutions. Sociodemographic and clinical data were collected. Gastric biopsies were collected during endoscopic procedures and immediately inoculated into brain–heart infusion broth and plated out. Then, phenotypic bacterial identification was done. The collected data have been analyzed using SPSS version 23. A logistic regression model was used for association determination. Result: Among the 135 individuals enrolled in the study, 59.3% are male, and 40.7% are female, with a mean age of 45 years. H. pylori is isolated in 17.8% of participants (24/135). Notably, the majority of these isolates 71% (17/24) are from male participants, while 29% (7/24) are from females. A statistically significant association is identified between H. pylori infection and both high salt intake [AOR = 3.3; 95% CI: 1.5–10.8; p = 0.04] and the presence of duodenal ulcers [AOR = 3.8; 95% CI: 1.2–11.9; p = 0.02]. The highest prevalence of H. pylori is observed among patients diagnosed with atrophic pangastritis. Conclusions: The prevalence of H. pylori among the study participants is comparatively low. However, a significant association was observed between H. pylori infection and both high dietary salt intake and the presence of duodenal ulcers.
Full article
Open AccessArticle
First Culturing of Potential Bacterial Endophytes from the African Sahelian Crop Fonio Grown Under Abiotic Stress Conditions
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Roshan Pudasaini, Eman M. Khalaf, Dylan J. L. Brettingham and Manish N. Raizada
Bacteria 2025, 4(3), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4030031 - 30 Jun 2025
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In the African Sahel, fonio (Digitaria sp.) is a cereal crop that alleviates mid-season hunger before other main crops are harvested. As fonio is valued for its ability to grow under low nutrient and drought conditions, it was hypothesized that it may
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In the African Sahel, fonio (Digitaria sp.) is a cereal crop that alleviates mid-season hunger before other main crops are harvested. As fonio is valued for its ability to grow under low nutrient and drought conditions, it was hypothesized that it may contain endophytic bacteria that can tolerate such extreme stress. White fonio seeds were obtained from a dry environment (Mali) and a moderate rainfall environment (Guinea). Plants were grown indoors on field soil mixed with sand to mimic Sahelian soils, grown at 30 °C, and exposed to drought, optimal water, and low nitrogen stress conditions. In total, 73 cultured bacteria were classified using full-length 16S rRNA sequencing followed by searching three 16S reference databases. Selected strains were tested in vitro for tolerance to relevant abiotic stresses. Including nine isolates from seeds, the candidate root/shoot endophytes spanned 27 genera and 18–39 top-match species. Several well-known nitrogen-fixing bacteria were cultured, including Ensifer. Leaves were dominated by Bacilli (spore-formers known to withstand dry conditions). There were five root isolates of Variovorax. Leifsonia was isolated from the leaves and showed 100% sequence identity with seed isolates, suggestive of transmission from seed to shoot. In vitro experiments showed that seed isolates, including Leifsonia, survived diverse abiotic stresses relevant to the Sahel. Combined, these results suggest that white fonio hosts stress-tolerant microbiota, and points to Leifsonia as a candidate seed-to-plant transmitted endophyte, pending confirmation by future whole genome sequencing. This microbial collection serves as a starting point for long-term experiments to understand stress tolerance in this under-studied crop.
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Open AccessReview
The Relationship Between Neuropsychiatric Disorders and the Oral Microbiome
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Julia Kalinowski, Tasneem Ahsan, Mariam Ayed and Michelle Marie Esposito
Bacteria 2025, 4(3), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4030030 - 30 Jun 2025
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The oral microbiome, a highly diverse and intricate ecosystem of microorganisms, plays a pivotal role in the maintenance of systemic health. With the oral cavity housing over 700 different bacterial species, the body’s second most diverse microbial community, periodontal pathogens often lead to
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The oral microbiome, a highly diverse and intricate ecosystem of microorganisms, plays a pivotal role in the maintenance of systemic health. With the oral cavity housing over 700 different bacterial species, the body’s second most diverse microbial community, periodontal pathogens often lead to the dysregulation of immune responses and consequently, neuropsychiatric disorders. Emerging evidence suggests a significant link between the dysbiosis of oral taxa and the progression of neurogenic disorders such as depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorders, and more. In this paper, we show the relationship between mental health conditions and shifts in the oral microbiome by highlighting inflammatory responses and neuroactive pathways. The connection between the central nervous system and the oral cavity highlights its role as a modulator of mental health. Clinically, these findings have significant importance as dysbiosis could compromise quality of life. The weight of mental health is often compounded with treatment resistance, non-adherence, and relapse, causing a further need for treatment development. This review seeks to underscore the crucial role of the proposed oral–brain axis in hopes of increasing its presence in future intervention strategies and mental health therapies.
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Open AccessReview
Microbial Antagonists for the Control of Plant Diseases in Solanaceae Crops: Current Status, Challenges, and Global Perspectives
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Takalani Whitney Maake and Phumzile Sibisi
Bacteria 2025, 4(3), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4030029 - 28 Jun 2025
Abstract
Postharvest losses of Solanaceae crops, which include potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), bell peppers (Capsicum annuum), and others, are one of the major challenges in agriculture throughout the world, impacting food security and economic viability. Agrochemicals
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Postharvest losses of Solanaceae crops, which include potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), bell peppers (Capsicum annuum), and others, are one of the major challenges in agriculture throughout the world, impacting food security and economic viability. Agrochemicals have been successfully employed to prevent postharvest losses in agriculture. However, the excessive use of agrochemicals may cause detrimental effects on consumer health, the emergence of pesticide-resistant pathogens, increased restrictions on existing pesticides, environmental harm, and the decline of beneficial microorganisms, such as natural antagonists to pests and pathogens. Hence, there is a need to search for a safer and more environmentally friendly alternative. Microbial antagonists have gained more attention in recent years as substitutes for the management of pests and pathogens because they minimize the excessive applications of toxic substances while providing a sustainable approach to plant health management. However, more research is required to make microbial agents more stable and effective and less toxic before they can be used in commercial settings. Therefore, research is being conducted to develop new biological control agents and obtain knowledge of the mechanisms of action that underlie biological disease control. To accomplish this objective, the review aims to investigate microbial antagonists’ modes of action, potential future applications for biological control agents, and difficulties encountered during the commercialization process. We also highlight earlier publications on the function of microbial biological control agents against postharvest crop diseases. Therefore, we can emphasize that the prospects for biological control are promising and that the use of biological control agents to control crop diseases can benefit the environment.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harnessing of Soil Microbiome for Sustainable Agriculture)
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Open AccessReview
Microbial Solutions in Agriculture: Enhancing Soil Health and Resilience Through Bio-Inoculants and Bioremediation
by
Rahul Kumar, Beatrice Farda, Amedeo Mignini, Rihab Djebaili, Leonard Koolman, Alivia Paul, Subhankar Mondal, Joy M. Joel, Aditi Pandit, Periyasamy Panneerselvam, Marika Pellegrini and Debasis Mitra
Bacteria 2025, 4(3), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4030028 - 24 Jun 2025
Abstract
Soil microbes are important for maintaining agricultural ecosystems by promoting nutrient cycling, plant growth, and soil resilience. Microbial-based inoculants, such as bio-inoculants and bioremediation agents, have been identified as suitable means to promote soil health, reduce environmental deterioration, and achieve sustainable agriculture. Bio-inoculants,
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Soil microbes are important for maintaining agricultural ecosystems by promoting nutrient cycling, plant growth, and soil resilience. Microbial-based inoculants, such as bio-inoculants and bioremediation agents, have been identified as suitable means to promote soil health, reduce environmental deterioration, and achieve sustainable agriculture. Bio-inoculants, such as biofertilizers and biopesticides, promote nutrient availability, plant growth, and chemical input dependency reduction. Diverse microbial populations, especially plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), enhance resistance by promoting a symbiotic association with plants and inducing natural resistance against insects. Bioremediation, the second significant microbial intervention, is the use of microorganisms for detoxifying and rehabilitating polluted soils. Methods effectively degrade organic pollutants, immobilize heavy metals, and mitigate the toxic effects of industrial and agricultural pollutants. Recent advances in microbial ecology and biotechnology, such as metagenomics, have transformed the knowledge of microbial soil communities, and tailor-made microbial formulations and monitoring equipment may be developed to maximize their activity. Though promising, environmental heterogeneity, scalability, and lack of field-based evidence constrain their widespread application. Multidimensional applications of microbial solutions in agroecology are explored in this review, with a focus on their potential in maintaining soil health, crop production, and environmental sustainability. It also addresses the application of bioremediation and microbial inoculants in agroecosystems and technological innovations with future research objectives. Microbial innovation to shape the soil microbiome offers a valid tool for addressing global challenges in agriculture, food security, and ecological resilience in the context of climate change.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harnessing of Soil Microbiome for Sustainable Agriculture)
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Open AccessReview
Advancing Sustainable Management of Bacterial Spot of Peaches: Insights into Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni Pathogenicity and Control Strategies
by
Nanami Sakata and Yasuhiro Ishiga
Bacteria 2025, 4(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4020027 - 3 Jun 2025
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Peach (Prunus persica) is a fruit crop of significant economic and cultural value, particularly in Japan, where it is cherished for its symbolism of summer and high quality. However, its production is threatened by bacterial spot caused by Xanthomonas arboricola pv.
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Peach (Prunus persica) is a fruit crop of significant economic and cultural value, particularly in Japan, where it is cherished for its symbolism of summer and high quality. However, its production is threatened by bacterial spot caused by Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni (Xap), a pathogen that also affects other Prunus species such as nectarines, plums, apricots, and almonds. Xap thrives in warm, humid environments and causes symptoms such as water-soaked lesions, necrotic spots, premature defoliation, and fruit blemishes, leading to reduced yield and marketability. Traditional control methods, including copper-based bactericides and antibiotics, are increasingly ineffective due to resistance development and environmental concerns. This review focuses on the biology, epidemiology, and pathogenic mechanisms of Xap, with particular emphasis on its impact on peach production in Japan. We discuss various disease management strategies, such as integrated disease management, biostimulants, cellulose nanofibers, plant defense activators, and biological control agents, alongside novel molecular approaches targeting bacterial virulence factors. By incorporating these innovative and eco-friendly methods with traditional practices, this review offers insights into the potential for sustainable, environmentally friendly solutions to manage bacterial spot and mitigate its impact on peach production.
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Open AccessReview
Unveiling the Hidden Allies in the Fight Against Antimicrobial Resistance—Medicinal Plant Endophytes
by
Adeoye J. Kayode, Aboi Igwaran, Folasade Banji-Onisile, Nneka A. Akwu, John O. Unuofin, Ayodeji C. Osunla, Samson O. Egbewale and Hery Purnobasuki
Bacteria 2025, 4(2), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4020026 - 21 May 2025
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Medicinal plants have long been a vital source of various natural products in the form of pure compounds or standardized extracts. The World Health Organization estimated that 80% of populations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America rely on traditional medicine for primary health
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Medicinal plants have long been a vital source of various natural products in the form of pure compounds or standardized extracts. The World Health Organization estimated that 80% of populations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America rely on traditional medicine for primary health care. In recent decades, endophytic microorganisms living within plants have gained attention for their ability to produce bioactive compounds with significant therapeutic potential. This review explores the diversity of medicinal plant endophytes, focusing on their pharmacological significance, including antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, and antioxidant properties. Additionally, we discuss the application of nanotechnology and computational tools in enhancing the potency and screening of endophyte-derived metabolites. Despite the promising potential, challenges such as scalability, safety, and commercial viability remain. Future research should prioritize optimizing production, elucidating biosynthetic pathways, and integrating advanced technologies to effectively harness these bioactive compounds for novel drug development.
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Open AccessArticle
Comparative Analysis of Endophytic Curtobacterium Species Reveals Commonalities and Adaptations
by
Annabel Arhin, Sydney Wiegand, Isabella Foriska, Kiersten Brown, Kylee Crayne, Kaitlyn Stroscio and Rajinikanth Mohan
Bacteria 2025, 4(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4020025 - 20 May 2025
Abstract
Curtobacterium species are increasingly recognized as plant pathogens and soil decomposers, but their prevalence and function as plant endophytes in aerial organs are less clear. In this study, we isolated six endophytic Curtobacterium species from the fruits, flower petals (previously unreported) and stem
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Curtobacterium species are increasingly recognized as plant pathogens and soil decomposers, but their prevalence and function as plant endophytes in aerial organs are less clear. In this study, we isolated six endophytic Curtobacterium species from the fruits, flower petals (previously unreported) and stem tissue of plants from diverse environments and examined their general characteristics. We found that all Curtobacterium endophytes belonging to three major Curtobacterium clusters—C. oceanosedimentum (a group not previously recognized as endophytic), C. luteum and C. flaccumfaciens—shared some common features. All or nearly all isolates tested were pigmented, displayed moderate salt tolerance and, surprisingly, were psychrotolerant, being able to grow at 6 °C. The exception was a fruit C. luteum isolate that appears to have evolved thermotolerance (up to 45 °C) instead as a likely adaptation to its environment. All isolates were able to metabolize starch and casein and solubilize inorganic phosphate, indicating conserved secreted hydrolase activity, but only isolates in the C. oceanosedimentum group were able to absorb and metabolize citrate. Finally, all endophytes tested were able to ferment the plant sugars sucrose and fructose, while they differed in their ability to use other sugars. Thus, this study documents common traits and adaptations in various Curtobacterium endophytes, and the presence of these isolates in floral and fruit organs implies the possible seed-borne inheritance of these isolates.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Molecular Biology: Stress Responses and Adaptation)
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Open AccessArticle
Antimicrobial Resistance and Prevalence of β-lactamase Genes Among Multidrug-Resistant Acinetobacter baumannii Isolates from Infected Diabetic Foot Ulcers
by
Diwan Mahmood Khan, Venkatakrishna I. Rao, M. S. Moosabba, Davoodbasha MubarakAli and Muhammed Manzoor
Bacteria 2025, 4(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4020024 - 12 May 2025
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Diabetic foot infections (DFIs) are a severe complication of diabetes and are increasing in prevalence globally. The microbiology of DFIs exhibits significant regional variation, with Acinetobacter baumannii frequently emerging as the predominant pathogen. This study aimed to investigate the microbiological profile of A.
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Diabetic foot infections (DFIs) are a severe complication of diabetes and are increasing in prevalence globally. The microbiology of DFIs exhibits significant regional variation, with Acinetobacter baumannii frequently emerging as the predominant pathogen. This study aimed to investigate the microbiological profile of A. baumannii in DFIs of different Wagner grades. Pus and tissue specimens from 480 diabetic patients treated for DFIs between September 2016 and August 2019 were collected, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed. Multiplex PCR was conducted to amplify extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) and metallo-β-lactamase (MBL) genes. A. baumannii had a prevalence of 14.58% in DFIs, with 100% resistance to cephalosporins. Among the 70 A. baumannii isolates, 19 (27.14%) were ESBL producers and 43 (61.43%) were MBL producers. blaTEM was the most prevalent gene (52.94%) in ESBL producers; blaNDM-1 was the most prevalent gene (52.94%) in MBL producers. Our findings highlight the need for regular antimicrobial susceptibility testing, molecular surveillance, and robust antimicrobial stewardship programmes to effectively manage A. baumannii DFIs and mitigate their resistance.
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Open AccessArticle
Dietary Dill Weed (Anethum graveolens) Stimulated Disease Resistance of African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) Against Edwardsiellosis Infection
by
Lee Seong Wei, Vui Kien Liew, Albaris B. Tahiluddin, Ramasamy Harikrishnan, Md. Eilious Hosain, Mohamad Nor Azra and Wendy Wee
Bacteria 2025, 4(2), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4020023 - 3 May 2025
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This study evaluated the effects of dietary dill weed (DW) on growth, hematological profile, digestive enzyme activities, antioxidative response, heat tolerance, gut microbiota composition, and disease resistance in African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). A control diet (basal diet) was compared to three
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This study evaluated the effects of dietary dill weed (DW) on growth, hematological profile, digestive enzyme activities, antioxidative response, heat tolerance, gut microbiota composition, and disease resistance in African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). A control diet (basal diet) was compared to three DW diets (DW5, DW10, and DW15) with increasing DW levels (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5%, respectively). After eight weeks, fish fed DW diets exhibited significantly higher growth performance (p < 0.05) compared to the control group, as evidenced by increased final weight (FW), specific growth rate (SGR), and weight gain (WG). Conversely, the feed conversion ratio (FCR), hepatosomatic index (HSI), and visceral somatic index (VSI) were significantly lower (p < 0.05) in fish fed DW diets compared to the control. Dietary DW supplementation significantly enhanced (p < 0.05) hematological profiles, including red blood cell (RBC), white blood cell (WBC), hematocrit (HCT), and hemoglobin (HBG), compared to the control group. Similarly, antioxidant responses, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT) activity, significantly increased (p < 0.05) in fish fed DW diets before or after the heat tolerance assay. Fish fed DW diets displayed a higher relative abundance of beneficial gut microbiota, including Cetobacterium spp., Akkermansia muciniphila, Phocaeicola spp., and Niameybacter massiliensis. Furthermore, dietary DW supplementation stimulated disease resistance against Edwardsiella tarda infection in African catfish. Regression analysis indicated that the optimal DW inclusion level for promoting growth performance and health status in African catfish ranged from 0.229 to 0.433%.
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Open AccessReview
Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamases (ESBLs) Gene Mutations in Kuwait: How Much Do We Know? Not Much!
by
Ali A. Dashti and Mehrez M. Jadaon
Bacteria 2025, 4(2), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4020022 - 30 Apr 2025
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is a major problem worldwide, especially with the overuse and misuse of antibiotics. This makes it more challenging to treat patients infected with antibiotic-resistant bacteria, with more costs on the health system. This review article describes extended-spectrum β-lactam antibiotics as the
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Antibiotic resistance is a major problem worldwide, especially with the overuse and misuse of antibiotics. This makes it more challenging to treat patients infected with antibiotic-resistant bacteria, with more costs on the health system. This review article describes extended-spectrum β-lactam antibiotics as the most used antibacterial agents, and how bacteria developed beta-lactamases (ESBLs) to resist these antibiotics. The review focuses more on the problem of ESBLs in Kuwait to uncover which ESBLs are present and what ESBL gene mutations have been found in this country. The literature review, surprisingly, revealed a limited number of studies in Kuwait on ESBL gene mutations, published over the last 25 years. The results showed that Kuwait has an alarming number of bacterial strains with ESBL gene mutations. These studies reported different mutations in different bacterial strains isolated from different types of specimens, which were collected from different hospitals in Kuwait. The data from these studies were scattered and not linked or analysed together to highlight the big picture of the problem of ESBLs in Kuwait. This review article highlights that the amount of research on ESBLs in Kuwait is not up to the expectations of a country like Kuwait, which has high-standard research facilities. Bearing in mind that the geographic area of Kuwait is relatively small, the authors of this paper think that there might be more β-lactam bacteria spreading in Kuwait, which need to be explored, and that more research and more collaboration are needed among researchers in Kuwait to address this risky situation.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Molecular Biology: Stress Responses and Adaptation)
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Open AccessReview
Deciphering the Structural and Functional Paradigms of Clostridioides difficile Toxins TcdA and TcdB
by
Mohammad Qutub, Amol Tatode, Ujban Md Hussain, Tanvi Premchandani, Jayshree Taksande, Milind Umekar and Deepak Thakre
Bacteria 2025, 4(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4020021 - 3 Apr 2025
Cited by 1
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Clostridioides difficile Infection (CDI) continues to be a major cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis, fueled in large measure by virulence factors TcdA and TcdB. These giant glucosyltransferase toxins interfere with host cytoskeletal integrity and inflammatory signaling by inhibiting Rho GTPase; however,
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Clostridioides difficile Infection (CDI) continues to be a major cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis, fueled in large measure by virulence factors TcdA and TcdB. These giant glucosyltransferase toxins interfere with host cytoskeletal integrity and inflammatory signaling by inhibiting Rho GTPase; however, the detailed structural dynamics, receptor selectivity, and subcellular trafficking mechanisms remain in part unspecified. This review integrates recent insights from cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and X-ray crystallography to describe the quaternary architecture of TcdA/B, emphasizing conformational changes key to pore formation and endosomal escape. We also examine the genomic heterogeneity of hypervirulent C. difficile strains (e.g., ribotype 027), correlating toxin gene polymorphisms (e.g., tcdC mutations) with increased toxin production and virulence. Mechanistic explanations of toxin-driven inflammasome activation and epithelial barrier dysfunction are situated within host immune evasion mechanisms, including microbiota-derived bile acid regulation of toxin stability. Subsequent innovative therapeutic strategies, encompassing the utilization of engineered neutralizing antibodies that specifically target the autoprocessing domain alongside structure-guided small-molecule inhibitors, are subjected to a rigorous evaluation. By integrating structural biology, systems-level omics, and clinical epidemiology, this review establishes a comprehensive framework for understanding C. difficile toxin pathogenesis and guiding next-generation precision antimicrobials.
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Open AccessBrief Report
Antibacterial Potential of Essential Oils Against E. coli and Salmonella spp. in Minimally Processed Foods
by
Aline Sitowski, Gladis Aver Ribeiro, Emma J. Murphy and Gustavo Waltzer Fehrenbach
Bacteria 2025, 4(2), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4020020 - 3 Apr 2025
Abstract
Minimally processed foods (MPFs), often considered ready-to-eat, do not undergo cooking and therefore require proper handling and preparation to ensure safety. If not handled correctly, these foods can serve as a pathway for diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria, including Escherichia coli and Salmonella
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Minimally processed foods (MPFs), often considered ready-to-eat, do not undergo cooking and therefore require proper handling and preparation to ensure safety. If not handled correctly, these foods can serve as a pathway for diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria, including Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. The antibacterial activity of essential oils (EOs) has been increasingly studied as a tool for controlling microorganisms in the food sector. Therefore, we aimed to verify the contamination of MPF by E. coli and Salmonella and to test the sensitivity of these strains to Copaifera langsdorffii, Schinus terebinthifolius, Citrus reticulata, Eucalyptus citriodora, Elettaria cardamomum, Ocimum basilicum, and Eugenia caryophyllus EOs using the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) methods. From 25 MPF samples, one E. coli strain and one Salmonella spp. were isolated. C. langsdorffii and C. reticulata EOs did not show antibacterial activity, while S. terebinthifolius and E. citriodora inhibited the growth of both strains. The E. cardamomum, O. basilicum, and E. caryophyllus EOs presented inhibitory and bactericidal responses at concentrations 0.78, 0.39, and 0.19% (v/v), respectively, compared to the two isolated strains. The present study reinforces the antibacterial potential of EOs and suggests their application in the MPF production chain.
Full article
Open AccessArticle
Molecular Detection of Colistin-Resistant E. coli in Village Chickens from Kelantan, Malaysia
by
Habiba Lawal, Shamsaldeen Ibrahim Saeed, Nor Fadhilah Kamaruzzaman, Zarizal Suhaili, Gaddafi Mohammed Sani, Mulu Lemlem, Qiya Yang and Erkihun Aklilu
Bacteria 2025, 4(2), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4020019 - 2 Apr 2025
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Pathogenic Escherichia coli can cause a variety of intestinal and extra-intestinal infections in humans and animals. The availability and subsequent misuse of antimicrobials, especially in poultry production systems, has contributed immensely to the emergence and spread of multidrug-resistant E. coli. This study
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Pathogenic Escherichia coli can cause a variety of intestinal and extra-intestinal infections in humans and animals. The availability and subsequent misuse of antimicrobials, especially in poultry production systems, has contributed immensely to the emergence and spread of multidrug-resistant E. coli. This study investigated the genotypic characterization of colistin-resistant E. coli and selected antimicrobial-resistance encoding genes along with their phenotypic resistant pattern and the multiple antimicrobial resistant (MAR) index from village chickens in Kelantan. Sixty E. coli isolates obtained from a previous study’s stock culture were enriched and analyzed using routine microbiological methods: Kirby–Bauer disc diffusion method, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and PCR amplification of E. coli species-specific and multidrug-resistance mcr-positive E. coli. All the isolates were confirmed as E. coli and 16.6% (10/60) were positive for mcr. Five isolates were positive for mcr-1, three for mcr-4, and two for mcr-9. The mcr-positive isolates showed varying degrees of resistance to different antimicrobials. The isolates were resistant to gentamicin (100%), chloramphenicol (100%), and tetracycline (89.4%) and susceptible to ceftaxidime (2.26%) and imipenem (18%). Furthermore, 100%, 94.7%, and 89.4% of isolates from village chickens belonged to phylogroup C, B2, and E, while 21.0% and 42.1% of the isolates belonged to phylogroup A and B1, respectively. Sequence types (STs) of selected E. coli isolates were further analyzed using multi-locus sequence typing, and 10 different STs were identified. This study showed the emerging threats of multidrug-resistant mcr-positive E. coli gene in village chickens that are believed to be raised with minimal or no antibiotics.
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Open AccessArticle
Antimicrobial Resistance Patterns and Serological Diversity of Shigella Species from Patient Isolates at University Teaching Hospital in Lusaka, Zambia
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Mike Nundwe, Joseph Yamweka Chizimu, John Mwaba, Misheck Shawa, Rodrick S. Katete, Mable Mwale Mutengo, Ruth Nakazwe, Namwiinga R. Mulunda, Cephas Sialubanje, Mox Malama Kalumbi, Yamba Kaunda, Rapheal Chanda, Herman Chambaro, Harvey K. Kamboyi, Thoko Kapalamula, Steward Mudenda, Freeman W. Chabala, Bernard M. Hang’ombe, Roma Chilengi, Chie Nakajima and Yasuhiko Suzukiadd
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Bacteria 2025, 4(2), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4020018 - 2 Apr 2025
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Background: Shigella species are the leading cause of human shigellosis. In Zambia, more than 30% of children experiencing diarrhea are infected with Shigella species. The increasing resistance of Shigella species to the recommended therapy is of great concern. Therefore, this study investigated the
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Background: Shigella species are the leading cause of human shigellosis. In Zambia, more than 30% of children experiencing diarrhea are infected with Shigella species. The increasing resistance of Shigella species to the recommended therapy is of great concern. Therefore, this study investigated the antibiotic resistance profiles and phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of Shigella isolates at the largest referral hospital in Zambia. Methodology: Of the forty-eight archived presumptive Shigella isolates, thirty-two were serologically confirmed and subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing using the Kirby Bauer disk diffusion method. Thereafter, polymerase chain reaction was performed to detect the bla genes. Results: Most isolates were Shigella flexneri (16/32, 50%) and Shigella sonnei (14/32, 44%), while Shigella boydii and Shigella dysenteriae were rare. High resistance rates were noted for sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (78%) and tetracycline (75%), while 15.6% of the isolates showed resistance to ciprofloxacin and/or azithromycin. The blaTEM gene encoding beta-lactamase was detected in 7/32 (22%) of isolates. Conclusions: In this study, a significant number of multidrug-resistant isolates were identified. Additionally, Shigella species resistant to the World Health Organization-recommended drugs call for strengthened laboratory diagnosis and close monitoring of these pathogens to guide the clinical management of shigellosis.
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Open AccessArticle
Applied Time Series Analyses (2000–2017) of Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus (Pathogenic and Non-Pathogenic Strains) in the Eastern Oyster, Crassostrea virginica
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Antonietta Quigg, Aurora Gaona-Hernández, Mona S. Hochman, Sammy M. Ray and John R. Schwarz
Bacteria 2025, 4(2), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4020017 - 1 Apr 2025
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Concerns about the health consequences of seafood-born human pathogens are ongoing given their occurrence, prevalence, and ability to cause infections, and sometimes death in humans as well as seafood-associated morbidity and mortality worldwide. An applied time-series (2000–2017) analysis of six reefs examined pathogen-specific
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Concerns about the health consequences of seafood-born human pathogens are ongoing given their occurrence, prevalence, and ability to cause infections, and sometimes death in humans as well as seafood-associated morbidity and mortality worldwide. An applied time-series (2000–2017) analysis of six reefs examined pathogen-specific annual trends and seasonal patterns in the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, in Galveston Bay (Texas), a subtropical estuary in the Gulf of Mexico. Pearson correlation coefficients showed that temperature had a strong positive correlation with Vibrio vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus (r = 0.66 and 0.51), but not the pathogenic thermostable direct hemolysin (tdh+) V. parahaemolyticus (r = 0.12). The correlations between Vibrio spp. and salinity showed the opposite trend. A cross-correlation factor analysis revealed the strongest positive correlations (r = 0.41 and r = 0.36, respectively) for high densities of V. vulnificus during high Perkinsus marinus infections with short lags (up to 1 month); this was not the case for total or tdh+ V. parahaemolyticus. These results reveal some of the complexity of interannual and long-term patterns of pathogens in oysters. Given climate change impacts and a growing aquaculture industry, examinations of oyster microbiomes in response to environmental and water quality variables are needed.
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Open AccessReview
Presence, Pathogenicity, Antibiotic Resistance, and Virulence Factors of Escherichia coli: A Review
by
Natalie Naidoo and Oliver T. Zishiri
Bacteria 2025, 4(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4010016 - 11 Mar 2025
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Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a Gram-negative, commensal/pathogenic bacteria found in human intestines and the natural environment. Pathogenic E. coli is known as extra-intestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) or intestinal pathogenic E. coli (InPEC). InPEC E. coli strains are separated into
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Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a Gram-negative, commensal/pathogenic bacteria found in human intestines and the natural environment. Pathogenic E. coli is known as extra-intestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) or intestinal pathogenic E. coli (InPEC). InPEC E. coli strains are separated into six pathogenic groups, known as enteropathogenic (EPEC), enterotoxigenic (ETEC), enteroinvasive (EIEC), enteroaggregative (EAEC), enterohaemorrhagic (EHEC), and diffusely adherent (DAEC), that have various virulence factors that cause infection. Virulence factors refer to a combination of distinctive accessory traits that affect a broad range of cellular processes in pathogens. There are two important virulence factors that directly interact with cells to cause diarrhoeal diseases within the intestines: adhesion and colonization factors and exotoxins. Virulence factors are crucial for bacteria to overcome the host’s immune system and result in antibiotic resistance. Antibiotics are used to combat the symptoms and duration of infection by pathogenic E. coli. However, the misuse and overuse of antibiotics have led to the global concern of antibiotic resistance. Currently, the antibiotic colistin is the last-resort drug to fight infection caused by this bacterium. Antibiotic resistance can be achieved in two main ways: horizontal gene transfer and mutation in different genes. The genetic basis for developing antibiotic resistance in E. coli occurs through four mechanisms: limiting drug uptake, modification of the drug target, inactivation of the drug, and active efflux of the drug. These mechanisms use different processes to remove the antibiotic from the bacterial cell or prevent the antibiotic from entering the bacterial cell or binding to targets. This prevents drugs from working effectively, and bacteria can acquire antibiotic resistance. E. coli is classified into different phylogenetic groups (A, B1, B2, D1, D2, E, and clade I). It is a very versatile bacterium that can easily adapt to different environmental factors. The present review gathered information about the pathogenicity, antimicrobial resistance, and phylogenetics of E. coli. These aspects are interconnected; thus, it will provide information on tracking the spread of pathogenic strains and antibiotic resistance genes of different strains using phylogenetics and how antibiotic resistance genes evolve. Understanding genetic variation in E. coli will help in monitoring and controlling outbreaks and in developing novel antibiotics and treatment. The increasing rate of antibiotic resistance, and the ability of E. coli to evolve rapidly, suggest that in-depth research is needed in these areas.
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Open AccessFeature PaperReview
Advancing Dye Degradation: Integrating Microbial Metabolism, Photocatalysis, and Nanotechnology for Eco-Friendly Solutions
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Anjuman Ayub, Atif Khurshid Wani, Chirag Chopra, Devinder Kumar Sharma, Owais Amin, Ab Waheed Wani, Anjuvan Singh, Subaya Manzoor and Reena Singh
Bacteria 2025, 4(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/bacteria4010015 - 7 Mar 2025
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Textile dyes pose a major environmental threat due to their toxicity, persistence in water bodies, and resistance to conventional wastewater treatment. To address this, researchers have explored biological and physicochemical degradation methods, focusing on microbial, photolytic, and nanoparticle-mediated approaches, among others. Microbial degradation
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Textile dyes pose a major environmental threat due to their toxicity, persistence in water bodies, and resistance to conventional wastewater treatment. To address this, researchers have explored biological and physicochemical degradation methods, focusing on microbial, photolytic, and nanoparticle-mediated approaches, among others. Microbial degradation depends on fungi, bacteria, yeasts, and algae, utilizing enzymatic pathways involving oxidoreductases like laccases, peroxidases, and azoreductases to breakdown or modify complex dye molecules. Photolytic degradation employs hydroxyl radical generation and electron-hole pair formation, while nanoparticle-mediated degradation utilizes titanium dioxide (TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and silver (Ag) nanoparticles to enhance dye removal. To improve efficiency, microbial consortia have been developed to enhance decolorization and mineralization, offering a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative to physicochemical methods. Photocatalytic degradation, particularly using TiO2, harnesses light energy for dye breakdown. Research advancements focus on shifting TiO2 activation from UV to visible light through doping and composite materials, while optimizing surface area and mesoporosity for better adsorption. Nanoparticle-mediated approaches benefit from a high surface area and rapid adsorption, with ongoing improvements in synthesis, functionalization, and reusability, particularly through magnetic nanoparticle integration. These emerging technologies provide sustainable solutions for dye degradation. The primary aim of this review is to comprehensively evaluate and synthesize current research and advancements in the degradation of azo dyes through microbial methods, photolytic processes, and nanotechnology-based approaches. The review also provides detailed information on salient mechanistic aspects of these methods, efficiencies, advantages, challenges, and potential applications in industrial and environmental contexts.
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