Parasitologia

The pressing global challenges of parasitic diseases, particularly prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, underscore the critical urgent need for innovative therapeutic strategies in identifying and developing new treatments. The immense chemical diversity inherent in nature has rendered natural product (NP) chemistry a promising avenue for the discovery of novel antiparasitic chemotypes. Despite challenges such as sourcing, synthetic complexity, and drug resistance, NPs continue to offer invaluable contributions to antiparasitic therapy. This review focuses on recent advancements in NP chemistry and their application in the development of antiparasitic therapeutics. Key highlights include the identification of new molecular targets such as enzymes, membrane proteins, and metabolic pathways in parasites, as well as the role of metabolomics, genomics, and high-throughput screening in accelerating drug development. Additionally, the exploration of microorganisms (including soil bacteria and fungi) and marine organisms as a latent reserve of bioactive compounds with potent antiparasitic activity is discussed. The review further examines emerging strategies such as chemoinformatics and combination and polypharmacology therapies, aimed at addressing the challenges of antiparasitic chemotherapeutic treatment and advancing the development of new and effective treatments. Ultimately, NP chemistry represents a frontier for the design of novel antiparasitic drugs, offering the potential for more effective and sustainable therapies for combating parasitic diseases. Full article

Due to their zoonotic potential and close interaction with humans, feline parasitic infections are an important public health concern. This study investigated 2758 domiciled and feral cats sampled across Mexico to assess the occurrence of parasites, coinfections, and associated risk factors. Twelve genera of parasites were identified, with Ancylostoma and Ctenocephalides being the most frequent. Coinfections were common, often involving both intestinal and ectoparasites. Multivariable logistic regression revealed that feral lifestyle, absence of recent antiparasitic treatment, female sex, and climatic conditions were significant predictors of infection. Cats with unrestricted outdoor access and direct contact with other cats, where hunting behavior and the ingestion of prey cannot be ruled out (ESCCAP risk group B), were more than five times as likely to be infected as those cats that live indoors (ESCCAP risk group A). Although antiparasitic use was reported in some cats, inappropriate drug choice and long treatment intervals reduced effectiveness, while nearly seven out of ten cats had never received treatment. These findings highlight major gaps between current practices in Mexico and international guidelines. Strengthening surveillance, promoting owner education, and implementing risk-based strategies are critical to reducing feline parasitism and associated zoonotic risks within a One Health framework. Full article

Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, presents a variety of clinical outcomes ranging from mild symptoms to Chagas cardiomyopathy, the most severe and life-threatening manifestation of the disease. The degree of virulence is influenced by both parasite and host factors. In this study, we characterized a murine infection model using the T. cruzi Dm28c strain in BALB/c mice to assess disease progression. Infected mice showed a peak of parasitemia at 14 dpi, followed by a progressive decrease. Spleen weight increased up to sixfold compared to uninfected controls at 14 and 21 dpi, correlating with parasitemia levels. Histological analysis revealed focal inflammatory infiltrates in the heart starting at 7 dpi, with maximal intensity at 14 and 21 dpi. The expression of inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-1β, TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, TGF-β) in the spleen showed a dynamic profile, with an early increase during the acute phase. Dm28c infection of BALB/c mice can be considered as a non-lethal Chagas disease experimental model, with detectable parasitemia during the acute phase and a controlled inflammatory response. Full article

Trypanosoma cruzi is a hemoflagellate protozoan and the causative agent of Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis. Transmission occurs through the feces of triatomine insects, its biological vector. It is estimated that around 7 million people are infected across Mexico, Central America, and South America. This study aimed to identify and characterize T. cruzi isolates obtained from wild triatomine vectors collected in Aguascalientes, Mexico. Molecular identification was performed at different developmental stages—epimastigotes in culture media, metacyclic trypomastigotes in triatomine feces, and amastigotes in mouse cardiac tissue—using endpoint PCR targeting satDNA and mtCytB regions. In addition, next-generation sequencing was employed to analyze variable regions of kinetoplast DNA minicircles. The pathogenicity of the isolated and identified T. cruzi strain was assessed in a murine model, where trypomastigote stages were detected in peripheral blood and amastigote stages in muscle tissue. Molecular analyses confirmed the presence of T. cruzi across different developmental stages from wild vectors, demonstrating that the isolated wild strain possesses pathogenic potential when completing its life cycle in an experimental mammalian host, specifically BALB/c mice. Full article

Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) continue to pose a persistent global health challenge, disproportionately impacting low- and middle-income countries where surveillance and healthcare infrastructure are constrained. Within these countries, residents of remote island communities are particularly vulnerable to emerging VBD threats; however, they remain critically understudied. We conducted a community-based cross-sectional survey of 300 residents from Shahpori Island, Bangladesh, and Gaya Island, Malaysia, to assess knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) related to VBDs. Using a structured questionnaire and mixed-effects Poisson regression modeling, we identified socio-demographic predictors of VBD-related knowledge and compared KAP outcomes across the two islands. Significant disparities were observed between the two settings: the Gaya Island residents demonstrated a higher level of awareness regarding VBDs and preventive practices compared to the Shahpori residents. Education was a strong predictor of VBD knowledge, with individuals possessing secondary education or above exhibiting significantly better knowledge (β = 0.2024, p = 0.0003). Marital status was also a significant factor, with unmarried respondents showing lower levels of knowledge (β = –0.1657, p = 0.0372). Age was positively correlated with VBD knowledge (β = 0.0051, p = 0.0119), indicating a gradual increase with age, while income, gender, occupation, and household size were not significantly associated. Despite basic awareness of VBD symptoms and transmission, detailed understanding of mosquito ecology, disease symptoms, and breeding prevention strategies was remarkably poor, especially among the Shahpori residents. Our findings highlight critical gaps in VBD-related knowledge and prevention behaviors shaped by socio-economic and educational disparities. Community-focused public health strategies including educational campaigns, establishment of health infrastructure, access to trained healthcare providers, and integrated vector control interventions are urgently needed to enhance resilience against emerging VBD threats such as drug-resistant malaria in remote island populations. Full article

Aim: In sub-Saharan Africa, approximately 40 million pregnant women are exposed to parasitic diseases such as malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, Schistosome parasites, and soil-transmitted helminths (STHs). When parasitic diseases share the same habitat and overlap in distribution, then high co-infection rates occur. The co-infection can lead to consequences for the child, such as intrauterine growth retardation, low birth weight, pre-term delivery, and neonatal mortality. Methods: The objective of the study was to determine the nature and extent of coinfection from 100 samples collected from the Battor (50) and Adidome (50) towns of Ghana in collaboration with the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana. Results: Out of 50 for the Adidome towns determined for P. falciparum by Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT), Malaria Pan-specific Antigen (PAN), and Malaria Pf kit, 39 were true positive (TP), 8 were true negative (TN), and 30 were false negative (FN). For Battor, 19 were TP, 12 TN, and 20 FN. For S. mansoni in Adidome via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), 21 tested positive, and 29 were negative, with 52.5% sensitivity and 100% specificity. For S. haematobium, 28 were positive and 22 negative using PCR with 70% sensitivity and 100% specificity. In LAMP, 28 were positive, and 22 negatives, with 70% sensitivity and 100% specificity. In Battor PCR for S. mansoni, 28 positives and 22 negatives with 68.3% sensitivity and 100% specificity. In LAMP, 32 were positive, and 18 were negative, with 80% sensitivity and 100% specificity. For S. haematobium, PCR showed 30 positive and 20 negative, with 73.2% sensitivity and 100% specificity. With LAMP, 21 were positive, and 29 negatives, with 51% sensitivity and 100% specificity. In both towns, 20–30 years had the highest infection prevalence for P. falciparum, S. mansoni, S. haematobium, and Strongyloides stercoralis. Conclusion: The results will be utilized as a part of the continuous surveillance for future research aiming at gathering nationally representative data in Ghana on the prevalence of coinfection and proposing interventions based on that for the vulnerable pregnant women population. Full article

Background: First-line treatments for cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), including topical agents, are often limited in cases of complicated disease involving multiple, facial, or treatment-resistant lesions. Data on intravenous liposomal amphotericin B (L-AmB) are scarce, especially in children. We report our experience using L-AmB to treat pediatric CL, focusing on treatment rationale, safety, and clinical effectiveness. Methods: A retrospective case series. Diagnosis was confirmed by PCR. Data on demographics, clinical presentation, treatment rationale, adverse events, lab findings, and outcomes, during treatment and follow-up, were collected. Results: Twenty-seven children were included, most (96%) with Leishmania major. The mean number of lesions per child was 5.71 ± 6.19. All had facial involvement; 41% nasal and 15% eyelid. Most lesions were ulcerated (78%). Prior treatment failure was common (78%), with the use of topical antimicrobials, liposomal amphotericin gel, and paromomycin-containing ointments (59%, 38%, 19%, respectively). Twenty-four children (89%) completed treatment successfully. Adverse events occurred in 41% of cases but were mostly mild and reversible: flushing, rash, shortness of breath, and vomiting (11%, each). One case of transient renal impairment and one case with neutropenia were recorded. Early improvement was noted by day 10, with 50% (n = 12) of cases exhibiting crust falling/reduced ulceration and a 50% lesion size reduction. By day 30–90, 92% achieved substantial healing without the need for further therapy. Nevertheless, scarring was noted in 79% of cases. Conclusions: L-AmB treatment appears to be safe and effective for pediatric CL, particularly in cases with facial lesions or prior treatment failure. Clinical improvement was notable, although scarring was common. Full article

Trypanosoma vivax, a haemoprotozoan of African origin, has spread throughout Latin America, mainly affecting cattle through mechanical transmission by flies. This study reports an outbreak of T. vivax on a dairy farm in the midwestern region of São Paulo State, Brazil. Clinical signs included progressive weight loss, lethargy, hyporexia, reduced milk production, abortions, neurological signs, and deaths. The herd comprised 238 crossbred Holstein-Gir cattle (200 cows, 38 calves). Blood samples were collected from 104 randomly selected cows and all 38 calves to assess hematocrit (HCT) and total plasma protein (TPP), and detect trypomastigote forms using blood and buffy coat smears. PCR was performed on EDTA blood from 30 smear-negative cows. Trypanosoma sp. was identified in 51.9% (54/104) of the smear samples, with morphometric confirmation of T. vivax infection. About 66.6% (20/30) of the smear-negative cows tested positive by PCR, showing the higher sensitivity of molecular tests. Anemia was observed in 56.8% of infected cows, with significantly lower HCT and TPP values than in uninfected animals. The absence of quarantine for new animals, high fly density, and shared needles for oxytocin injections were likely contributing factors. This study underscores the crucial role of molecular diagnostics in accurately investigating outbreaks. Full article

Objectives: Anisakidosis is an emerging, cosmopolitan, and underdiagnosed parasitic disease caused by the accidental ingestion of third-stage anisakid larvae when consuming raw or improperly prepared seafood. Within hours to days of consuming infected raw seafood, patients may develop acute gastrointestinal symptoms including pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and/or constipation, as live anisakid larvae attach to the gastric, or more rarely, the intestinal mucosa. Cases have been reported in which the nematodes succeed at migrating from the stomach upwards to the esophagus and then the oral cavity. Therefore, the purpose of the present literature review is to collect, analyze, summarize and present the relevant epidemiological, clinical, diagnostic, parasitological, therapeutic, and prognostic data concerning anisakidosis localized inside the oral cavity. Methods: An electronic search of the PubMed, Scopus, and Ovid databases was performed with them being accessed for the last time on 29 March 2025. Results: The present literature review identified 13 individual case reports of oral mucosa anisakidosis, which were published in the period 1971–2022. Conclusions: Our review aims to summarize the relevant epidemiological, clinical, diagnostic, parasitological, therapeutic, and prognostic data regarding the oral localization of anisakidosis, a helminthic infection caused by the accidental ingestion of live anisakid larvae and which manifests mainly with gastrointestinal symptoms. Its localization in the oral mucosa appears to be exceptionally rare and, in most cases, occurs with a characteristic clinical picture, defined by the onset of acute mouth or throat pain immediately after the consumption of raw seafood and by the observation of one or more larvae, either lying on or penetrating the oral mucosa. Despite its rarity, dental health professionals and other clinicians should be aware of this disease and the possibility of its intraoral localization, since environmental factors on the one hand, and the adoption of foreign dietary habits on the other, will likely make anisakidosis a much more common disease worldwide in the near future. Full article

Cystic echinococcosis is a zoonosis caused by the cestode Echinococcus granulosus sensu stricto. Population genetic studies and phylogeographic patterns are essential to understanding the transmission dynamics of this parasite under varying environmental conditions. In this study, the genetic diversity of E. granulosus s.s. was evaluated using 46 hydatid cyst samples obtained from sheep, goats, cattle, and humans across three regions of Chile: Coquimbo, La Araucanía, and Magallanes. Mitochondrial cox1 gene sequences were analyzed and compared with reference sequences reported from South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. In Chile, the EG01 haplotype was the predominant haplotype. A total of four haplotypes were identified, with low haplotype diversity (Hd = 0.461 ± 0.00637) and low nucleotide diversity (π = 0.00181 ± 0.00036). The haplotype network displayed a star-like configuration, with the EG01 genotype at the center, suggesting a potentially ancestral or widely distributed lineage. In Coquimbo (Tajima’s D = −0.93302, p = 0.061; Fu’s Fs = −0.003, p = 0.502) and Magallanes (Tajima’s D = −0.17406, p = 0.386; Fu’s Fs = −0.121, p = 0.414), both neutrality tests were non-significant, indicating no strong evidence for recent population expansion or selection. Star-like haplotype network patterns were also observed in populations from Europe, the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and Oceania, with the EG01 genotype occupying the central position. The population genetic structure of Echinococcus granulosus s.s. in Chile demonstrates considerable complexity, with EG01 as the predominant haplotype. Further comprehensive studies are required to assess the intraspecific genetic variability of E. granulosus s.s. throughout Chile and to determine whether this variability influences the key biological traits of the parasite. This structure may prove even more complex when longer fragments are analyzed, which could allow for the detection of finer-scale microdiversity among isolates from different hosts. We recommended that future cystic echinococcosis control programs take into account the genetic variability of E. granulosus s.s. strains circulating in each endemic region, to better understand their epidemiological, immunological, and possibly pathological differences. Full article

Background: Anaemia in adolescents can be influenced by parasitic infections, systemic inflammation, and nutritional status. Objective: To determine whether C-reactive protein (CRP), nutritional status, and infection with Ascaris lumbricoides, Giardia lamblia, or Trichuris trichiura are associated with anaemia in adolescent athletes from Tacna compared to non-athletes. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 250 male football players aged 13–18 years and 150 age-matched non-athletes. Haemoglobin, haematocrit, ferritin, serum iron, CRP, and parasitic status were measured; mean comparisons and logistic regression were applied. Results: Anaemia was more prevalent among athletes than non-athletes (30% vs. 18%; p < 0.001). Infected athletes showed lower haemoglobin (11.9 ± 1.1 g/dL) and higher CRP (5.0 ± 1.9 mg/L) levels compared to non-infected athletes (13.8 ± 1.0 g/dL and 2.2 ± 1.1 mg/L; p < 0.001). Logistic regression identified CRP as an independent predictor of anaemia (adjusted OR = 1.20; 95% CI: 1.08–1.38; p < 0.001), while parasitic infections showed no direct association after adjustment. Underweight status was associated with a higher prevalence of anaemia (36%). Conclusions: Systemic inflammation emerged as the main factor associated with anaemia in this population, with parasitic infections contributing indirectly by increasing inflammation. Periodic deworming, iron supplementation, and CRP monitoring are recommended to reduce the burden of anaemia in adolescent athletes from endemic regions. Full article

Equine piroplasmosis (EP) is a tick-borne disease caused by Theileria equi, Theileria haneyi and Babesia caballi. It affects equids, representing significant health and economic concerns for the equine industry. EP is endemic in Portugal, so developing and implementing preventive strategies is essential. Accessing veterinarians’ knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) through a survey is a suitable approach, and no such studies have been conducted in Portugal until now. A KAP survey was applied to 41 Portuguese equine vets, representing mainly the Alentejo region. The average knowledge score went from medium to high, correctly identifying the causative agents, transmission routes and clinical signs. Knowledge gaps mostly concerned the identification of T. haneyi as an agent, transplacental transmission, duration of infection and diagnostic methods. Reported practices were appropriate overall, including enhancing breeders’ awareness of the disease and its prevention. Diagnostic and treatment protocols were generally consistent with current recommendations; however, these protocols are not yet fully standardized. Our findings highlight key areas where increasing expertise is needed and could serve as a foundation for future evidence-based guidelines to improve EP control in Portugal. Full article

The Atlantic chub mackerel, Scomber colias, is sold in Spain, as well as another species of the genus, like the Atlantic mackerel, S. scombrus, often mistaken to be the same fish. This study aims to analyse the risk of human anisakiosis through the consumption of S. colias, and to clarify if these two species differ regarding this risk. A total of 250 S. colias (125 originating from the Atlantic and 125 from the Mediterranean) were helminthologically analysed using conventional parasitological techniques. Concerning Ascaridoid nematodes, the prevalence of Anisakis type I was higher in the Atlantic than in the Mediterranean. The presence of three other helminth parasites stands out, two other Ascaridoid nematodes, the larvae of Contracaecum spp. and Hysterothylacium spp., the latter a food-spoiling and non-pathogenic parasite. The other helminth found was the intestinal adult of the acanthocephalan Rhadinorhynchus pristis, also non-pathogenic. The comparison of the current results with previously published ones by our research group on S. scombrus show that Anisakis type I prevalence was higher in S. scombrus than in S. colias, making the correct differentiation between them necessary, given their varying risk of human anisakiosis. Furthermore, fish label information is important to prevent the risk of anisakiosis for consumers. Full article

Plasmodium vivax malaria continues to pose a significant and enduring public health challenge across the Americas. Transmission-blocking vaccines (TBVs), which target gametocyte surface antigens such as Pvs47 and Pvs48/45, are being investigated as promising tools to interrupt transmission and advance toward disease elimination. To investigate the genetic diversity and phylogeographic structure of the pvs47 and pvs48/45 genes in P. vivax, we conducted molecular analyses on samples collected from seven malaria-endemic regions of Honduras using PCR-based sequencing, population genetics, and phylogenetic approaches. This study presents the first complete characterization of the pvs47 gene and expands the available data on pvs48/45 in P. vivax from Honduras. We observed a low level of genetic diversity with no evidence of geographic structuring within the country. At a global scale, Honduran sequences shared variants with other Latin American strains and exhibited region-specific amino acid signatures. These findings suggest that local selective pressures, possibly driven by mosquito vector compatibility, are shaping the evolution of these TBV candidate genes. Our results underscore the importance of regional surveillance to inform the development and deployment of effective transmission-blocking strategies. Full article

Intestinal microbial eukaryotic parasites represent a significant public and veterinary health burden, especially in low- and middle-income countries, yet their transmission dynamics at the human–animal–environment interface remain poorly characterized in certain countries. This study investigated the prevalence and genetic diversity of key microbial eukaryotes, including Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, Blastocystis spp., Entamoeba histolytica, and Enterocytozoon bieneusi, in a rural village in Iraq. Samples collected from humans (n = 50), livestock (sheep and goats, n = 50), water (n = 20), and soil (n = 20) were analysed using microscopy and molecular methods (qPCR and nested PCR). Blastocystis spp. (78% animals, 16% humans, 45% soil, 5% water) and Cryptosporidium spp. (26% animals, 12% humans, 5% soil, 15% water) were the most frequently found microeukaryotes using either microscopy and/or molecular detection. Molecular methods identified Cryptosporidium parvum in humans and sheep, hinting at zoonotic transmission potential. Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Giardia were also found. Cryptosporidium ubiquitum and E. bieneusi genotypes BEB6 and COS-I, respectively, were detected exclusively in sheep, suggesting roles as potential reservoirs. Blastocystis ST1 was detected in humans, while ST4 and ST10 occurred in sheep. Notably, molecular detection rates of Blastocystis were much lower than those of microscopy. Entamoeba histolytica was not detected. The detection of the same organisms in humans, animals and the environment suggest zoonotic and environmental transmission pathways, which warrant further investigation using the One Health approach. Full article

Fascioliasis, a parasitic disease caused by liver flukes of the genus Fasciola, remains a significant threat to livestock productivity globally. Despite its economic and zoonotic importance, the knowledge levels of dairy farm personnel regarding this disease remain insufficiently explored in South Africa. This study assessed knowledge and awareness of bovine fasciolosis, including its etiology, risk factors, clinical signs, zoonotic implications, and control measures, among dairy farm personnel in the Eastern Cape Province. A structured questionnaire was randomly administered to 152 dairy farm workers. Descriptive statistics and Chi-square tests were used to examine associations between respondents’ demographic characteristics and their knowledge of fasciolosis. Most respondents were males (65.8%), aged 31–40 years (45.4%), with tertiary education (64%), over six years of experience (65%), and residing in inland regions (65.4%). A high proportion reported implementing pasture management practices such as irrigation (90.8%), pasture resting (69.8%), and rotation (94.7). Significant associations were found between geographic location and knowledge of Fasciola spp. as the causative agent, as well as awareness of swampy areas and water snails as key risk factors (p < 0.01). Educational level was significantly associated with awareness of the zoonotic potential of fasciolosis (p < 0.01), and regional location influenced knowledge on control practices (p < 0.01). These findings highlight persistent gaps in the understanding of bovine fasciolosis among dairy farm personnel, particularly in relation to causative agents, clinical signs, and zoonotic risk. Strengthening extension services, enhancing community awareness, and implementing targeted training programs are essential to address these knowledge gaps and improve disease control strategies in the Eastern Cape Province. Full article

Seabirds of the families Fregatidae, Phalacrocoracidae and Sulidae, common on the southeastern coast of Brazil, form colonies and play a bioindicator role in coastal ecosystems due to their ecological habits. This study aimed to identify the prevalence of parasitic helminths in Suliformes birds, of the species Fregata magnificens Mathews, 1914, Sula leucogaster Boddaert, 1783 and Nannopterum um Gmelin, 1789, from the Instituto de Pesquisas Cananeia (IPeC) on the southern coast of the State of São Paulo, and to record the diversity and parasitic indices, since reports of helminth prevalence in pelagic birds are scarce in Brazil. From 2018 to 2020, a total of 270 nematode specimens and 271 acanthocephalan parasites were collected from 51 Suliformes birds (20 F. magnificens, 10 N. brasilianum and 21 S. leucogaster). The host species F. magnificens was parasitized by Contracaecum plagiaticium and Contracaecum pelagicum. The host S. leucogaster was parasitized by C. plagiaticium. In the host N. brasilianum, specimens of Contracaecum australe, Contracaecum rudolphii, Contracaecum multipapillatum, Syncuaria squamata and Andracantha tandemtesticulata were found. This is the first report of C. plagiaticium and C. pelagicum in F. magnificens in Brazilian territory, and of A. tandemtesticulata in N. brasilianum in the southeast region of Brazil. Full article

Microsporidia MB (MB), a promising biological control agent, suppresses Plasmodium falciparum transmission in Anopheles mosquitoes. This study examined the spatial distribution of MB infection in natural populations of An. gambiae s.l. mosquitoes collected in Nigeria and Niger Republic, and its association with insecticide susceptibility in the mosquitoes. Microsporidia MB has wide geographic distribution across Nigeria and Niger Republic. The overall prevalence of MB in F₀ mosquitoes was 12.25% (95% CI: 7.76–16.75%); 25 mosquitoes out of 204 were positive. Geographic variation was observed, with a higher prevalence (5/15 mosquitoes) in Ebonyi State (33.33%, CI: 9.48–57.19%, Fisher’s exact test, p = 0.008). Infection rates were higher in An. coluzzii mosquitoes (21/133 mosquitoes), estimated at 15.79% (CI: 9.59–21.99%) compared to An. gambiae s.s. mosquitoes (4/71), with approximately 5.63% (CI: 0.27–11.00%, χ² = 4.44; df = 1, p = 0.035). Resistant mosquitoes had a significantly higher prevalence of MB infection than susceptible mosquitos at 28.57% (CI: 16.74–40.40%) with an odds ratio of 3.33 (CI: 1.23–9.03, p = 0.017). These findings suggests that MB can be exploited as an alternative for vector control in Nigeria and Niger, but its possible association with pyrethroid resistance suggests that it should be taken into account as a potential confounder when designing insecticide resistance management strategies. Full article