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Terrestrial Laser Scanning for Estimating the Volume and Biomass of Coniferous Stems in the Mariposa Monarca Biosphere Reserve, Mexico
Wood Species Differentiation: A Comparative Study of Direct Analysis in Real-Time and Chromatography Mass Spectrometry

Journal Description

Forests

Forests is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on forestry and forest ecology published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, PubAg, AGRIS, PaperChem, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Forestry) / CiteScore - Q1 (Forestry)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.2 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Testimonials: See what our editors and authors say about Forests.

Impact Factor: 2.4 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.7 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 1999-4907

Latest Articles

22 pages, 19585 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Plant Communities in Urban Green Spaces on Microclimate and Thermal Comfort

by Wenjie Li, Pinwei Pan, Dongming Fang and Chao Guo

Forests 2025, 16(5), 799; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050799 (registering DOI) - 10 May 2025

Urban green spaces are crucial for regulating microclimates and enhancing human comfort. The study, conducted at Jiyang College of Zhejiang A&F University, investigates the effects of plant communities with diverse canopy structures on campus microclimates and thermal comfort in summer and winter. Data [...] Read more.

Urban green spaces are crucial for regulating microclimates and enhancing human comfort. The study, conducted at Jiyang College of Zhejiang A&F University, investigates the effects of plant communities with diverse canopy structures on campus microclimates and thermal comfort in summer and winter. Data on air temperature (AT), relative humidity (RH), wind speed (WS), and light intensity (LI) were collected over three consecutive sunny days in both summer and winter. Concurrently, plant community structural characteristics, including three-dimensional green biomass (3DGB), canopy density (CD), and sky-view factor (SVF), were measured and analyzed. Quantitative relationships between these plant characteristics and microclimate/thermal comfort indices were evaluated using statistical analyses. The results indicate that, in summer, plant communities produced significant cooling (daily average AT reduced by 2.3 °C) and humidifying effects, and decreased the daily maximum thermal humidity index (THI) by 1 °C compared to control areas without vegetation. In winter, the moderation of temperature and humidity was present but less pronounced, and no statistically significant temperature difference was observed. Communities with larger 3DGB, higher CD, and lower SVF provided more effective shading and improved microclimatic regulation. A regression analysis identified AT as the primary factor influencing outdoor thermal comfort across both seasons. Planting configurations such as “Tree-Shrub-Herb” and “Tree-Small Tree”, as well as the use of broad-crowned shade trees, were shown to be effective in optimizing microclimate and outdoor comfort. Overall, enhancing the vegetation structure may address outdoor thermal comfort requirements in campus environments throughout the year. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)

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22 pages, 4717 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Variations of Fractional Vegetation Coverage and Its Driving Mechanisms in Southwestern China

by Pingping Cheng, Kunpeng Wu and Yujun Pan

Forests 2025, 16(5), 798; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050798 (registering DOI) - 9 May 2025

As a well-known ecological vulnerability region, monitoring and studying vegetation dynamics in southwestern China is important for resource management, ecological conservation, and climate adaptation strategies. The spatiotemporal dynamic characteristics of fractional vegetation cover (FVC) in southwestern China during the early 21st century was [...] Read more.

As a well-known ecological vulnerability region, monitoring and studying vegetation dynamics in southwestern China is important for resource management, ecological conservation, and climate adaptation strategies. The spatiotemporal dynamic characteristics of fractional vegetation cover (FVC) in southwestern China during the early 21st century was analyzed using MODIS Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) data. Additionally, this study employed the Geographic Detector Model (GDM), an innovative spatial statistical tool, to analyze the driving mechanism of FVC spatial patterns. The results indicated as follows: (1) the overall FVC in southwestern China exhibited a slight increasing trend, with distinct spatial heterogeneity; (2) the combined impacts of climate change and human activity could be the primary drivers of FVC changes, with relative contribution of 37.75% and 62.25%, respectively; (3) elevation was recognized as the key factor influencing this spatial variability, influencing hydrothermal conditions, vegetation types, soil types, and human activity intensity; (4) FVC increases steadily under high-emission scenarios of SSP370 and SSP585 from 2030 to 2100, while it exhibits an “increase–decrease” pattern under the low-emission scenarios of SSP126 and SSP245 from 2030 to 2100, with shifts occurring in 2080 and 2090, respectively. This pattern may result from the combined effects of moderate warming and fluctuations in precipitation, where initial hydrothermal conditions promote vegetation growth, but subsequent changes potentially inhibit it. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

19 pages, 1023 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tree Trunk Curvature Extraction Based on Terrestrial Laser Scanning Point Clouds

by Chenxin Fan, Yizhou Lan and Feizhou Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(5), 797; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050797 - 9 May 2025

The degree of tree curvature exerts a significant influence on the utilization of forestry resources. This study proposes an enhanced quantitative structural modeling (QSM) method, founded upon terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) point cloud data, for the precise extraction of 3D curvature characteristics of [...] Read more.

The degree of tree curvature exerts a significant influence on the utilization of forestry resources. This study proposes an enhanced quantitative structural modeling (QSM) method, founded upon terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) point cloud data, for the precise extraction of 3D curvature characteristics of tree trunks. The conventional approach operates under the assumption that the tree trunk constitutes an upright rotating body, thereby disregarding the tree trunk’s true curvature morphology. The proposed method is founded on the classical QSM algorithm and introduces two zoom factors that can dynamically adjust the fitting parameters. This improvement leads to enhanced accuracy in the representation of tree trunk curvature and reduced computational complexity. The study utilized 146 sample trees from 13 plots in Jixi, Anhui Province, which were collected and pre-processed by TLS. The study combines point cloud segmentation, manual labeling of actual curvature and dual-factor experiments, and uses quadratic polynomials and simulated annealing algorithms to determine the optimal model factors. The validation results demonstrate that the enhanced method exhibits a greater degree of concordance between the predicted and actual curvature values within the validation set. In the regression equation, the coefficient of the two-factor method for fitting a straight line is 0.95, which is substantially higher than the 0.75 of the one-factor method. Furthermore, the two-factor model has an R² of 0.21, indicating that the two-factor optimization method generates a significantly smaller error compared to the one-factor model (with an R² of 0.12). In addition, this study discusses the possible reasons for the error in the results, as well as the shortcomings and outlook. The experimental results demonstrate the augmented method’s capacity to accurately reconstruct the 3D curvature of tree trunks in most cases. This study provides an efficient and accurate method for conducting fine-grained forest resource measurements and tree bending studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

17 pages, 3446 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aboveground Forest Biomass Generally Increases with Elevation Gradients in China’s Qinling–Daba Mountains

by Yichen Hu, Wenzuo Zhou, Baiping Zhang, Dan Li and Xinyu Yao

Forests 2025, 16(5), 796; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050796 - 9 May 2025

The complexity of forest ecosystems leads to differences in the distribution patterns of different vegetation types along elevation gradients. This study aimed to explore the characteristics of AGB variations along elevation gradients for different forest types and tree species components in the Qinling–Daba [...] Read more.

The complexity of forest ecosystems leads to differences in the distribution patterns of different vegetation types along elevation gradients. This study aimed to explore the characteristics of AGB variations along elevation gradients for different forest types and tree species components in the Qinling–Daba Mountains. Based on 329 field vegetation survey plots, including four sampling transects and four representative mountains, individual tree AGB was calculated using allometric biomass equations. Further, generalized additive models (GAMs) were used to investigate the relationships between AGB and elevation for four forest types (broadleaf forests, coniferous forests, mixed coniferousbroadleaf forests, and shrublands) and three AGB components (total AGB (tAGB), broadleaf species AGB (bAGB), and coniferous species AGB (cAGB)) across eight vegetation survey regions. The results showed that the AGB of different forest types is significantly related to elevation (p < 0.05), with broadleaf forest AGB showing a unimodal pattern with elevation, coniferous forest and mixed forest AGB increasing with elevation, and shrubland AGB exhibiting a noticeable rise at higher elevations. The AGB components across different vegetation survey regions also showed significant relationships with elevation (p < 0.05), with broadleaf species AGB displaying a monotonically increasing trend in regions with a small elevation range and exhibiting a unimodal or bimodal distribution in regions with a large elevation range, while coniferous species AGB generally increased with elevation. Although elevation significantly influenced forest AGB, the variation in R² values indicated that elevation is not the sole determinant of AGB variation. This study improves the understanding of spatial patterns of forest biomass along elevation gradients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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14 pages, 2542 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phlebia formosana strain SMF410-5-1 and Auricularia cornea strain ME1-1 Display Potential in Wood Degradation and Forest Waste Reutilization

by Hao-Long Qin, Yi Ren, Jin-Hua Huang, Jian-Ling Ren, Jiyun Yang, Jiao He, De-Wei Li and Lin Huang

Forests 2025, 16(5), 795; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050795 - 9 May 2025

Wood waste, primarily composed of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose, which is typically disposed of through burning and crushing, poses environmental challenges. However, conventional wood waste disposal methods present critical limitations, such as environmental pollution and resource waste. To develop sustainable processing strategies to [...] Read more.

Wood waste, primarily composed of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose, which is typically disposed of through burning and crushing, poses environmental challenges. However, conventional wood waste disposal methods present critical limitations, such as environmental pollution and resource waste. To develop sustainable processing strategies to dispose wood waste, we identified two fungal isolates, SMF410-5-1 and ME1-1, from decayed wood trunks, demonstrating high lignocellulose-degrading enzyme activities, including laccase (Lac, 125.7 U/mL), manganese peroxidase (MnP, 89.3 U/mL), and lignin peroxidase (LiP, 67.9 U/mL). Isolates of ME1-1 and SMF410-5-1 both exhibited superior poplar lignin degradation, while SMF410-5-1 excelled in coniferous wood weight losses, which reached 19.7% for pine after 180 days post inoculation. Moreover, biochemical analyses revealed that isolates of ME1-1 and SMF410-5-1 accelerated the degradation by producing various lignocellulose-degrading enzymes to hydrolyze wood waste. In addition, through multi-locus phylogenetic analysis using sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), large subunit ribosomal RNA (LSU), and RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (RPB2), SMF410-5-1 and ME1-1 were identified as Phlebia formosana and Auricularia cornea, respectively. This study provides novel insights into fungal-driven biodegradation, offering eco-friendly solutions for forest waste recycling and supporting circular bioeconomy strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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19 pages, 5640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forested Swamp Classification Based on Multi-Source Remote Sensing Data: A Case Study of Changbai Mountain Ecological Function Protection Area

by Jing Lv, Yuyan Liu, Ri Jin and Weihong Zhu

Forests 2025, 16(5), 794; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050794 - 9 May 2025

Forested wetlands in temperate mountain ecosystems play a critical role in carbon sequestration and biodiversity maintenance, yet their accurate delineation remains challenging due to spectral similarity with forests and anthropogenic interference. Here, we present an optimized two-stage Random Forest framework integrating 2019–2022 growing [...] Read more.

Forested wetlands in temperate mountain ecosystems play a critical role in carbon sequestration and biodiversity maintenance, yet their accurate delineation remains challenging due to spectral similarity with forests and anthropogenic interference. Here, we present an optimized two-stage Random Forest framework integrating 2019–2022 growing season datasets from Sentinel-1 C-SAR, ALOS-2 L-PALSAR, Sentinel-2 MSI, and Landsat-8 TIRS with environmental covariates. The methodology first applied NDBI thresholding (NDBI > 0.12) to exclude 94% of urban/agricultural areas through spectral masking, then implemented an optimized Random Forest classifier (ntree = 1200, mtry = 28) with 10-fold cross-validation, leveraging 42 features including L-band HV backscatter (feature importance = 47), Sentinel-2 SWIR (Band12; importance = 57), and land surface temperature gradients. This study pioneers a 10 m resolution forest swamp map in the Changbai Mountain wetlands, achieving 87.18% overall accuracy (Kappa = 0.84) with strong predictive performance (AUC = 0.89). Forest swamps showed robust classification metrics (PA = 80.37%, UA = 86.87%), driven by L-band SAR’s superior discriminative power (p < 0.05). Quantitative assessment demonstrated that L-band SAR increased classification accuracy in canopy penetration scenarios by 4.2% compared to optical-only approaches, while thermal-IR features reduced confusion with forests. Forested swamps occupied 229.95 km² (9% of protected areas), predominantly in transitional ecotones (720–850 m elevation) between herbaceous wetlands and forest. This study establishes that multi-sensor fusion enables operational wetland monitoring in topographically complex regions, providing a transferable framework for temperate mountain ecosystems. The dataset advances precision conservation strategies for these climate-sensitive habitats, supporting sustainable development goals targets for wetland protection through enhanced machine learning interpretability and anthropogenic interference mitigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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18 pages, 2158 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship Between Forest Structure and Soil Characteristics with Flooded and Non-Flooded Rainforests of Northern Amazonia (Brazil)

by Edyrlli Naele Barbosa Pimentel, Lucas Botelho Jerônimo, Manoel Tavares de Paula, María Vanessa Lencinas, Guillermo Martínez Pastur and Gerardo Rubio

Forests 2025, 16(5), 793; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050793 - 9 May 2025

Environmental variability modifies forest structure through interactions among soil properties, topography, and climate. These factors influence the occurrence of contrasting forest types in northern Amazonia (Brazil), such as forests in highlands (Terra Firme) and forests under regular flooding (Várzea). Flooding regimes influence soil [...] Read more.

Environmental variability modifies forest structure through interactions among soil properties, topography, and climate. These factors influence the occurrence of contrasting forest types in northern Amazonia (Brazil), such as forests in highlands (Terra Firme) and forests under regular flooding (Várzea). Flooding regimes influence soil formation and modify soil geochemistry, nutrient distribution, and organic matter accumulation, shaping forest structure and composition. The objective was to determine the relationships between structure and soil characteristics in non-flooded and flooded tropical forests. We compared forest structure and soil characteristics at both conditions (n = 2 treatments × 20 replicas = 40 plots) using univariate and multivariate analyses. We found significant differences in most of the studied variables between forest types, both chemical and physical properties. Our results showed that flooding defines forest structure and composition (e.g., tree density, height, and volume) and influences soil nutrient characteristics. Floodplain forests exhibited higher soil nutrient concentration and organic carbon content, likely due to periodic litter accumulation, sediments, and reduced decomposition rates. In contrast, non-flooded forests were characterized by lower nutrient levels, higher sand content, and greater forest structure values (e.g., height, basal area, and volume). These insights contribute to understanding the functioning of both forest ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Organic Matter Dynamics and Microbial Roles in Biogeochemical Cycles in Forestry)

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15 pages, 2098 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unlocking the Power of Nature: Insights from a 20-Minute Forest Visit on Well-Being

by Daniela Haluza, Pauline Kersten, Tanja Lazic, Matthias Steinparzer and Douglas Godbold

Forests 2025, 16(5), 792; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050792 - 8 May 2025

Recent research underscores the positive effects of nature exposure on health and well-being. Growing evidence also links biodiversity within these environments to enhanced health outcomes, as diverse ecosystems may offer a broader range of multi-sensory stimuli. This experimental field study investigated the effects [...] Read more.

Recent research underscores the positive effects of nature exposure on health and well-being. Growing evidence also links biodiversity within these environments to enhanced health outcomes, as diverse ecosystems may offer a broader range of multi-sensory stimuli. This experimental field study investigated the effects on psychological and physiological outcomes linked to spending time in a forest compared to an urban environment. Sixty-six healthy participants were randomly assigned to spend 20 min in either a forest environment with alternating tree species richness in the Wienerwald near Vienna, Austria, or an urban environment. Psychological data were collected using validated scales, and saliva cortisol samples were taken before and after the intervention. Findings showed that the forest visit significantly reduced negative emotions, enhanced positive affect, and lowered cortisol levels more effectively than the exposure to the urban environment. However, increased tree diversity within the forest setting did not further amplify these benefits. These results suggest potential mental health and stress reduction benefits of forest exposure in the case of the Wienerwald, supporting the consideration of nature-based interventions in urban public health initiatives. While forest biodiversity appears to have limited additional effects, future research could further investigate its role in nature-based interventions and forest therapy practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest, Trees, Human Health and Wellbeing: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 2524 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morpho-Anatomical Properties and Terpene Composition of Picea Omorika (Pančić) Purk. Needles from Bosnia and Herzegovina

by Biljana M. Nikolić, Zorica S. Mitić, Dalibor Ballian, Marina M. Todosijević, Jelena S. Nikolić, Stefan Ivanović and Vele V. Tešević

Forests 2025, 16(5), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050791 - 8 May 2025

Picea omorika (Pančić) Purk., (Serbian spruce) is a relic, endemic, and vulnerable conifer that remains insufficiently studied to date. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the morpho-anatomical and phytochemical diversity of needles from three populations in Bosnia [...] Read more.

Picea omorika (Pančić) Purk., (Serbian spruce) is a relic, endemic, and vulnerable conifer that remains insufficiently studied to date. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the morpho-anatomical and phytochemical diversity of needles from three populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The length of two-year-old needles was measured with a digital caliper. The next six properties were measured based on cross-sections of the needles using a light microscope. An analysis of volatile compounds was carried out using gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and flame ionization detection (GC-FID). The highest values of needle traits were found in the Viogor population, with the lowest in the Tisovljak population, which was statistically confirmed. There was also a significant difference between needles from Bosnia and Herzegovina and those from Serbia. Bornyl acetate, camphene, limonene, and α-pinene were identified as the major terpene compounds. Multivariate analyses also suggested a tendency toward the separation of the Tisovljak population. A statistical comparison of three Bosnian and Herzegovinian and four Serbian populations (previously studied and published) revealed two distinct groups: (1) three Bosnian populations and the Vranjak population from Serbia, and (2) three populations from Serbia—Štula, Zmajevački Potok, and Mileševka Canyon. The general conclusions are that divergence in needle morpho-anatomy aligns with divergence in needle chemistry and that Bosnian and Herzegovinian populations are distinct from nearly all Serbian populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Specialized Metabolites and Structure of Woody Plants)

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23 pages, 4867 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Urban Forest Microclimates and Their Response to Heat Waves—A Case Study for London

by David Hidalgo-García, Dimitra Founda, Hamed Rezapouraghdam, Antonio Espínola Jiménez and Muaz Azinuddin

Forests 2025, 16(5), 790; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050790 - 8 May 2025

Extreme weather events and rising temperatures pose significant risks, not only in urban areas but also in metropolitan forests, that affect the well-being of the people who visit them. City forests are considered one of the best bets for mitigating high temperatures within [...] Read more.

Extreme weather events and rising temperatures pose significant risks, not only in urban areas but also in metropolitan forests, that affect the well-being of the people who visit them. City forests are considered one of the best bets for mitigating high temperatures within civic areas. Such areas modulate microclimates in contemporary cities, offering environmental, social, and economic advantages. Therefore, comprehending the intricate relationships between municipal forests and the climatic changes of various destinations is crucial for attaining healthier and more sustainable city environments for people. In this research, the thermal comfort index (Modified Temperature–Humidity Index (MTHI)) has been analysed using Landsat images of six urban forests in London during July 2022, when the area first experienced record-breaking temperatures of over 40 °C. Our results show a significant growth in the MTHI that goes from 2.5 (slightly hot) under normal conditions to 3.4 (hot) during the heat wave period. This situation intensifies the environmental discomfort for visitors and highlights the necessity to enhance their adaptability to future temperature increases. In turn, it was found that the places most affected by heat waves are those that have grass cover or that have small associated buildings. Conversely, forested regions or those with lakes and/or ponds exhibit lower temperatures, which results in enhanced resilience. These findings are noteworthy in their concentration on one of the UK’s most severe heat waves and illustrate the efficacy of integrating spectral measurements with statistical analyses to formulate customized regional initiatives. Therefore, the results reported will allow the implementation of new planning and adaptation policies such as incorporating thermal comfort into planning processes, improving green and blue amenities, increasing tree densities that are resilient to rising temperatures, and increasing environmental comfort conditions in metropolitan forests. Finally, the applicability of this approach in similar urban contexts is highlighted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microclimate Development in Urban Spaces)

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13 pages, 1655 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Brenneria goodwinii and Gibbsiella quercinecans as a Threat to Quercus coccifera L.

by Giambattista Carluccio, Marzia Vergine, Mariarosaria De Pascali, Alessandro Bene, Letizia Portaccio, Angelo Delle Donne, Luigi De Bellis and Andrea Luvisi

Forests 2025, 16(5), 789; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050789 - 8 May 2025

Acute Oak Decline (AOD) is a complex and rapidly progressing disease affecting several Quercus species across Europe. While previously reported in Quercus ilex in Italy, this study provides the first evidence of AOD symptoms and associated bacterial infection in Quercus coccifera (kermes oak). [...] Read more.

Acute Oak Decline (AOD) is a complex and rapidly progressing disease affecting several Quercus species across Europe. While previously reported in Quercus ilex in Italy, this study provides the first evidence of AOD symptoms and associated bacterial infection in Quercus coccifera (kermes oak). Symptomatic trees were identified in a Mediterranean forest in southern Italy, and bacterial isolation, qPCR detection, and 16S rRNA sequencing confirmed the presence of Brenneria goodwinii and Gibbsiella quercinecans. Phylogenetic analyses clustered the isolates closely with known AOD-related strains. Pathogenicity tests on excised Q. coccifera branches demonstrated that both bacteria induced wood necrosis and external exudates consistent with natural symptoms, confirming their virulence. These findings expand the known host range of AOD-related bacteria and highlight the potential threat to Mediterranean oak ecosystems. Early detection and monitoring of Q. coccifera decline are essential to inform conservation strategies and forest management practices aimed at mitigating AOD spread. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Abiotic and Biotic Stress Responses in Trees Species)

24 pages, 12924 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Forest Change Detection Induced by Hurricane Helene Using Remote Sensing Data

by Rizwan Ahmed Ansari, Tony Esimaje, Oluwatosin Michael Ibrahim and Timothy Mulrooney

Forests 2025, 16(5), 788; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050788 - 8 May 2025

The occurrence of hurricanes in the southern U.S. is on the rise, and assessing the damage caused to forests is essential for implementing protective measures and comprehending recovery dynamics. This work aims to create a novel data integration framework that employs LANDSAT 8, [...] Read more.

The occurrence of hurricanes in the southern U.S. is on the rise, and assessing the damage caused to forests is essential for implementing protective measures and comprehending recovery dynamics. This work aims to create a novel data integration framework that employs LANDSAT 8, drone-based images, and geographic information system data for change detection analysis for different forest types. We propose a method for change vector analysis based on a unique spectral mixture model utilizing composite spectral indices along with univariate difference imaging to create a change detection map illustrating disturbances in the areas of McDowell County in western North Carolina impacted by Hurricane Helene. The spectral indices included near-infrared-to-red ratios, a normalized difference vegetation index, Tasseled Cap indices, and a soil-adjusted vegetation index. In addition to the satellite imagery, the ground truth data of forest damage were also collected through the field investigation and interpretation of post-Helene drone images. Accuracy assessment was conducted with geographic information system (GIS) data and maps from the National Land Cover Database. Accuracy assessment was carried out using metrics such as overall accuracy, precision, recall, F score, Jaccard similarity, and kappa statistics. The proposed composite method performed well with overall accuracy and Jaccard similarity values of 73.80% and 0.6042, respectively. The results exhibit a reasonable correlation with GIS data and can be employed to assess damage severity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Resources and Land Use/Land Cover Dynamics: Implications for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation)

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17 pages, 628 KiB

Open AccessReview

Impacts of Intensive Management Practices on the Long-Term Sustainability of Soil and Water Conservation Functions in Bamboo Forests: A Mechanistic Review from Silvicultural Perspectives

by Jingxin Shen, Xianli Zeng, Shaohui Fan and Guanglu Liu

Forests 2025, 16(5), 787; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050787 - 8 May 2025

Bamboo forest ecosystems are an important component of the Earth’s terrestrial ecosystems and play an important role in addressing the global timber crisis as well as climate change. Bamboo is a typical shallow-rooted, fast-growing clonal plant species whose developed rhizome system and high [...] Read more.

Bamboo forest ecosystems are an important component of the Earth’s terrestrial ecosystems and play an important role in addressing the global timber crisis as well as climate change. Bamboo is a typical shallow-rooted, fast-growing clonal plant species whose developed rhizome system and high canopy closure play an important role in soil and water conservation. The function of soil and water conservation services of bamboo forests can intuitively reflect the regional regulation of precipitation, the redistribution function of precipitation, and the function of soil fixation, which is one of the crucial ecological service functions in regional ecosystems. Bamboo forests are divided into monopodial bamboo forests, sympodial bamboo forests, and mixed bamboo forests, which are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical mountainous areas. The region’s variable climate, abundant precipitation, and high potential risk of soil erosion, in conjunction with the frequent operation of bamboo forests and frequent occurrence of extreme weather events, have the potential to adversely affect the ecosystem function of bamboo forests. Presently, bamboo forests are primarily managed through the cultivation of bamboo, with the objective of enhancing productivity. Extensive research has been conducted on the long-term maintenance of bamboo forest productivity. However, there is a paucity of research on the mechanisms of management measures for ecosystem stability and the development of adaptive management technology systems suitable for soil and water conservation, carbon sequestration and sink enhancement, and biodiversity conservation. This paper is predicated on the biological characteristics of bamboo and, thus, aims to compile the extant research progress on the following subjects: the role of rainfall redistribution in bamboo forest canopies, the role of deadfall interception, and the mechanism of soil fixation mechanics of the root system. It also synthesizes the current status of research on the impact of traditional management measures on the soil and water conservation function of bamboo forests. Finally, it discusses the problems of current research and the direction of future development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Research in Bamboo Forests: 2nd Edition)

15 pages, 1901 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Benefits Beyond the Physical: How Urban Green Areas Shape Public Health and Environmental Awareness in Istanbul

by Nilay Tulukcu Yıldızbaş, Gökçe Gençay, Üstüner Birben, Funda Oskay, Dalia Perkumienė, Mindaugas Škėma and Marius Aleinikovas

Forests 2025, 16(5), 786; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050786 - 7 May 2025

Urban densification in Istanbul is progressively limiting access to green spaces, with significant implications for public health and environmental awareness. This study investigates how urban green space use relates to psychological well-being and environmental values by surveying 400 visitors to Belgrad Forest. Exploratory [...] Read more.

Urban densification in Istanbul is progressively limiting access to green spaces, with significant implications for public health and environmental awareness. This study investigates how urban green space use relates to psychological well-being and environmental values by surveying 400 visitors to Belgrad Forest. Exploratory factor analysis revealed five key dimensions of user perception and behavior: (1) personal benefit and well-being, (2) energy and concentration, (3) urban green space experience, (4) use and activities, and (5) environmental concern and value. A strong positive relationship was observed between well-being and energy-related factors, while environmental concern emerged as a distinct construct with limited overlap with recreational behavior. Demographic variables such as age, income, and education level significantly shaped green space perceptions. These findings suggest that while urban green areas support mental and physical health, their role in enhancing environmental awareness follows a separate pathway. The study underscores the importance of incorporating large-scale green infrastructure into urban health and sustainability strategies, particularly in rapidly growing metropolitan regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)

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16 pages, 7512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimisation of CO₂ Laser Technological Parameters and Their Impact on the Surface Quality of Cut Wood

by Lukáš Adamčík, Richard Kminiak, Kristián Kyselica, Rastislav Igaz and Ivan Kubovský

Forests 2025, 16(5), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050785 - 7 May 2025

This paper discusses cutting beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) using a CO₂ laser and optimising its feed speed and laser power concerning the roughness of the cut surface and the kerf width. The roughness, defined by the parameters Ra, R [...] Read more.

This paper discusses cutting beech wood (Fagus sylvatica L.) using a CO₂ laser and optimising its feed speed and laser power concerning the roughness of the cut surface and the kerf width. The roughness, defined by the parameters Ra, Rz, Rv, and Rp, and the kerf width changed with varying technological parameters of the CO₂ laser—feed speed and laser power. The lowest roughness was achieved at 50% laser power and a 15 mm·s⁻¹ feed speed, while the highest roughness was reached at 50% and 30 mm·s⁻¹. The lowest kerf width was achieved at 50% laser power and a feed speed of 15 mm·s⁻¹ on both the upper and lower sides and vice versa. The result of the experiment was the creation of second-degree polynomial regression models, from which the optimal values of the technological parameters of the CO₂ laser for cutting wood were determined for surface roughness and kerf width. The achieved accuracy of the models was 98.01% for the kerf width on the upper side, 95.95% for the kerf width on the lower side, 82.71% for the Ra parameter and 85.44% for the Rz parameter. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wood Characterization and in Tree Sorting and Inspections: Insights from Acoustic Testing and Tomographic Imaging)

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20 pages, 8710 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Field Sampling- and Airborne Laser Scanning-Derived Stand-Level Inventories in a Mixed Conifer Forest and Volume Validation Using Log Scaling Data

by Aaron M. Sparks, Mark V. Corrao, Robert F. Keefe, Ryan Armstrong and Alistair M. S. Smith

Forests 2025, 16(5), 784; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050784 - 7 May 2025

Forest managers need stand-level forest inventories to make operational decisions and model growth and yield to inform long-term planning. However, few studies have quantified errors in field sampling- and airborne laser scanning (ALS)-derived inventories at the stand level, particularly in species-diverse and structurally [...] Read more.

Forest managers need stand-level forest inventories to make operational decisions and model growth and yield to inform long-term planning. However, few studies have quantified errors in field sampling- and airborne laser scanning (ALS)-derived inventories at the stand level, particularly in species-diverse and structurally diverse mixed conifer forests. In this study, we compared stand-level metrics derived from field cruise measurements of a forest-wide stratified sample of variable-radius plots, an ALS-derived area-based approach (ABA) trained and tested using an independent sample of fixed-area stem-mapped plots, and two ALS-derived individual tree approaches. Inventory volume estimates were validated using the gross volume of harvested logs from multi-stand harvest data, tracked by load and location and scaled at the processing mill. Results show that the ABA and individual tree approaches produced stand-level volume estimates with similar errors (−8 to 6%) to the cruise estimated volume (−16 to 6%) when compared with scaled volume. Across the entire forest, regression-based equivalence tests showed that merchantable and total stand volume estimates between the cruise and ALS-derived individual tree methods were more similar than between cruise and ABA methods, potentially due to underestimation of trees by both cruise and individual tree methods in some areas of the study area. Our results also highlight important differences between conventional cruise inventories and ALS-derived inventories, such as the spatial variability of within-stand attributes that ALS inventories provide. Overall, this study improves our understanding of the limitations and advantages of conventional and ALS-derived stand-level inventories in mixed conifer, structurally diverse forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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28 pages, 27039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Learning-Based Urban Tree Species Mapping with High-Resolution Pléiades Imagery in Nanjing, China

by Xiaolei Cui, Min Sun, Zhili Chen, Mingshi Li and Xiaowei Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(5), 783; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050783 - 7 May 2025

In rapidly urbanizing regions, encroachment on native green spaces has exacerbated ecological issues such as urban heat islands and flooding. Accurate mapping of tree species distribution is therefore vital for sustainable urban management. However, the high heterogeneity of urban landscapes, resulting from the [...] Read more.

In rapidly urbanizing regions, encroachment on native green spaces has exacerbated ecological issues such as urban heat islands and flooding. Accurate mapping of tree species distribution is therefore vital for sustainable urban management. However, the high heterogeneity of urban landscapes, resulting from the coexistence of diverse land covers, built infrastructure, and anthropogenic activities, often leads to reduced robustness and transferability of remote sensing classification methods across different images and regions. In this study, we used very high–resolution Pléiades imagery and field-verified samples of eight common urban trees and background land covers. By employing transfer learning with advanced segmentation networks, we evaluated each model’s accuracy, robustness, and efficiency. The best-performing network delivered markedly superior classification consistency and required substantially less training time than a model trained from scratch. These findings offer concise, practical guidance for selecting and deploying deep learning methods in urban tree species mapping, supporting improved ecological monitoring and planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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14 pages, 5346 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Afforestation on Soil Aggregate Stability, Carbon, and Nitrogen in Alpine Sandy Lands

by Wangyi He, Hongyu Qian, Haodong Jiang, Xuan Gao and Yufu Hu

Forests 2025, 16(5), 782; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050782 - 6 May 2025

Soil aggregate stability and carbon–nitrogen content are critical indicators for assessing the vegetation restoration effects. Salix cupularis plays a vital role in rehabilitating desertified alpine meadows on the eastern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. However, research remains limited about how afforestation influences the soil aggregate stability [...] Read more.

Soil aggregate stability and carbon–nitrogen content are critical indicators for assessing the vegetation restoration effects. Salix cupularis plays a vital role in rehabilitating desertified alpine meadows on the eastern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. However, research remains limited about how afforestation influences the soil aggregate stability and associated carbon and nitrogen dynamics. In this study, sandy land (0 years) served as the control, and the spatial time replacement method was used to examine changes in the soil water-stable aggregate composition, stability, organic carbon (OC) and total nitrogen (TN) contents, and density at a 0–60 cm depth after 5 and 10 years of afforestation restoration (Salix cupularis). Ecological restoration significantly enhanced the proportion of macroaggregates (>0.25 mm) in the topsoil (0–20 cm), and improved aggregate stability. After 10 years of restoration, macroaggregates increased by 45.04% and 51.32%, respectively. The average weight diameter and geometric mean diameter of the aggregates increased by 51.32% and 59.53%, respectively. Following restoration, there was a gradual increase in the OC and TN contents in the soil, with the highest increase observed in the 0–10 cm layer (266.67% and 391.67%). The OC and TN of the aggregates also displayed a similar trend. Correlation analysis results indicated a significant positive relationship between the soil OC and TN contents and density, OC content in aggregates of various diameters, and the stability of these aggregates. The Pearson’s correlation coefficient for OC in aggregates > 1 mm was the highest. Compared with 5 years, 10 years of recovery were more conducive to the formation of macroaggregates, enhancement in aggregate stability, and the accumulation of OC and TN. Therefore, vegetation restoration on the Zoige Plateau can significantly enhance the soil water-stable aggregate composition and stability and can also increase the soil and OC and TN contents and density, thereby enhancing the soil ecological quality. This study provides fundamental data and theoretical support for rehabilitating desertified grasslands on the eastern Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Afforestation of Degraded Lands)

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13 pages, 2916 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Evaluation of Long-Distance Road Transportation of Roundwood in Mountainous Conditions

by Stanimir Stoilov, Antonio Zumbo, Chavdar Ustabasciev, Georgi Angelov, Salvatore F. Papandrea and Andrea R. Proto

Forests 2025, 16(5), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050781 - 6 May 2025

In Europe, long-distance transport of wood from landings to consumers is most often carried out by trucks and trucks with trailers. In forests located mainly in mountainous areas with rugged terrain and frequent curves, the construction of forest roads is complicated and often [...] Read more.

In Europe, long-distance transport of wood from landings to consumers is most often carried out by trucks and trucks with trailers. In forests located mainly in mountainous areas with rugged terrain and frequent curves, the construction of forest roads is complicated and often access for trucks with trailers is difficult or there is not enough space on the landing for maneuvers. In these cases, the truck leaves the trailer next to the public road and without it moves to the landing and loads the wood with Palafinger hydraulic crane model Epsilon Kran GmbH mounted on it, which it transfers to the trailer on the way back. Then, the truck moves to the landing to load itself, returns, hooks up the trailer and transports the wood to the customer. This study, conducted in a coniferous stand in Bulgaria, aimed to determine and develop models for the productivity and costs associated with transporting a truck with a trailer and to evaluate the suitability of this method. To study this very common method of long-distance transport, observations were made of 185 turns of a truck with a trailer operating with coniferous wood in Rila-Rhodope Mountain Massif, Southern Bulgaria. It was found that the duration of the working cycle is affected by the total mileage (average 65.41 km), the volume of the load and the number of logs. The productivity with and without delays, 7.80 and 7.30 m³/h, respectively, is affected by the mileage and the volume of the wood, while the corresponding transportation productivity (177.46 and 167.24 m³ km/h) is affected by the transport distance loaded and the volume of the load. To increase efficiency and reduce the cost of transporting wood over long distances, investments are needed to improve forest roads to eliminate the need to uncouple the trailer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operations, Machinery, and Transportation in Forestry Timber Harvesting)

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10 pages, 1674 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Open-Source Tree Bucking Optimizer Based on Dynamic Programming

by Caroline Bennemann, Jean-Martin Lussier and Eric R. Labelle

Forests 2025, 16(5), 780; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050780 - 6 May 2025

Bucking optimization was shown to generate high gains in volume and value recovery in harvesting operations. Several bucking optimizers have been developed between the 1960s and early 2000s but none of those programs were available in an open-source and easily modifiable format by [...] Read more.

Bucking optimization was shown to generate high gains in volume and value recovery in harvesting operations. Several bucking optimizers have been developed between the 1960s and early 2000s but none of those programs were available in an open-source and easily modifiable format by users. Therefore, this paper presents BuckR, an open access bucking optimizer at tree-level, programmed in R. The objective function is the maximization of values for each study tree, but it can be modified depending on the needs of users. BuckR is based on a well-known dynamic programming algorithm and requires tree data and product specifications with prices as the inputs. One of the output files produced is the log sequence, generating the highest value for each study tree. Through the open access code, the developed bucking optimizer will facilitate future research and applications in the field of value maximization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Harvest to Market: Assessing Sustainability in Wood Industry Management and Operations)

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