Forests

23 pages, 5798 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fungal and Bacterial Communities of the Red Turpentine Beetle (Dendroctonus valens LeConte) in the Great Lakes Region, USA

by Andrew J. Mann, Rin M. Barnum, Benjamin W. Held, Kathryn E. Bushley, Brian H. Aukema and Robert A. Blanchette

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1604; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101604 (registering DOI) - 19 Oct 2025

Abstract

Fungi and bacteria associated with bark beetles can facilitate successful tree colonization, and, in some cases, these fungi act as pathogens of trees. The red turpentine beetle (RTB, Dendroctonus valens) is a bark beetle native to North America that colonizes stressed pines, [...] Read more.

Fungi and bacteria associated with bark beetles can facilitate successful tree colonization, and, in some cases, these fungi act as pathogens of trees. The red turpentine beetle (RTB, Dendroctonus valens) is a bark beetle native to North America that colonizes stressed pines, rarely killing healthy trees. The fungal communities associated with RTB adults, larval galleries, and control tree phloem from red pine (Pinus resinosa) and white pine (P. strobus) forests in the Great Lakes region of the United States were characterized using both culture-independent and culture-dependent methods. Similarly, the bacterial communities associated with RTB adults in the same region were characterized using a culture-independent method. There were significant differences between the adult beetle fungal communities and the tree-based fungal communities. Culture-independent sequencing of RTB adults showed high abundances of the fungal order Filobasidiales (red pine: 28.71% relative abundance, white pine: 6.91% relative abundance), as well as the bacterial orders Enterobacterales (red pine: 53.72%, white pine: 22.15%) and Pseudomonadales (red pine: 15.86%, white pine: 12.91%). In contrast, we isolated high amounts of fungi in the orders Pleosporales (red pine: 21.79%, white pine: 15.90%) and Eurotiales (red pine: 15.38%, white pine: 16.51%) from the adult beetles by culturing. Culture-independent sequencing of beetle galleries yielded high abundances of fungi in the orders Helotiales (red pine: 22.23%, white pine: 23.21%), whereas culture-based isolation from the same galleries yielded high amounts of Eurotiales (red pine: 17.91%, white pine: 17.91%), Hypocreales (red pine: 16.42%, white pine: 16.42%), and Ophiostomatales (red pine: 23.39%, white pine: 23.39%). This contrasts with the culture-independent method, where, likely due to limitations in the sequencing method, the Ophiostomatales accounted for only around 2% of the fungi from RTB galleries in both pine species. We observed a high species-level diversity of Ophiostomatales associated with RTB, isolating 14 species from the Great Lakes region. Leptographium terebrantis, a species that has been described in association with RTB throughout the United States, was the most common species (e.g., >35% of the Ophiostomatales relative abundance in red pine environments and >14% of the Ophiostomatales relative abundance in the white pine environment). This study enhances our understanding of RTB-associated fungi and bacteria in the beetle’s native range at both the community and species levels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnosing and Managing Forest and Tree Diseases: Advances, Challenges and Strategies)

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21 pages, 3380 KB

Open AccessArticle

Refining Carbon Balance Estimates of Harvested Wood Products: A Generalizable Tier-3 Production Approach for China

by Xiaobiao Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1603; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101603 (registering DOI) - 19 Oct 2025

Abstract

The carbon pool of harvested wood products (HWPs) is an essential part of the national greenhouse gas inventory. Developing a Tier-3 method for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Production Approach (PA) enhances the accuracy of HWP carbon balance assessments and removal [...] Read more.

The carbon pool of harvested wood products (HWPs) is an essential part of the national greenhouse gas inventory. Developing a Tier-3 method for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Production Approach (PA) enhances the accuracy of HWP carbon balance assessments and removal estimates. This is crucial as the PA is a mandatory IPCC approach. A major challenge for developing a Tier-3 PA is the absence of an effective way to allocate HWP production to domestic and overseas end uses, precluding the application of Tier-3 PA in most countries in the world. Here, we integrated the Eora multi-regional input–output (MRIO) model, which effectively allocates HWPs to these end uses into the PA to create a generalizable Tier-3 PA. Using China-produced HWPs from 1990 to 2020 as a case study, we report that these HWPs accumulated a carbon stock of 3376 MtCO₂e by 2020 and provided a carbon sink of 221 MtCO₂e yr⁻¹ from 2016 to 2020. Construction, furniture, other solid HWPs, sanitary and household paper, and other paper products accumulated 1244, 226, 1032, 0, and 189 MtCO₂e, respectively. China’s trade partners consumed 14% of China-produced HWPs and contributed to 13% of the total carbon stock and 15% of the total carbon sink. The generalizable Tier-3 PA is applicable for countries with limited end-use data, and thus enhances their HWP carbon removal estimates. Our first-ever comprehensive PA-based assessment of overseas HWP consumption and carbon removal supports IPCC methodological improvement and future HWP-related international negotiations and mitigation actions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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22 pages, 2323 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Eucalyptus Plantation on Soil Microbial Characteristics in Severely Degraded Land of Leizhou Peninsula

by Jundi Zhong, Hanyuan Xu, Zina Chen, Kaiyan Yang, Shenghong Xiao and Xunzhi Ouyang

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1602; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101602 (registering DOI) - 18 Oct 2025

Abstract

Soil microorganisms are important decomposers in soil, and they play important roles in litter degradation, nutrient cycle and balance, soil physicochemical property improvement, and soil fertility maintenance. To understand the influence of Eucalyptus plantations on the growth, reproduction, and activity of soil microorganisms [...] Read more.

Soil microorganisms are important decomposers in soil, and they play important roles in litter degradation, nutrient cycle and balance, soil physicochemical property improvement, and soil fertility maintenance. To understand the influence of Eucalyptus plantations on the growth, reproduction, and activity of soil microorganisms in severely degraded land, the Leizhou Peninsula in tropical China was selected as the research area. The vegetation restoration types of Eucalyptus urophylla × grandis planted in its severely degraded red soil areas (ES: Eucalyptus–shrub, EG: Eucalyptus–grass, and ED: Eucalyptus–Dicranopteris pedata (Houtt.) Nakaike) were studied, and the nearby natural vegetation types (S: shrub, G: grass, and D: Dicranopteris pedata) served as control groups. The microbial characteristics of different vegetation restoration types were compared, and the influence of Eucalyptus plantations on the growth, reproduction, and activity of soil microorganisms in severely degraded red soil areas was discussed by setting up sample plots for investigation, sample determination, and statistical analysis. The structure of soil microorganisms differed significantly between Eucalyptus vegetation restoration (ER) and natural vegetation restoration without Eucalyptus (NER). Key organic decomposers, including bacterial genera such as Candidatus Solibacter (ER: 1.2 ± 0.4% vs. NER: 0.9 ± 0.1%), Candidatus Koribacter (ER: 1.0 ± 0.4% vs. NER: 0.7 ± 0.1%), and Edaphobacter (ER: 0.9 ± 0.1% vs. NER: 0.4 ± 0.1%), as well as fungal genera such as Rhizophagus (ER: 0.1 ± 0.0% vs. NER: 0.0 ± 0.0%), Paxillus (ER: 0.1 ± 0.0% vs. NER: 0.0 ± 0.0%), and Pisolithus (ER: 0.1 ± 0.0% vs. NER: 0.0 ± 0.0%), exhibited a significantly higher relative richness and a broader distribution in ER compared to NER (p < 0.05). Soil microbial biomass carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus (MBC, MBN, MBP), community structure (keystone taxa and symbiosis network complexity), and functional genes (for growth, reproduction, and decomposition) in ER, especially in ES, were significantly higher than in NER. This study illustrated that Eucalyptus plantations, especially ES types, can promote the growth and reproduction of soil organic decomposers, improve microbial metabolic and biological activities, and increase functional diversity and interactions among microorganisms, thus accelerating the cycle of soil carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus nutrients, improving soil quality and fertility, and accelerating the recovery of degraded soil fertility. In areas with serious soil degradation and where natural vegetation restoration is difficult, planting Eucalyptus, especially while guiding the understory vegetation to develop into the shrub vegetation type, is an effective vegetation restoration model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

23 pages, 968 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Cold Tolerance Evaluation in Camellia sinensis and Camellia japonica Through Multimethod Analysis and Predictive Modeling

by Woo-Hyeong Yang, Seong-Hyeon Yong, Do-Hyun Kim, Kwan-Been Park, Seung-A Cha, Ji-Hyeon Lee, Seon-A Kim, Jenna Jung and Myung-Suk Choi

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1601; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101601 (registering DOI) - 18 Oct 2025

Abstract

Cold stress is a critical factor restricting the cultivation of subtropical evergreen species such as Camellia sinensis and C. japonica in temperate climates. This study aimed to develop an integrated framework for evaluating cold tolerance by combining visual assessment, electrolyte leakage (EL), Evans [...] Read more.

Cold stress is a critical factor restricting the cultivation of subtropical evergreen species such as Camellia sinensis and C. japonica in temperate climates. This study aimed to develop an integrated framework for evaluating cold tolerance by combining visual assessment, electrolyte leakage (EL), Evans blue staining, and nonlinear regression modeling. All experiments were conducted with n = 3 samples per treatment, and statistical analyses were performed at a significance level of α = 0.05. Under freezing treatment at −6 °C, C. japonica exhibited faster and more severe damage, including leaf curling and vein darkening, compared to C. sinensis. Electrolyte leakage and cell death increased rapidly in C. japonica, and a sharp rise in cell death occurred in both species when EL exceeded 55%. Logistic regression of EL data estimated LT₅₀ values of −10.96 °C for C. sinensis and −9.38 °C for C. japonica, while EL Temp₅₀ values were −9.59 °C and −8.97 °C, respectively, indicating higher membrane stability in C. sinensis. The difference in LT₅₀ between the two species was statistically significant (p < 0.05). Biochemical and heatmap analyses from 25 °C to −12 °C showed that C. sinensis maintained higher chlorophyll, antioxidant activity, and sugar levels, reflecting stronger cold tolerance. In contrast, C. japonica accumulated more proline and MDA, indicating higher stress sensitivity and membrane damage. This study presents a reproducible, quantitative framework for evaluating cold tolerance in Camellia species, offering valuable insights for breeding and expanding cultivation under climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Abiotic and Biotic Stress Responses in Trees Species)

21 pages, 3226 KB

Open AccessArticle

Forecasting the Impact of Climate Change on Tetraclinis articulata Distribution in the Mediterranean Using MaxEnt and GIS-Based Analysis

by Kaouther Mechergui, Umer Hayat, Muhammad Hammad Ahmad, Somayah Moshrif Alamri, Eman Rafi Alamery, Khadeijah Yahya Faqeih, Maha Abdullah Aldubehi and Wahbi Jaouadi

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1600; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101600 (registering DOI) - 18 Oct 2025

Abstract

Climate change threatens Tetraclinis articulata, a Mediterranean plant endangered by habitat loss, logging, and aridification. This study used the MaxEnt model to analyze factors affecting its distribution under current and future climate scenarios (SSP1-2.6 to SSP5-8.5) for 2040–2100, highlighting its vulnerability to [...] Read more.

Climate change threatens Tetraclinis articulata, a Mediterranean plant endangered by habitat loss, logging, and aridification. This study used the MaxEnt model to analyze factors affecting its distribution under current and future climate scenarios (SSP1-2.6 to SSP5-8.5) for 2040–2100, highlighting its vulnerability to drought and urgent conservation needs. Results showed that: (a) the model demonstrated excellent predictive power with an AUC of 0.92; (b) the highly suitable habitat for T. articulata is projected to expand by 6.5%–6.7% (5.24–5.38 million km²) by 2100 under SSPs 2-4.5, 3-7.0, and 5-8.5, compared to current conditions (6.1%, 4.92 million km²); (c) the centroid of suitable habitats shifts from northwest Algeria (1.394° N, 33.538° E) to various locations under future climate scenarios: west Morocco (SSP1-2.6, −3.429° S, 33.588° E), east Tunisia (SSP2-4.5, 11.091° N, 32.501° E), northwest Morocco (SSP3-7.0, −1.947° S, 34.098° E), and southwest Morocco (SSP5-8.5, −2.985° S, 34.707° E); (d) key environmental variables influencing T. articulata distribution include annual precipitation (bio12, 41.7%), mean annual temperature (bio1, 27.9%), and precipitation during the driest month (bio14, 16.1%). This study concluded that climate change significantly influenced the distribution of T. articulata in the Mediterranean, highlighting the urgent need for conservation strategies to mitigate the risk of local extinction driven by both anthropogenic activities and climate impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change Impacts on Forest Dynamics: Use of Modern Technology)

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15 pages, 837 KB

Open AccessArticle

Typhoon-Driven Shifts in Dissolved Organic Carbon Across Mangrove Ecosystems of Varying Restoration Age

by Youwei Lin, Shengjie Han, Ruina Liu, Yunfeng Shi, Xiaoya Zhang, Zongbo Peng, Zhen Ni and Mingzhong Liu

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1599; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101599 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

Mangrove ecosystems are vital to coastal carbon cycling, yet their response to extreme climatic events remains underexplored. This study assesses dissolved organic carbon (DOC) dynamics across four ecosystem types—primary mangrove, restored (5-year and 8-year), and bare land—during three typhoons (Maliksi, Yagi, and Trami) [...] Read more.

Mangrove ecosystems are vital to coastal carbon cycling, yet their response to extreme climatic events remains underexplored. This study assesses dissolved organic carbon (DOC) dynamics across four ecosystem types—primary mangrove, restored (5-year and 8-year), and bare land—during three typhoons (Maliksi, Yagi, and Trami) that occurred in 2024. DOC concentrations (mol m⁻² s⁻¹) were measured across pre-, during-, and post-event phases and analyzed using boxplots, heatmaps, and ANOVA. Results show that primary mangroves maintained stable DOC levels, indicating strong biogeochemical resilience. Restored plots exhibited phase-dependent DOC variability, with older restoration age linked to improved carbon retention. Bare land showed consistently high DOC release, especially post-event, reflecting vulnerability to hydrological stress. DOC peaks occurred after typhoons, suggesting delayed carbon mobilization via microbial turnover and detrital input. These findings highlight the role of restoration age and vegetation cover in stabilizing coastal carbon under intensifying climatic extremes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

18 pages, 4385 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transcriptomic Analysis of Anthocyanin Degradation in Salix alba Bark: Insights into Seasonal Adaptation and Forestry Applications

by Hong-Yong Wang, Xing-Ju Liu, Meng-Zhen Yin, Sheng-Jia Cui, Hai-Yong Liang and Zhen-Hua Xu

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1598; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101598 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

Anthocyanins, key flavonoid-derived secondary metabolites, not only confer diverse pigmentation but also function in photoprotection, antioxidative defense, and cold acclimation. In woody species, bark anthocyanin turnover is tightly linked to environmental adaptation, stress resilience, and ornamental traits, yet its molecular regulation remains largely [...] Read more.

Anthocyanins, key flavonoid-derived secondary metabolites, not only confer diverse pigmentation but also function in photoprotection, antioxidative defense, and cold acclimation. In woody species, bark anthocyanin turnover is tightly linked to environmental adaptation, stress resilience, and ornamental traits, yet its molecular regulation remains largely unresolved. Here, we investigated Salix alba L. bark by integrating anthocyanin quantification, transcriptome profiling, and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) to dissect the temporal dynamics and regulatory architecture of anthocyanin degradation. Anthocyanin content peaked at D2 (late December 2024), declined through D3 (mid-January 2025) and D4 (mid-February 2025), and partially rebounded at D5 (early March 2025), coinciding with peak expression of structural genes LAC1/2, POD1/2, and BGLU10. These enzymes co-expressed with multiple transcription factors, including MYB, bHLH, and WRKY families, forming putative core modules. Functional enrichment indicated that differentially expressed genes were enriched in redox processes, glycoside hydrolysis, flavonoid metabolism, and hormone signaling, suggesting a degradation mechanism mediated by reactive oxygen species, glycosidic cleavage, and hormone–transcription factor interplay. This study provides the first comprehensive framework of bark anthocyanin degradation in white willow, advancing the understanding of pigment dynamics, gene–environment crosstalk, and breeding strategies for ornamental woody plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Physiology of Forest Plants: Mechanisms, Strategies, and Responses to Environmental Challenges)

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28 pages, 7071 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cross-Linked Gelatine as a Binder in Wood Fibre Composites for Topsoil Protection

by Janine Bösing, Alessandro Sorze and Sebastian Hirschmüller

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1597; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101597 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to develop novel sustainable composites based on cross-linked gelatine and wood fibres for use as a topsoil cover in forestry and agricultural applications. Different compositions were prepared by varying the proportions of gelatine, wood fibres, and tannic acid (the cross-linking [...] Read more.

This study aimed to develop novel sustainable composites based on cross-linked gelatine and wood fibres for use as a topsoil cover in forestry and agricultural applications. Different compositions were prepared by varying the proportions of gelatine, wood fibres, and tannic acid (the cross-linking agent). Water absorption analysis revealed that compositions containing 12% wood fibres exhibited the highest absorption values (300% after 24 h). Including wood fibres was crucial in limiting the cross-sectional shrinkage of the samples. Additionally, the wood fibres did not negatively impact the water vapour permeability values, which ranged from 0.5 to 3.5 × 10⁻⁸ kg/(Pa∙h∙m). Tensile tests revealed that the samples’ tensile strength ranged from 4 to 17 MPa, whereas Young’s modulus depended more on climatic conditions, with values reaching 2700 MPa in dry conditions and 300 MPa in wet conditions (samples conditioned at 20 °C and 95% relative humidity). Furthermore, after 46 weeks of outdoor exposure, the produced composites demonstrated good dimensional stability and reduced mass loss, particularly in the composition with the highest wood fibre and tannic acid content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Testing the Biological Durability and Quality Assurance of Wood-Based Materials and Products)

16 pages, 5792 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Humac and Alginite Fertilization on Mite Communities (Acari, Mesostigmata) Under Post-Agricultural Land Conditions

by Jacek Malica, Cezary Krzysztof Urbanowski, Jacek Kamczyc, Abubakar Yahaya Tama, Maciej Skorupski and Vilém Podrázský

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1596; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101596 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

Afforestation of post-agricultural land is one of the most important challenges of modern forestry, posed by economic demand and climate protection. Unfortunately, stands introduced on such degraded soils are not sustainable and their productive value is limited. The present study tested the effects [...] Read more.

Afforestation of post-agricultural land is one of the most important challenges of modern forestry, posed by economic demand and climate protection. Unfortunately, stands introduced on such degraded soils are not sustainable and their productive value is limited. The present study tested the effects of two substances—Humac and Alginite—on the community structure of mesostigmatid mites colonizing plots overgrown by Platanus × acerifolia (Aiton) Willd, also comparing them with the mite communities of arable field and 64-year-old stands of Pinus sylvestris L. and Quercus robur L. growing on post-agricultural land. A total of 306 mite individuals were recorded, belonging to 45 taxa and 14 families. The results indicate a moderately positive effect of Humac fertilization on the mite communities studied. A similar impact has not been demonstrated for Alginite. In contrast, all parameters studied (density, species richness and diversity of mite communities) reached the highest values in the P. sylvestris stand. Humac application harmonizes Mesostigmata mite community structures between young and older stands and may be considered a beneficial practice for the afforestation of former agricultural land. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)

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17 pages, 5543 KB

Open AccessArticle

TASNet-YOLO: An Identification and Classification Model for Surface Defects of Rough Planed Bamboo Strips

by Yitong Zhang, Rui Gao, Min Ji, Wei Zhang, Wenquan Yu and Xiangfeng Wang

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1595; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101595 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

After rough planing, defects such as wormholes and small patches of green bark residue and decay are often overlooked and misclassified. Strip-like defects, including splinters and chipped edges, are easily confused with the natural bamboo grain, and a single elongated defect is frequently [...] Read more.

After rough planing, defects such as wormholes and small patches of green bark residue and decay are often overlooked and misclassified. Strip-like defects, including splinters and chipped edges, are easily confused with the natural bamboo grain, and a single elongated defect is frequently fragmented into multiple detection boxes. This study proposes a modified TASNet-YOLO model, an improved detector built on YOLO11n. Unlike prior YOLO-based bamboo defect detectors, TASNet-YOLO is a mechanism-guided redesign that jointly targets two persistent failure modes—limited visibility of small, low-contrast defects and fragmentation of elongated defects—while remaining feasible for real-time production settings. In the backbone, a newly designed TriMAD_Conv module is introduced as the core unit, enhancing the detection of wormholes as well as small-area defects such as green bark residue and decay. The additive-gated C3k2_AddCGLU is further integrated at selected C3k2 stages. The combination of additive interaction and CGLU improves channel selection and detail retention, highlighting differences between splinters and chipped edges and bamboo grain strips, thereby reducing false positives and improving precision. In the neck, the neck replaces nearest-neighbor upsampling and CBS with SNI-GSNeck to improve cross-scale alignment and fusion. Under an acceptable real-time budget, predictions for splinters and chipped edges become more contiguous and better aligned to edges, while wormholes predictions are more circular and less noisy. Experiments on our in-house dataset (8445 bamboo-strip defect images) show that, compared with YOLO11n, the proposed model improves detection accuracy by 5.1%, achieves 106.4 FPS, and reduces computational costs by 0.4 GFLOPs per forward pass. These properties meet the throughput demand of 2 m/s conveyor lines, and the compact model size and compute footprint make edge deployment straightforward for fast online screening and preliminary quality grading in industrial production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transforming Wood into Smart Materials: Innovations in Processing and Application)

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14 pages, 1770 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in the Amount of Litterfall and Mercury Concentration in Litterfall Leaves of Typical Forest Ecosystems in China

by Shuyu Han, Jingwei Zhang, Ran He, Donghuan Liu, Xiang Niu, Bing Wang and Zhangwei Wang

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1594; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101594 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

Mercury, a global pollutant with both persistence and high toxicity, has remained a focal point in environmental science research over the past half-century. As a key pathway in the terrestrial mercury cycle, plants actively assimilate gaseous elemental mercury (Hg⁰) through leaf [...] Read more.

Mercury, a global pollutant with both persistence and high toxicity, has remained a focal point in environmental science research over the past half-century. As a key pathway in the terrestrial mercury cycle, plants actively assimilate gaseous elemental mercury (Hg⁰) through leaf stomata, constituting a critical pathway for terrestrial mercury cycling. The litterfall mercury concentration serves as a biological indicator to quantify vegetation’s mercury interception capacity, providing essential data for global mercury cycle modelling. To investigate this, 15 sampling sites throughout the country were selected, and litterfall was collected monthly for 12 consecutive months to determine the litterfall amount, composition, and leaf mercury dynamics. The results revealed that annual litterfall production ranged from 1.10–8.56 t·hm⁻², with leaf components dominating (45.58%–89.11%). Furthermore, three seasonal litterfall patterns emerged: unimodal, bimodal, and irregular. Regarding mercury, the mercury concentration in leaf litter exhibited a certain seasonal variation trend, with the mercury content in leaves in most areas being higher in autumn and winter. Specifically, the mercury concentration in litterfall showed a significant negative correlation with latitude and a significant positive correlation with air temperature, precipitation, and litterfall amount (p < 0.05). Additionally, the concentration of Hg in dying leaves exhibited some geographical variations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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18 pages, 2181 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Genetic Variation in Natural Populations of Hippophae rhamnoides L. from Kazakhstan Using Retrotransposon-Based Markers

by Asem Tumenbayeva, Ainur Turzhanova, Saule Magzumova, Tatiana Vdovina, Aidar Sumbembayev, Yeskendir Satekov, Vladislav Shevtsov, Olesya Raiser, Damelya Tagimanova and Oxana Khapilina

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1593; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101593 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

Analysis of the genetic diversity of natural populations of economically valuable plants is important for conservation and selection strategies. In this study, the genetic diversity of 11 natural populations of Hippophae rhamnoides L.—sea buckthorn from different regions of Kazakhstan—was studied using Inter-Primer Binding [...] Read more.

Analysis of the genetic diversity of natural populations of economically valuable plants is important for conservation and selection strategies. In this study, the genetic diversity of 11 natural populations of Hippophae rhamnoides L.—sea buckthorn from different regions of Kazakhstan—was studied using Inter-Primer Binding Site Polymorphism (iPBS) markers based on conserved sequences of tRNA primer-binding sites (PBSs) that initiate retrotransposon replication. Universal PBS primers yielded reproducible and informative amplicons, forming unique profiles for each sample. Analysis of molecular variance showed that 60% of the total genetic variation was due to intrapopulation differences and 40% was due to interpopulation differentiation. The highest genetic diversity was found in the Shetlasty and Tersayryk sea buckthorn populations, whereas the Karatal and Topkain populations were characterised by minimal values, although unique alleles were observed in the latter population, indicating possible adaptation to local environmental conditions or genetic isolation. Principal coordinate analysis, UPGMA clustering, and Bayesian structure analysis (K = 4) confirmed geographical structuring. This study provides insights into the genetic structure of sea buckthorn populations in Kazakhstan and demonstrates the effectiveness of iPBS markers for assessing intraspecific diversity. The obtained results provide a basis for the conversation of H. rhamnoides gene pool and underscore the need for both in situ conservation of genetically rich populations and ex situ protection of vulnerable groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)

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11 pages, 1175 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Analysis of Glutathione Metabolism in Pb-Tolerant and Pb-Sensitive Salix integra Genotypes Under Lead Stress

by Ruifang Huang, Xudong He, Hongling Wang, Shizheng Shi and Baosong Wang

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1592; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101592 - 17 Oct 2025

Abstract

Lead (Pb) is a widespread environmental pollutant that severely threatens plant growth and development. While the mechanisms of Pb uptake and accumulation have been extensively studied in herbaceous plants, the glutathione (GSH)-mediated biochemical responses in woody species remain largely unexplored. This knowledge gap [...] Read more.

Lead (Pb) is a widespread environmental pollutant that severely threatens plant growth and development. While the mechanisms of Pb uptake and accumulation have been extensively studied in herbaceous plants, the glutathione (GSH)-mediated biochemical responses in woody species remain largely unexplored. This knowledge gap limits our understanding of the detoxification strategies of perennial plants with high phytoremediation potential. In this study, two Salix integra clones (P336 and P646) with contrasting Pb tolerance were used to investigate the temporal regulation of GSH metabolism under Pb stress. P336 displayed both early and sustained increases in cysteine (Cys), GSH, ascorbic acid (AsA), phytochelatins (PCs), and the activities of γ-ECS and APX, conferring stronger antioxidant and detoxification capacity than P646. Notably, glutathione reductase (GR) activity remained unchanged in both clones, indicating that GSH homeostasis was maintained mainly through de novo synthesis rather than GR-mediated recycling. These findings demonstrate that Pb tolerance in P336 is achieved through γ-ECS–driven de novo GSH biosynthesis, which sustains both the AsA–GSH cycle and PC synthesis for efficient ROS detoxification and Pb sequestration. By providing the first detailed evidence of GSH-centered detoxification dynamics in a woody phytoremediant, this study advances our mechanistic understanding of Pb tolerance in S. integra and highlights its application potential in the phytoremediation of Pb-contaminated environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)

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26 pages, 3870 KB

Open AccessArticle

Elevational Patterns of Plant Species Richness: Insights from Western Himalayas

by Abhishek Kumar, Meenu Patil, Pardeep Kumar and Anand Narain Singh

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1591; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101591 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Understanding the patterns and drivers of species distribution has remained a central theme for biogeographical, conservation, and ecological research. This study aims to investigate the elevational patterns of plant species richness and compare the observed species richness with the predictions of the mid-domain [...] Read more.

Understanding the patterns and drivers of species distribution has remained a central theme for biogeographical, conservation, and ecological research. This study aims to investigate the elevational patterns of plant species richness and compare the observed species richness with the predictions of the mid-domain effect (MDE) null model. By combining information from field observations and the published literature, we compiled a comprehensive database of the elevational distribution of plant species for three protected areas in the Western Himalayas. We used generalised linear model (GLM) and null model simulations to explore the elevational patterns of plant species richness. Our study revealed simple linear to complex non-linear patterns depending on the location and range of the elevational gradient. While non-linear unimodal patterns were common, a linear decreasing pattern was also observed. The observed species richness showed consistent deviations from the predictions of the mid-domain effect null model, suggesting that factors beyond the range constraints shape species richness patterns. These observations indicate that richness patterns are not solely generated by random processes, rather climatic gradients, ecological interactions, and topographic heterogeneity can shape these patterns. Understanding these factors can aid in predicting and managing the impacts of ongoing environmental changes on Himalayan biodiversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)

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23 pages, 14512 KB

Open AccessArticle

Drivers of Bird Diversity in the Pearl River Delta National Forest Urban Agglomeration, Guangdong Province, China

by Nana Bai, Yingchun Fu, Tingting He, Si Zhang, Dongping Zhong, Jia Sun and Zhenghui Yin

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1590; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101590 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

To mitigate the threats posed by habitat fragmentation due to rapid urbanization on bird diversity, this study introduces an innovative framework for analyzing the synergistic effects of habitat quality (HQ), ecological network connectivity (ENC), and bird richness (BR) in the Pearl River Delta [...] Read more.

To mitigate the threats posed by habitat fragmentation due to rapid urbanization on bird diversity, this study introduces an innovative framework for analyzing the synergistic effects of habitat quality (HQ), ecological network connectivity (ENC), and bird richness (BR) in the Pearl River Delta National Forest Urban Agglomeration (PRDNFUA). The framework, based on a stratified ecological network perspective that distinguishes between urban agglomeration and urban core areas, incorporates different types of ecological corridors (interactive corridors and self-corridors), providing a novel approach for effectively quantifying and spatially visualizing the temporal and spatial evolution of the “HQ–ENC–BR” synergy. By integrating geographic detectors through ternary plot analysis combined with a zonation model, this study identified the synergetic effects of HQ and ENC on BR observed during 2015–2020 and proposed strategies for optimizing “HQ–ENC–BR” synergy. The results indicate that between 2015 and 2020, (1) the Pearl River Estuary and coastal areas are hotspots for bird distribution and also represent gaps in ecological network protection. (2) The positive synergistic effects between ecological network structure (HQ, ENC) and function (BR) have gradually strengthened and are stronger than the effects of individual factors; this synergy is especially significant in urban agglomerations and interactive corridors and is particularly pronounced in the northern cities. (3) The area overlap between the optimized ecological network and bird richness hotspots will increase by approximately 78.2%. The proposed ecological network optimization strategies are scientifically sound and offer valuable suggestions for improving bird diversity patterns in the PRDNFUA. These findings also provide empirical support for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities; SDG 15: Life on Land). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity in Forests: Management and Monitoring for Conservation—2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 3097 KB

Open AccessArticle

Moso Bamboo Invasion Enhances Soil Infiltration and Water Flow Connectivity in Subtropical Forest Root Zones: Mechanisms and Implications

by Tianheng Zhao, Lin Zhang and Shi Qi

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1589; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101589 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Plant roots influence soil infiltration by altering its properties like porosity and bulk density, which are essential for ecohydrological cycles. Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis), using its well-developed underground root system, invades neighbor forest communities, thereby influencing root characteristics and soil properties. [...] Read more.

Plant roots influence soil infiltration by altering its properties like porosity and bulk density, which are essential for ecohydrological cycles. Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis), using its well-developed underground root system, invades neighbor forest communities, thereby influencing root characteristics and soil properties. Although Moso bamboo invasion may alter soil hydrology, its specific impact on soil infiltration capacity and water flow connectivity remains unclear. This work took a fir forest (Cunninghamia lanceolata), mixed fir and bamboo forest, and a bamboo forest which represent three different degrees of invasion: uninvaded, partially invaded, and completely invaded, respectively, as study objects, using double-ring dyeing infiltration method to measure soil infiltration capacity and calculating water flow connectivity index for the root zone. To assess the effects of soil properties and root characteristics on soil infiltration capacity and water flow connectivity, we employed random forest and structural equation modeling. The analysis revealed that Moso bamboo invasion significantly enhanced soil infiltration capacity. Specifically, in partially invaded forests, the initial infiltration rate, stable infiltration rate, and average infiltration rate increased by 31.5%, 26.1%, and 28.5%, respectively. In completely invaded forests, the corresponding increases were 6.6%, 35.6%, and 28.5%. Also, Moso bamboo invasion increased water flow connectivity of root zone, compared to the uninvaded forest, the water flow connectivity index increased by 29.4% in the completely invaded forest and by 15.6% in the partially invaded forest. The marked increase in fine root biomass density (RBD1), fine root length density (RLD1), soil organic carbon (SOC), and non-capillary pores (NCP) and the decrease in soil bulk density (SBD) followed by Moso bamboo invasion effectively improved water flow connectivity and soil infiltration capacity. The analysis identified that RBD1, RLD1, NCP, and SBD as the key drivers of soil infiltration capacity, whereas the water flow connectivity index was controlled mainly by SOC, NCP, RLD1, and RBD1. These findings help clarify the mechanistic pathways of Moso bamboo’s effects on soil infiltration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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17 pages, 3282 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparing Spatial Analysis Methods for Habitat Selection: GPS Telemetry Reveals Methodological Bias in Raccoon Dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) Ecology

by Sumin Jeon, Soo Kyeong Hwang, Yeon Woo Lee, Jihye Son, Hyeok Jae Lee, Chae Won Yoon, Ju Yeong Lee, Dong Kyun Yoo, Ok-Sik Chung and Jong Koo Lee

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1588; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101588 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

Recent issues that have emerged in regard to raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) include interaction with humans and disease transmission. Therefore, understanding their habitat characteristics and preferences is crucial in the effort to limit conflicts with humans. A total of thirteen raccoon [...] Read more.

Recent issues that have emerged in regard to raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) include interaction with humans and disease transmission. Therefore, understanding their habitat characteristics and preferences is crucial in the effort to limit conflicts with humans. A total of thirteen raccoon dogs were captured from three regions in South Korea, each with distinct habitat characteristics. GPS trackers were attached for tracking the raccoon dogs’ movements. Utilizing GPS tracking data, Kernel Density Estimation (KDE), Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP), and Jacobs Index were applied to learn more about the habitat preferences of the raccoon dogs. According to the results, the habitat composition ratios for KDE and MCP showed that forests had the largest proportion. However, a habitat composition ratio similar to the land proportion of the area that they inhabit indicated that raccoon dogs had the ability to adapt to various habitats. Jacobs Index analysis revealed different habitat selection patterns compared to KDE and MCP, with forests showing neutral to negative selection despite comprising large proportions of home ranges. Our results highlight important methodological considerations when inferring habitat preferences from spatial data, suggesting that multiple analytical approaches provide complementary insights into animal space use. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)

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25 pages, 774 KB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding How Generation Z Students in Forest Sciences and Landscape Architecture Perceive Ecosystem Services in Urban Garden Forests

by Hoi-Eun Roh, Jang-Hwan Jo, Yu-Ji Jang and Jung-Won Sung

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1587; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101587 - 16 Oct 2025

Abstract

This study investigates how university students perceive the ecosystem services provided by gardens, utilizing Q methodology to categorize subjective viewpoints and analyze distinct perception types. Thirty-two students majoring in forest and landscape architecture at Wonkwang University (Iksan, Republic of Korea) participated, sorting 30 [...] Read more.

This study investigates how university students perceive the ecosystem services provided by gardens, utilizing Q methodology to categorize subjective viewpoints and analyze distinct perception types. Thirty-two students majoring in forest and landscape architecture at Wonkwang University (Iksan, Republic of Korea) participated, sorting 30 Q-statements each for provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services. Principal component analysis identified three factors for provisioning and regulating services, and two factors for cultural and supporting services. The findings reveal that students’ perceptions are primarily based on generalized, idealized expectations, while their understanding of specific practices, such as food production, distribution, and community economic integration, remains insufficient. This indicates that their perceptions are more conceptual than practical, reflecting themes such as eco-friendly resource sharing, environmental regulation, nature experience, biodiversity enhancement, and sustainability. These results suggest the need for enhanced educational efforts to improve students’ understanding of the role of ecosystem services in urban contexts. The study highlights the importance of bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical recognition to foster more comprehensive perceptions, ultimately informing future garden design, management strategies, and environmental education programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecosystem Services of Urban Forests—2nd Edition)

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20 pages, 7756 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel System for the Characterization of Bark Macroscopic Morphology for Central European Woody Species

by László Zoltán and Márton Korda

Forests 2025, 16(10), 1586; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16101586 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

Accurate identification of deciduous woody species in winter is challenging, and the misidentification can lead to ecological and management damage. This study aims to substantiate a diagnostic system for woody species based on macromorphological bark characters. First, we reviewed the literature on bark-based [...] Read more.

Accurate identification of deciduous woody species in winter is challenging, and the misidentification can lead to ecological and management damage. This study aims to substantiate a diagnostic system for woody species based on macromorphological bark characters. First, we reviewed the literature on bark-based species identification to assess existing approaches and their limitations. Building on this, we identified informative macromorphological features of bark through both literature analysis and our experiences. These characters cover all developmental phases, including twigs, young bark, and mature bark, and are supported by new diagnostic terminology. Using this framework, we compiled a character set for 115 Central European woody taxa, providing practical, primarily qualitative traits that can be applied directly in the field. Finally, we developed and tested “Single-access Keys” as an alternative to conventional dichotomous keys, demonstrating their effectiveness in enabling flexible and rapid species recognition, even under atypical conditions or when only partial observations are possible. Our results highlight the value of bark macromorphology as a diagnostic tool and emphasize its potential for advancing thematic identification keys, as well as digital applications in forestry, taxonomy, and ecological monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)

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