Journal of Intelligence

13 pages, 800 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multilevel Analysis of Associations Between Children’s Coloured Progressive Matrices Performances and Self-Rated Personality: Class-Average and Class-Homogeneity Differences in Nonverbal Intelligence Matter

by Lisa Di Blas and Giacomo De Osti

J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080095 - 30 Jul 2025

Abstract

The relationship between self-rated personality and nonverbal intelligence has been studied in young students, but these studies have generally not considered nested data, despite their allowing us to analyse between-classroom variability. The present cross-sectional study involved third- to sixth-grade students (n = 447) [...] Read more.

The relationship between self-rated personality and nonverbal intelligence has been studied in young students, but these studies have generally not considered nested data, despite their allowing us to analyse between-classroom variability. The present cross-sectional study involved third- to sixth-grade students (n = 447) who were nested into their classrooms (n = 32). The participants completed the Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM) as a measure of nonverbal intelligence and a personality questionnaire based on the Five Factor Model. At the class level, the study data included class size, class-average CPM scores, and class-homogeneity in CPM performances. Multilevel modelling with class-mean centring of personality predictors was applied to examine class-average differences in CPM scores and interaction effects between personality and class-homogeneity on CPM scores. The results showed significant differences in average CPM performances across classrooms, significant fixed and random slope effects linking nonverbal intelligence and Imagination, and a cross-level effect revealing that Imagination is a stronger predictor of CPM scores when class-homogeneity in intelligence is lower. Beyond confirming the intelligence–Imagination association generally observed in the literature, the present findings emphasise the importance of using nested structures when collecting personality and intelligence data in classrooms. More attention needs to be paid to how the classroom environment affects children’s self-reported personality and intelligence test performances. Full article

14 pages, 796 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Need for Cognition and Its Interaction with Fluid Intelligence in the Prediction of School Grades in Primary School Children

by Anke Hufer-Thamm, Sebastian Bergold and Ricarda Steinmayr

J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080094 - 28 Jul 2025

Abstract

Fluid intelligence and need for cognition are relevant predictors of school grades and might also interact in the prediction of grades. We examined the independent predictive values of fluid intelligence and need for cognition as well as their interaction for math and German [...] Read more.

Fluid intelligence and need for cognition are relevant predictors of school grades and might also interact in the prediction of grades. We examined the independent predictive values of fluid intelligence and need for cognition as well as their interaction for math and German grades and changes therein in a sample of 565 German primary school children (298 girls, 261 boys, 6 with no gender specified; M_age = 8.40, SD = 0.59). Parental education was considered a control variable. Cross-sectional analyses showed that both intelligence and need for cognition were uniquely related to grades. However, in the latent change score analyses, fluid intelligence, but not need for cognition, was related to change in math grades, but not in German grades, and only when parental education was not considered as a control variable. We found no interaction effects between fluid intelligence and need for cognition. The findings imply that the need for cognition might not play a comparably relevant role for school grades in primary school as it has been shown in previous studies focusing on secondary or tertiary education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

28 pages, 2334 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

Critical Thinking and Epistemic Sophistication in Science Education

by Oscar Eugenio Tamayo Alzate

J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080093 - 25 Jul 2025

Abstract

One of the central purposes of education at different educational levels is to contribute to the formation of critical thinking in students. There are many theoretical perspectives from which critical thinking is conceptualized, such as those centers on the development of students’ capacities [...] Read more.

One of the central purposes of education at different educational levels is to contribute to the formation of critical thinking in students. There are many theoretical perspectives from which critical thinking is conceptualized, such as those centers on the development of students’ capacities and those based on competences, skills, dispositions and criteria, among others. We consider that in the school context the critical thinking perspective that should come first is the domain-specific one; consequently, we present a conceptual model for the formation of critical thinking in the context of science teaching and learning in the classroom constituted by the integration of four dimensions: languages and argumentation, metacognition, emotions, and problem solving and decision making. Our focus of reflection is epistemic cognition with the processes of epistemic sophistication, metacognitive sophistication, and metaemotional sophistication, determinants of critical thinking in relation to each of the dimensions and the relationships between them. We conclude with the proposal of a conceptual model for the development of critical thinking based on students’ epistemic cognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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18 pages, 1676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Cognitive Ability and Self-Control on Middle School Students’ Comprehensive Academic Performance—The Moderating Role of Learning Plan

by Yueqi Shi and Junyao Yang

J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080092 - 24 Jul 2025

Abstract

In the educational context, understanding factors affecting secondary school students’ academic performance is crucial. This study aimed to explore impacts of cognitive ability, self-control, and study plans and their interactions. Using data from 1477 students aged 15–18, the moderated mediation model was applied. [...] Read more.

In the educational context, understanding factors affecting secondary school students’ academic performance is crucial. This study aimed to explore impacts of cognitive ability, self-control, and study plans and their interactions. Using data from 1477 students aged 15–18, the moderated mediation model was applied. Results verified a positive link between cognitive ability and performance, found self-control as a mediator, and revealed study plans’ moderating effect. In conclusion, these elements play key roles, providing a theoretical basis for educators to optimize strategies and promote students’ overall development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive, Emotional, and Social Skills in Students)

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2 pages, 636 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Winter et al. (2023). Does the Degree of Prematurity Relate to the Bayley-4 Scores Earned by Matched Samples of Infants and Toddlers across the Cognitive, Language, and Motor Domains? Journal of Intelligence 11: 213

by Emily L. Winter, Jacqueline M. Caemmerer, Sierra M. Trudel, Johanna deLeyer-Tiarks, Melissa A. Bray, Brittany A. Dale and Alan S. Kaufman

J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 91; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080091 - 23 Jul 2025

Abstract

There was an error in the original publication (Winter et al [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Assessment of Human Intelligence—State of the Art in the 2020s)

23 pages, 1569 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pathways of Worry During the Transition to Adolescence: An Exploration of Students’ Emotion Regulation, Metacognitive Beliefs and Coping

by Yiran Ge and Andrew Kenneth Tolmie

J. Intell. 2025, 13(8), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13080090 - 22 Jul 2025

Abstract

This study examined how two metacognitive constructs, cognitive self-consciousness and beliefs about emotion regulation, mediate the link among early adolescents between emotion regulation and engagement in coping with worry, and whether these relationships change with age during this period. A total of 338 [...] Read more.

This study examined how two metacognitive constructs, cognitive self-consciousness and beliefs about emotion regulation, mediate the link among early adolescents between emotion regulation and engagement in coping with worry, and whether these relationships change with age during this period. A total of 338 Chinese pupils completed a series of measures assessing the metacognitive constructs plus emotional awareness and regulation; scenario-based questions examined coping strategies. Participants were divided into two age groups, 11 to 12 (M_age = 11.9 years) and 13 to 15 (M_age = 13.2 years). Path models showed that younger participants adopted emotion-focused coping whereas older participants adopted more problem-focused coping, and these response patterns were mediated as hypothesized by cognitive self-consciousness and controllability beliefs towards worry. These findings highlight the need for more adaptive coping to be specifically targeted during early adolescence by raising awareness of controllability beliefs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive, Emotional, and Social Skills in Students)

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13 pages, 1031 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alexithymia and Impaired Mentalization: Evidence from Self-, Informant-, and Meta-Perception Ratings on the 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale

by R. Michael Bagby, Luigia Zito, Sharlane C. L. Lau, Ardeshir Mortezaei, Piero Porcelli and Graeme J. Taylor

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 89; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070089 - 21 Jul 2025

Abstract

Alexithymia is a trait-like deficit in the cognitive processing of emotions, characterized by difficulty identifying and describing feelings, externally oriented thinking, and limited imaginal capacity. It reflects a deficit in emotional intelligence, specifically in the intrapersonal ability to understand and manage one’s own [...] Read more.

Alexithymia is a trait-like deficit in the cognitive processing of emotions, characterized by difficulty identifying and describing feelings, externally oriented thinking, and limited imaginal capacity. It reflects a deficit in emotional intelligence, specifically in the intrapersonal ability to understand and manage one’s own emotional states and to similarly recognize how others might view them. Emotional intelligence has been conceptualized as a distinct form of intelligence that involves emotion-related mental abilities and meets standard psychometric criteria for inclusion within the broader taxonomy of human intelligences. Increasingly, alexithymia is also understood as a failure of affect-focused mentalization, or the ability to perceive emotions in oneself and others as intentional states. This study examined alexithymia using a multi-informant approach to assess intrapersonal and interpersonal emotional awareness. A sample of 211 university students and their informants completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), an informant version (TAS-20-IF), and a novel meta-perception version (TAS-20-Meta). Two hypotheses were tested and supported: (1) participants underestimated their alexithymia traits relative to informant ratings and (2) self- and meta-perception ratings were more strongly correlated than either was with informant ratings. These findings support the view that alexithymia reflects deficits in both affective mentalization and a specific domain of human intelligence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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24 pages, 1945 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of STEM Teaching in Education: An Empirical Study to Enhance Creativity and Computational Thinking

by Suherman Suherman, Tibor Vidákovich, Mujib Mujib, Hidayatulloh Hidayatulloh, Tri Andari and Vera Dewi Susanti

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070088 - 18 Jul 2025

Abstract

This research is focused on exploring the importance of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education in the development of critical competencies among secondary school students in the 21st century. This was aimed to assess the impact of STEM-based activities on students’ creative [...] Read more.

This research is focused on exploring the importance of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education in the development of critical competencies among secondary school students in the 21st century. This was aimed to assess the impact of STEM-based activities on students’ creative and computational thinking skills. A quasi-experimental design that included 77 secondary school students from public and private schools in Bandar Lampung, Indonesia, who participated in STEM interventions for over 5 weeks, was adopted. Data were collected through creative thinking tests and questionnaires on CT and STEM attitudes. The results showed that students who participated in STEM activities exhibited significantly higher creative thinking scores compared to peers taught with the traditional curriculum. Specifically, the experimental group showed a progressive increase in weekly test scores, suggesting that STEM methods improved students’ performance over time. Structural equation modeling (SEM) disclosed strong positive associations between attitudes towards STEM, CT, and creativity. The implications of these results outlined the need to integrate STEM education into curricula to foster essential skills for future challenges. This research contributes to the understanding of effective educational strategies and also advocates for a shift towards more interactive and integrative methods in secondary education to meet the demands of the contemporary workforce. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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40 pages, 3475 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Extracurricular Activities on Pre-Service Teacher Professional Development: A Structural Equation Modeling Study

by Funda Uysal

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070087 - 17 Jul 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the development of cognitive, emotional, and social skills in pre-service teachers through extracurricular activities, addressing 21st century challenges in preparing educators for diverse learning environments. It was hypothesized that extracurricular activities would positively influence cognitive skills (self-efficacy, self-regulation), emotional dimensions [...] Read more.

This study investigates the development of cognitive, emotional, and social skills in pre-service teachers through extracurricular activities, addressing 21st century challenges in preparing educators for diverse learning environments. It was hypothesized that extracurricular activities would positively influence cognitive skills (self-efficacy, self-regulation), emotional dimensions (professional interest), social competencies (teacher–student relationships), and academic achievement. This study employed predictive correlational methodology based on an integrated theoretical framework combining Social Cognitive Theory, Self-Determination Theory, Self-Regulation Theory, and Interpersonal Relationships Theory within formal–informal learning contexts. A psychometrically robust instrument (“Scale on the Contribution of Extracurricular Activities to Professional Development”) was developed and validated through exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, yielding a five-factor structure with strong reliability indicators (Cronbach’s α = 0.91–0.93; CR = 0.816–0.912; AVE = 0.521–0.612). Data from 775 pre-service teachers (71.1% female) across multiple disciplines at a Turkish university were analyzed using structural equation modeling (χ²/df = 2.855, RMSEA = 0.049, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.92). Results showed that extracurricular participation significantly influenced self-efficacy (β = 0.849), professional interest (β = 0.418), self-regulation (β = 0.191), teacher–student relationships (β = 0.137), and academic achievement (β = 0.167). Notably, an unexpected negative relationship emerged between self-efficacy and academic achievement (β = −0.152). The model demonstrated strong explanatory power for self-efficacy (R² = 72.8%), professional interest (R² = 78.7%), self-regulation (R² = 77.2%), and teacher–student relationships (R² = 63.1%) while explaining only 1.8% of academic achievement variance. This pattern reveals distinct developmental pathways for professional versus academic competencies, leading to a comprehensive practical implications framework supporting multidimensional assessment approaches in teacher education. These findings emphasize the strategic importance of extracurricular activities in teacher education programs and highlight the need for holistic approaches beyond traditional academic metrics, contributing to Sustainable Development Goal 4 by providing empirical evidence for integrating experiential learning opportunities that serve both academic researchers and educational practitioners seeking evidence-based approaches to teacher preparation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive, Emotional, and Social Skills in Students)

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25 pages, 959 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Personality and Smartphone Addiction in Romania’s Digital Age: The Mediating Role of Professional Status and the Moderating Effect of Adaptive Coping

by Daniela-Elena Lițan

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070086 - 15 Jul 2025

Abstract

In this research, we aimed to evaluate the relationship between the main dimensions of personality (Extraversion, Maturity, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Self-actualization) and mobile phone addiction, both directly and mediated by the professional context (professional status), and moderated by adaptive cognitive-emotional coping strategies. The [...] Read more.

In this research, we aimed to evaluate the relationship between the main dimensions of personality (Extraversion, Maturity, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Self-actualization) and mobile phone addiction, both directly and mediated by the professional context (professional status), and moderated by adaptive cognitive-emotional coping strategies. The participants, adult Romanian citizens, completed measures of personality—Big Five ABCD-M, a mobile phone addiction questionnaire, and the CERQ for adaptive coping strategies. They also responded to a question about current professional status (employed, student, etc.). Data were analyzed using Jamovi, and the findings were somewhat unexpected, though it aligned with the existing literature. Maturity emerged as a consistent inverse predictor of smartphone addiction (r = −0.45, β = −0.43, p < 0.001) across all three analyses. Extraversion showed an indirect effect mediated by professional status (β = −0.077, p < 0.05). Self-actualization was also found to predict smartphone addiction positively through full mediation by professional status (β = 0.05, p < 0.05). Agreeableness became a significant negative predictor (β = −0.13, p < 0.05) only when adaptive coping strategies were included. These findings highlight that the transition from frequent smartphone use—whether for work or personal reasons—to addiction can be subtle. This study may support both the general population in understanding smartphone use from a psycho-emotional perspective and organizations in promoting a healthy work-life balance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

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16 pages, 1208 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cognitive Aging Revisited: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the WAIS-5

by Emily L. Winter, Brittany A. Dale, Sachiko Maharjan, Cynthia R. Lando, Courtney M. Larsen, Troy Courville and Alan S. Kaufman

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070085 - 12 Jul 2025

Abstract

Historical cross-sectional approaches examining cognitive aging consistently reveal a pattern of steady decline on nonverbal problem-solving, speeded tasks, and maintenance on verbal tasks. However, as measures developed and broadened the factor structure to align with Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory, and age ranges were extended [...] Read more.

Historical cross-sectional approaches examining cognitive aging consistently reveal a pattern of steady decline on nonverbal problem-solving, speeded tasks, and maintenance on verbal tasks. However, as measures developed and broadened the factor structure to align with Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory, and age ranges were extended from 75 to 90 years, a more nuanced approach to cognitive aging emerged. The present study, using the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fifth Edition (WAIS-5), examined the cognitive aging process through a cross-sectional approach. WAIS-5 normative sample data (aligned with the 2022 U.S. census) were obtained from the test publisher. The sample included adult participants aged 20–24 through 85–90 (n = 1660), which were mapped into 11 age groups. Using post-stratification weighting to control for educational attainment, cognitive decline was observed throughout aging; verbal skills were maintained longer than other abilities, while processing speed declined steadily and rapidly from young adulthood to old age. Working memory was vulnerable to the aging process but demonstrated slower patterns of decline than the other vulnerable abilities. Fluid reasoning and visual spatial skills (although aligning with separate CHC broad abilities theoretically) were strikingly similar in their pattern of decline across a person’s lifespan. Results are highly consistent with the large body of cross-sectional research conducted during the previous generation by Salthouse and his colleagues, as well as other teams of researchers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Changes in Intelligence Across the Lifespan)

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4 pages, 642 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

An Editorial Introduction to Critical Thinking in Everyday Settings

by Christopher P. Dwyer

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070084 - 9 Jul 2025

Abstract

When I was first invited to guest edit a Special Issue of the Journal of Intelligence on critical thinking (CT), I was quite excited by the prospect for what I saw as two important reasons [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Critical Thinking in Everyday Life)

32 pages, 3815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal Synchrony in Bodily Interaction Enhances the Aha! Experience: Evidence for an Implicit Metacognitive Predictive Processing Mechanism

by Jiajia Su and Haosheng Ye

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070083 - 7 Jul 2025

Abstract

Grounded in the theory of metacognitive prediction error minimization, this study is the first to propose and empirically validate the mechanism of implicit metacognitive predictive processing by which bodily interaction influences the Aha! experience. Three experimental groups were designed to manipulate the level [...] Read more.

Grounded in the theory of metacognitive prediction error minimization, this study is the first to propose and empirically validate the mechanism of implicit metacognitive predictive processing by which bodily interaction influences the Aha! experience. Three experimental groups were designed to manipulate the level of temporal synchrony in bodily interaction: Immediate Mirror Group, Delayed Mirror Group, and No-Interaction Control Group. A three-stage experimental paradigm—Prediction, Execution, and Feedback—was constructed to decompose the traditional holistic insight task into three sequential components: solution time prediction (prediction phase), riddle solving (execution phase), and self-evaluation of Aha! experience (feedback phase). Behavioral results indicated that bodily interaction significantly influenced the intensity of the Aha! experience, likely mediated by metacognitive predictive processing. Significant or marginally significant differences emerged across key measures among the three groups. Furthermore, fNIRS results revealed that low-frequency amplitude during the “solution time prediction” task was associated with the Somato-Cognitive Action Network (SCAN), suggesting its involvement in the early predictive stage. Functional connectivity analysis also identified Channel 16 within the reward network as potentially critical to the Aha! experience, warranting further investigation. Additionally, the high similarity in functional connectivity patterns between the Mirror Game and the three insight tasks implies that shared neural mechanisms of metacognitive predictive processing are engaged during both bodily interaction and insight. Brain network analyses further indicated that the Reward Network (RN), Dorsal Attention Network (DAN), and Ventral Attention Network (VAN) are key neural substrates supporting this mechanism, while the SCAN network was not consistently involved during the insight formation stage. In sum, this study makes three key contributions: (1) it proposes a novel theoretical mechanism—implicit metacognitive predictive processing; (2) it establishes a quantifiable, three-stage paradigm for insight research; and (3) it outlines a dynamic neural pathway from bodily interaction to insight experience. Most importantly, the findings offer an integrative model that bridges embodied cognition, enactive cognition, and metacognitive predictive processing, providing a unified account of the Aha! experience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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24 pages, 1600 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Value of Individual Screen Response Time in Predicting Student Test Performance: Evidence from TIMSS 2019 Problem Solving and Inquiry Tasks

by Bin Tan and Okan Bulut

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070082 - 6 Jul 2025

Abstract

The time students spend on answering a test item (i.e., response time) and its relationship to performance can vary significantly from one item to another. Thus, using total or average response time across all items to predict overall test performance may lead to [...] Read more.

The time students spend on answering a test item (i.e., response time) and its relationship to performance can vary significantly from one item to another. Thus, using total or average response time across all items to predict overall test performance may lead to a loss of information, particularly with respect to within-person variability, which refers to fluctuations in a student’s standardized response times across different items. This study aims to demonstrate the predictive and explanatory value of including within-person variability in predicting and explaining students’ test scores. The data came from 13,829 fourth-grade students who completed the mathematics portion of Problem Solving and Inquiry (PSI) tasks in the 2019 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). In this assessment, students navigated through a sequence of interactive screens, each containing one or more related items, while response time was recorded at the screen level. This study used a profile analysis approach to show that students’ standardized response times—used as a practical approximation of item-level timing—varied substantially across screens, indicating within-person variability. We further decompose the predictive power of response time for overall test performance into pattern effect (the predictive power of within-person variability in response time) and level effect (the predictive power of the average response time). Results show that the pattern effect significantly outweighed the level effect, indicating that most of the predictive power of response time comes from within-person variability. Additionally, each screen response time had unique predictive power for performance, with the relationship varying in strength and direction. This finding suggests that fine-grained response time data can provide more information to infer the response processes of students in the test. Cross-validation and analyses across different achievement groups confirmed the consistency of results regarding the predictive and explanatory value of within-person variability. These findings offer implications for the design and administration of future educational assessments, highlighting the potential benefits of collecting and analyzing more fine-grained response time data as a predictor of test performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)

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14 pages, 952 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Predictive Role of Contemporary Filial Piety and Academic Achievement on Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Among Chinese Undergraduates

by Longlong Zhao and Xiaohui Zhang

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070081 - 6 Jul 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the quantitative relationship between the four dimensions of emotional intelligence and the two types of contemporary filial piety, academic achievement in a Chinese university setting. Based on a sample of 240 Chinese undergraduates, the regression analysis was employed to examine [...] Read more.

This study investigates the quantitative relationship between the four dimensions of emotional intelligence and the two types of contemporary filial piety, academic achievement in a Chinese university setting. Based on a sample of 240 Chinese undergraduates, the regression analysis was employed to examine how academic achievement and the two types of contemporary filial piety, namely Pragmatic Obligation (PO) and Compassionate Reverence (CR), relate to four dimensions of emotional intelligence—Self-Emotional Monitoring (SEM), Emotional Utilization (EU), Social Competence (SC), and Others’ Emotional Appraisal (OEA). Results revealed that CR, PO, and Grade Point Average (GPA) predicted emotional intelligence positively and significantly. Notably, PO was the strongest predictor of emotional intelligence compared to CR and GPA. These findings advance theoretical understanding in two aspects. Firstly, they challenge the traditional dichotomy of filial piety by demonstrating that both CR and PO serve as cultural resources enhancing emotional competencies. Afterwards, the study bridges collectivistic values by filial piety with emotional intelligence, offering a culturally nuanced framework for interpreting academic success in Confucian societies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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22 pages, 1895 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of (Dis)similarities Between the Creator and the Assessor on Assessing Creativity: A Comparison of Humans and LLMs

by Martin op ‘t Hof, Ke Hu, Song Tong and Honghong Bai

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070080 - 3 Jul 2025

Abstract

Current research predominantly involves human subjects to evaluate AI creativity. In this explorative study, we questioned the validity of this practice and examined how creator–assessor (dis)similarity—namely to what extent the creator and the assessor were alike—along two dimensions of culture (Western and English-speaking [...] Read more.

Current research predominantly involves human subjects to evaluate AI creativity. In this explorative study, we questioned the validity of this practice and examined how creator–assessor (dis)similarity—namely to what extent the creator and the assessor were alike—along two dimensions of culture (Western and English-speaking vs. Eastern and Chinese-speaking) and agency (human vs. AI) influences the assessment of creativity. We first asked four types of subjects to create stories, including Eastern participants (university students from China), Eastern AI (Kimi from China), Western participants (university students from The Netherlands), and Western AI (ChatGPT 3.5 from the US). Both Eastern participants and AI created stories in Chinese, which were then translated into English, while both Western participants and AI created stories in English, which were then translated into Chinese. A subset of these stories (2 creative and 2 uncreative per creator type, in total 16 stories) was then randomly selected as assessment materials. Adopting a within-subject design, we then asked new subjects from the same four types (n = 120, 30 per type) to assess these stories on creativity, originality, and appropriateness. The results confirmed that similarities in both dimensions of culture and agency influence the assessment of originality and appropriateness. As for the agency dimension, human assessors preferred human-created stories for originality, while AI assessors showed no preference. Conversely, AI assessors rated AI-generated stories higher in appropriateness, whereas human assessors showed no preference. Culturally, both Eastern and Western assessors favored Eastern-created stories in originality. And as for appropriateness, the assessors always preferred stories from the creators with the same cultural backgrounds. The present study is significant in attempting to ask an often-overlooked question and provides the first empirical evidence to underscore the need for more discussion on using humans to judge AI agents’ creativity or the other way around. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Generative AI: Reflections on Intelligence and Creativity)

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22 pages, 780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cognitive Ability and Non-Ability Trait Predictors of Academic Achievement: A Four-Year Longitudinal Study

by Phillip L. Ackerman and Ruth Kanfer

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070079 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Prediction of individual differences in academic achievement is one of the most prominent longstanding goals of differential psychology. Historically, the main source of prediction has been measures of intelligence and related cognitive abilities. Researchers have suggested that non-ability traits, such as personality, may [...] Read more.

Prediction of individual differences in academic achievement is one of the most prominent longstanding goals of differential psychology. Historically, the main source of prediction has been measures of intelligence and related cognitive abilities. Researchers have suggested that non-ability traits, such as personality, may also provide useful information in predicting academic achievement. Meta-analyses have indicated that there are significant correlations between such variables, but most of the existing studies have been conducted with cross-sectional designs, or with a limited inclusion of intelligence/cognitive ability variables, making it difficult to determine whether the non-ability measures provide incremental predictive validity for academic achievement. In this longitudinal study, both extensive cognitive ability and non-ability trait measures (personality, interests, self-concept/self-estimates of abilities, and motivational traits) were administered at the beginning of secondary school, and criterion measures of ability and academic achievement were obtained after four years of secondary school. The results indicate that although non-ability trait measures have significant and meaningful correlations with the criterion measures, their incremental predictive validity over cognitive abilities alone is somewhat diminished. Nonetheless, there is potential utility for including assessments of non-ability traits for predicting future academic performance and elective course enrollments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interplay of Intelligence and Non-cognitive Constructs in Predicting Achievement)

46 pages, 16522 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Systematic Review of User Attitudes Toward GenAI: Influencing Factors and Industry Perspectives

by Junjie Chen, Wei Xie, Qing Xie, Anshu Hu, Yiran Qiao, Ruoyu Wan and Yuhan Liu

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070078 - 27 Jun 2025

Abstract

In the era of GenAI, user attitude—shaped by cognition, emotion, and behavior—plays a critical role in the sustainable development of human–AI interaction. Human creativity and intelligence, as core drivers of social progress, are important factors influencing user attitudes. This paper systematically reviews 243 [...] Read more.

In the era of GenAI, user attitude—shaped by cognition, emotion, and behavior—plays a critical role in the sustainable development of human–AI interaction. Human creativity and intelligence, as core drivers of social progress, are important factors influencing user attitudes. This paper systematically reviews 243 peer-reviewed studies on GenAI user attitudes published since 2019, identifying major research methods and theoretical perspectives, including the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), and the AI Device Use Acceptance (AIDUA) model. Drawing on contemporary creativity theories—such as Sternberg’s Theory of Successful Intelligence, the 4C Model by Kaufman and Beghetto, and the Dynamic Creativity Framework—we analyze how creativity and intelligence are conceptualized in current studies and how they affect user responses to GenAI. Through cross-cultural analysis and multimodal comparison, this review offers a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between GenAI and human creativity, aiming to support more inclusive and sustainable human–AI collaboration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Generative AI: Reflections on Intelligence and Creativity)

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28 pages, 2996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Individual Differences in Strategy and the Item-Position Effect in Reasoning Ability Measures

by Helene M. von Gugelberg and Stefan J. Troche

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070077 - 26 Jun 2025

Abstract

Despite the high similarity of reasoning ability items, research indicates that individuals apply different strategies when solving them. The two distinct strategies are response elimination and constructive matching. The latter, frequently showing a positive correlation with reasoning ability, entails the individual systematically investigating [...] Read more.

Despite the high similarity of reasoning ability items, research indicates that individuals apply different strategies when solving them. The two distinct strategies are response elimination and constructive matching. The latter, frequently showing a positive correlation with reasoning ability, entails the individual systematically investigating the presented problem matrix of an item before scanning the response alternatives. To further understand the sources of individual differences in strategy use during test taking, three different eye-tracking metrics were investigated in participants (N = 210) solving the Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM). Relying on the fixed-links modeling approach, bifactor models were fit to the data. The latent model approach revealed, in line with other research, a positive correlation between reasoning ability and constructive matching. The results further indicated that a change in strategy use was correlated with the item-position effect and not reasoning ability. The former exhibited a different direction of effect, depending on the eye-tracking metric analyzed. When investigating the toggle rate, the participants used more constructive matching towards the end of the APM. The proportional time to first fixation on response alternatives indicated less constructive matching as the test progressed, and the proportional time on the problem matrix exhibited no distinct pattern regarding a change in strategy use. These diverging results point towards the possibility of a more nuanced problem-solving behavior than previously assumed. By including the item-position effect in the analyses, the increasing individuals differences in problem-solving behavior can be taken into account, which could be a necessary step in attaining a more comprehensive understanding of problem-solving behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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