Psychology International

Background: Forgiveness has traditionally been studied across psychological, relational, and sociopolitical domains, often emphasizing either its therapeutic benefits or moral complexities. However, this fragmented literature has limited the development of a unified understanding of forgiveness as a broader psychosocial phenomenon. Objective: This narrative review critically synthesizes 26 years of theoretical, empirical, and applied research to conceptualize forgiveness as a multidimensional framework of socio-psychological repair and mutual recognition across intrapersonal, interpersonal, developmental, organizational, and intergroup contexts. Methods: A systematic review approach was employed to integrate findings from experimental, longitudinal, clinical, and organizational studies selected for their theoretical and empirical relevance. Results: Findings indicate that forgiveness facilitates emotional regulation, cognitive restructuring, identity restoration, relational resilience, organizational functioning, and political reconciliation by transforming moral injury and social disruption into opportunities for healing and restored legitimacy. Across domains, forgiveness promotes emotional recovery, self-respect, social learning, institutional trust, and reconciliation when embedded in justice, accountability, and recognition processes. However, forgiveness is ethically and functionally conditional. In contexts of chronic abuse, coercion, structural inequality, or absent accountability, it may reinforce maladaptive dynamics or perpetuate injustice. Conclusions: Forgiveness is best understood not as an unconditional virtue, but as a context-sensitive, multilevel mechanism of socio-psychological restoration whose benefits depend on voluntariness, justice, accountability, and reciprocal recognition. This framework advances forgiveness scholarship by integrating moral repair with justice-sensitive reconciliation. Full article

This study examines the psychological and contextual factors associated with True Self disclosure on Social Networking Sites (SNSs), with particular emphasis on the role of temporal immersion. Drawing on structured interviews with 121 participants, the findings suggest that SNSs may provide users with opportunities to articulate aspects of their True Self that are often difficult to express in face-to-face interactions. Time spent on SNSs emerges as a key contextual factor: prolonged engagement appears to enhance users’ familiarity with the platform environment, reinforce the internalization of platform-specific norms, and gradually normalize disclosure as an expected and socially reinforced behavior. Within this temporally shaped environment, peer dynamics also emerge, reflected in reciprocal disclosure tendencies that further consolidate these evolving norms. Overall, the results suggest that temporal engagement, rather than abstract notions of control, functions as a key contextual condition in the shift from general, everyday identity-sharing to more selective expressions of the True Self within digital environments. Full article

Disability is frequently theorized through a polarized medical-versus-social binary that can obscure the developmental, relational, and sociocultural processes through which bodily difference becomes psychologically meaningful. This study examines how adults with congenital or early-onset physical disabilities narrate and negotiate disability in everyday life, using psychoanalytic concepts as a complementary heuristic lens within an explicitly interdisciplinary framework that integrates developmental resilience and disability theory. Thirty-five in-depth life-story interviews were conducted with seven adults (25–40 years) across approximately five sessions per participant over two months. Data was analyzed using thematic qualitative content analysis, combining systematic coding of manifest content with interpretive attention to symbolic and relational meanings, while cross-checking psychoanalytic interpretations against developmental and social-disability perspectives. Four recurring compensatory patterns were identified: (1) symbolic resignification and verbal normalization (discursive reframing and minimizing disability); (2) achievement-oriented self-positioning (performance and perfectionistic striving); (3) compensatory role assumption (caregiving/protector roles and mastery enactments); and (4) silent family dynamics (familial denial and narrative). Within the specific context of this study, these patterns appeared to function as regulatory efforts to sustain self-cohesion, agency, and belonging. However, the narratives suggest that when these strategies manifest as rigid ideals of ‘overcoming’ and hyper-competence, they may carry a significant subjective cost for participants. Compensatory behaviors are best understood as ecologically embedded regulatory processes shaped by relational resources (experienced as containing/“holding”) and by sociocultural devaluation linked to ableist norms. An integrated model is proposed in which body, self, and environment co-constitute disability across development, clarifying when compensatory strategies support creative adaptation versus defensive rigidity. Full article

Emergent Post-Loss Experiences (EPLEs) are reported in experiential grief therapies such as Reparative Experience-Based Grief Therapy (REGT) and Induced After-Death Communication Therapy (IADC). Through these experiences, such approaches have demonstrated notable effectiveness and efficiency in the treatment of complicated grief. Yet their phenomenology and structure remain poorly defined, and no validated instruments are available for their assessment. The present study aims to address this gap by examining the phenomenological characteristics of EPLEs and developing a brief instrument for their assessment. Using a cross-sectional mixed-method design, an 87-item EPLE questionnaire was administered retrospectively to 64 former REGT patients alongside the Near-Death Experience (NDE) Scale. A qualitative phase was subsequently conducted to identify phenomenological domains of EPLEs, which informed the derivation of a 22-item EPLE Scale. The scale was examined using exploratory factor analysis, internal consistency, convergent validity, and network analysis. High inter-rater agreement supported the organization of EPLEs into four phenomenological domains: Contact, Sensoriality, Space/Time, and Impact. EPLEs were characterized by relational presence, multisensory perceptual features, altered spatial–temporal experience, and predominantly comforting and meaning-related effects. The EPLE Scale showed satisfactory internal consistency (ω = 0.79). Exploratory factor analysis did not support a stable multidimensional structure, suggesting that the scale is more appropriately interpreted using a global score. Network analysis revealed a highly sparse configuration with selective conditional associations and two organizing nodes, indicating a policentric organization of the experience. Convergent validity was supported by a moderate-to-strong correlation with the NDE Scale (ρ = 0.62, p < 0.001). EPLEs appear to constitute complex and structured experiential configurations that may play a reparative role in relation to the loss and promote adaptive reorganization of the grieving process. The EPLE Scale provides a concise global measure for future research and clinical applications. Full article

Emotional recognition relies on the integration of multiple affective cues. In everyday contexts, however, facial expressions, vocal prosody, and semantic content may convey incongruent emotional information, generating emotional conflict and increasing cognitive demands. The present study examined how multimodal emotional conflict affects emotion recognition during video viewing, focusing on short videos in which a single actor simultaneously conveyed incongruent emotional cues across facial, vocal, and semantic channels. Forty-seven undergraduate students completed a gaze-based response task in which, after each short video, they provided a single judgment of the overall emotion conveyed by the stimulus. The videos depicted either congruent or incongruent combinations of semantic content, facial expressions, and vocal prosody across six basic emotions and a neutral condition. Data were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVAs and generalized linear mixed-effects models. Accuracy was consistently higher for congruent than incongruent stimuli across all domains, indicating a robust emotional interference effect. Critically, the magnitude of this effect differed by domain. Semantic content showed the largest performance reduction under incongruence, followed by facial expression and vocal prosody. Mixed-effects models confirmed these effects while accounting for participant- and item-level variability and revealed a significant Congruency × Domain interaction. In a gaze-based response task requiring a single overall emotion judgment, emotional conflict disrupted recognition in a domain-specific manner, with semantic information being particularly vulnerable to multimodal interference. Full article

Self-harm represents a significant mental health concern during adolescence and is associated with various psychological risk factors. The present exploratory probe examines the mediating role of perceived social support in the relationship between self-esteem and self-harm among adolescents. The sample consisted of 155 adolescents aged 13 to 18 years (M = 16.35, SD = 1.73). Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), self-harm was assessed using a modified version of the Self-Harm Inventory (SHI), and perceived social support was measured using the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS). Data were analyzed using correlation analysis, linear regression, and mediation. More than half of the participants (53.5%) reported repeated engagement in self-harming behavior. Self-esteem was significantly negatively associated with self-harm (ρ = −0.508, p < 0.001) and explained approximately 22% of the variance in self-harm. Mediation analysis indicated that perceived social support partially mediated the relationship between self-esteem and self-harm. Lower self-esteem was associated with lower perceived social support, which in turn predicted higher levels of self-harm. The indirect effect was significant (B = −0.31, 95% BootCI (−0.63, −0.09)). These findings highlight the protective role of perceived social support and suggest that strengthening adolescents’ self-esteem and social support networks may contribute to the prevention of self-harm. Full article

Do teacher education programs improve students’ confidence in their field practice teaching skills? Despite a growing interest in how student teachers’ practice self-efficacy (PSE) develops, we know little about the impact of the various components of teacher education programs on PSE. The present study examined whether the first year of teacher education, and particularly the field practice in schools which is directed at training and learning teacher practices, is associated with practice self-efficacy using a targeted measure of PSE for student teachers. Using independent sample t-tests and one-way analysis of variance with survey data from 338 students, we show that second-year students have higher PSE than first-year students on most PSE dimensions, with the largest differences being on the PSE dimensions of Planning and preparation, Teaching in itself, and Evaluation and development. In contrast, first-year students scored higher on Adult collaboration PSE. Further exploratory analyses showed that English majors had lower Planning and preparation and Teaching in itself PSE than other majors, whereas Mathematics majors had higher Adult collaboration PSE. We also conducted item analysis for the purpose of validating the PSE for both first- and second-year students. The findings advance our knowledge of differences in practice self-efficacy over the first year of teacher education. Full article

Social support is generally assumed to buffer ego threat and reduce aggressive behavior in organizations. However, emerging research suggests that support may not always function as intended, particularly in contexts where support can also signal evaluation or control. Drawing on ego threat theory and a conceptualization of narcissism as a self-regulatory system, the present study examines when and for whom social support inhibits or facilitates workplace aggression. Specifically, the study investigates how perceived supervisor and organizational support moderate the relationships between ego threat and power harassment—a culturally institutionalized form of workplace aggression in Japan—and how the moderation effects differ across narcissistic self-regulatory strategies. Survey data of 600 Japanese employees were classified into distinct types reflecting narcissistic self-regulatory strategies, and hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted for each type. The results indicated that ego threat has no significant main effect on power harassment tendencies across any narcissistic type. However, among individuals characterized by superiority-based narcissistic strategies, a significant moderation effect emerged indicating that higher levels of perceived supervisor support amplified aggressive responses under ego threat. These findings challenge the universal assumption that social support is inherently protective and demonstrate that its effects depend on how support is interpreted within personal and cultural contexts. Full article

The emotional responses to bullying victimization are central to its impact on subsequent psychological consequences, but the role of specific emotions is insufficiently defined within a comprehensive framework. In order to enhance the understanding of the emotional experiences of bullying victims, the present review examines the role of self-conscious emotions (i.e., humiliation, shame, and guilt), the role of basic emotions (i.e., anger and fear), and various psychological consequences (e.g., anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation). A non-systematic, narrative approach was employed to synthesize the findings, with a total of 343 articles included in the review. Self-conscious emotions appear to be central to bullying victimization, with humiliation being particularly pivotal due to its link to internalized self-devaluation, perceived injustice, and attribution of cruelty to the perpetrator. In turn, anger and fear seem to constitute crucial basic emotions in response to bullying dynamics. Although anger may escalate aggression, it may also facilitate positive confrontational behaviors when properly channeled, whereas fear may contribute to avoidance and increased victimization if sustained. Adverse psychological consequences such as anxiety, depression, stress, low self-esteem, and suicidal ideation are prevalent among victims of bullying, potentially exacerbated in vulnerable groups. Future research should further explore the role of emotions in the context of bullying victimization, examining their impact on both mental health outcomes and behavioral patterns over time. Exploring how different emotional responses interact and influence each other within bullying dynamics could provide insights into effective intervention strategies, and a more comprehensive understanding of the sociocultural factors influencing emotional responses to bullying might help in customizing prevention and support measures across diverse contexts. Full article

The experience of being acknowledged by one’s coach has been highlighted as important, but the pedagogical approach of being seen has not been empirically explored within sport. The purpose of this study was to investigate the extent to which young Norwegian football players experienced being seen by their head coach in football, as well as to examine gender differences in these experiences with a previous validated questionnaire, originally developed for students within physical education, but adapted for football. Using a list of all teams participating in the Boys 19 league and the Girls 17 league in Trøndelag County, 7 boys’ teams and 9 girls’ teams were randomly selected. A total of 212 players (107 boys and 105 girls) responded to the questionnaire. Participants’ ages ranged from 15 to 19 years. The results showed that 83 percent of the boys and 87 percent of the girls agreed (slightly to strongly) that they experienced being seen by their head coach during training or football matches. There were no significant gender differences regarding this experience, nor in four of the five underlying factors contributing to being seen. However, a significant gender difference was found according to good dialogue, where girls scored higher than boys when rating their coaches. Finally, the results indicated that players perceived their coach as most competent in facilitating good dialogue, and least competent in involving players in assessment and goal setting, and in creating opportunities for players to showcase themselves. Based on these results, coaches should actively create opportunities for dialogue before, during, and after training or matches, signaling openness through body language, tone, and availability so players feel comfortable initiating conversation. Coach education programs should emphasize communication strategies that promote psychological safety and belonging, including practical steps such as brief one-on-one conversations during warm-up or cool-down to help players feel seen without disrupting team flow. The gender difference in good dialogue highlights the importance of tailoring communication strategies to individual needs while ensuring that dialogue opportunities are accessible to all players. Full article

Advances in technology have reduced opportunities for daily physical activity; however, emerging technologies may also create novel pathways for promoting exercise engagement. Purpose: This study compares affective responses before, immediately after, and 20 min following traditional moderate-intensity cardiovascular exercise on a treadmill (MICE) and virtual reality boxing (VRB). Methods: Twenty adults (N = 20) completed two counterbalanced 30 min exercise sessions consisting of a standardized warm-up, a 20 min exercise bout, and a cool-down performed during either MICE or VRB. Affective states, including energy, tiredness, tension, calmness, and state anxiety, were assessed before exercise, immediately after exercise, and 20 min post-exercise in each condition. Results: Energy increased, and tiredness decreased immediately following exercise in both conditions; however, energy remained elevated, and tiredness remained lower 20 min after VRB only. Calmness decreased immediately following exercise but returned to baseline after 20 min in both conditions. Tension increased immediately following VRB but returned to baseline after 20 min, whereas no changes were observed following MICE. State anxiety decreased 20 min after VRB (p = 0.027) but did not change following MICE. Conclusion: Both modalities acutely improved affect; however, VRB produced stronger and more sustained psychological benefits, suggesting immersive exercise may promote exercise adherence better. Full article

Interrater reliability is a critical aspect of measurement quality, particularly in assessments that rely on subjective judgment. However, interrater reliability estimates vary, and such variability can introduce bias or reduce the accuracy of observed scores, especially when comparing across groups or conditions. Understanding and accounting for these differences is essential when interpreting reliability in applied settings such as education, psychology, and performance evaluation. This study addresses the need for more nuanced approaches to evaluating interrater reliability across groups. Specifically, in this study, we examine generalizability theory (GT) and structural equation modeling (SEM) that enable direct testing of differences in reliability coefficients across groups. A simulation study compared a proposed method grounded in GT and SEM to the W statistic for reliability coefficient comparisons. Results demonstrate that the proposed method consistently outperforms the W statistic in terms of both Type I error control and statistical power, particularly when sample sizes are moderate to large or when variance in rater agreement exists across groups. These findings underscore the importance of explicitly modeling differences in interrater reliability and provide researchers with a more robust tool for evaluating the consistency of ratings across diverse contexts and populations. Full article

The present study aimed to examine the inter-relationships among trait-, class-, and study-related boredom, as well as their associations with self-efficacy, self-regulation, critical thinking, academic performance, and engagement among university students. The sample comprised 250 undergraduate psychology students who completed self-report measures assessing academic boredom, critical thinking, self-regulation, academic engagement, and academic performance. Using path analysis, the study revealed that academic boredom was negatively correlated with self-regulation, critical thinking, and self-efficacy. The results further revealed that academic boredom was negatively associated with both academic engagement and performance. However, class-related boredom was negatively associated with engagement but not with performance, whereas study-related boredom was negatively associated with both academic performance and engagement. These findings emphasize the importance of addressing specific types of academic boredom in higher education, as each type appears to play a distinct role in shaping students’ academic experiences and outcomes. The study also highlights the need for interventions that promote self-regulation, critical thinking, and self-efficacy as protective factors to mitigate boredom and enhance academic success. Implications for future research and university policies are discussed. Full article

The rapid rise in cryptocurrencies has created an investment environment marked by unprecedented levels of information volume, fragmentation, and volatility. While prior research has examined drivers of trust and adoption in crypto markets, far less is known about the psychological consequences of information overload on investor decision-making. This study addresses this gap through nineteen semi-structured interviews with individual cryptocurrency investors, analyzed using an inductive, manually conducted thematic approach. Findings reveal four interconnected dynamics: decision fatigue and paralysis, heuristic reliance on influencers and peers, emotional strain characterized by anxiety and fear of missing out (FOMO), and diverse coping strategies ranging from selective filtering to withdrawal. These results demonstrate that crypto investing is not only a financial process but also a cognitively and emotionally taxing experience. By linking investor narratives to broader theories of decision fatigue, bounded rationality, and consumer vulnerability, the study contributes to interdisciplinary debates in marketing, behavioral finance, and consumer psychology. Practically, the findings highlight the need for clearer communication strategies, supportive platform design, and financial education initiatives that help investors manage cognitive strain and decision fatigue. In a market where credibility is fluid and decisions are often made under conditions of overload, understanding the psychological dimensions of investment behavior is essential. Full article

Coaction theory suggests improvement in one health behavior carries over to advancements in other health behaviors. There is evidence of increased exercise leading to improved eating; however, data on its psychosocial mechanisms required to adequately inform behavioral weight-management interventions are lacking. Theory suggests that self-regulation, and the relationship of self-regulation to self-efficacy, promote such carry-over processes. Participants in a community-based obesity program who completed no/minimal weekly exercise at baseline were randomized by participating facility using computer-generated random numbers into 6-month treatments emphasizing either weight loss education (n = 39) or self-regulation/self-efficacy (SR/SE) methods (n = 90). Improvements in exercise outputs, exercise- and eating-related self-regulation and self-efficacy, negative mood, dietary behaviors, and weight were significant overall, and significantly greater in the SR/SE group. Carry-over of increased exercise to improved dietary behaviors was suggested. Paths from the treatment group to dietary changes at 6 and 12 months were significantly mediated by associations of changes in (a) exercise-related self-regulation leading to eating-related self-regulation, (b) exercise-related self-efficacy leading to eating-related self-efficacy, and (c) exercise leading to improved mood. Identified relationships between self-regulation and self-efficacy changes were particularly relevant in the dietary-change context. Weight losses over 6, 12, and 24 months, associated with exercise and dietary changes, were 2.2×–2.7× greater in the SR/SE group than in the weight loss education group (−6.0% vs. −2.6%; −5.6% vs. −2.5%; and −5.1% vs. −1.9%, respectively). Advantages of treatment foci on self-regulatory skills and self-efficacy over typical weight loss education were supported. Clarification of psychosocial mechanisms of the increased exercise → improved eating-behavior relationship, including effects of increased exercise on mood, informed continued advancements in theory-driven obesity treatments. Full article

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is an endocrine condition affecting 8–13% of reproductive-aged women globally. Psychological features of PCOS are often overlooked despite their association with mental health complications. This systematic review synthesises existing evidence of psychological interventions for women with PCOS. Database searches returned 4982 articles, of which 20 papers were eligible; 12 studies were meta-analysed. Compared to control, psychological interventions had statistically beneficial effects on change from baseline values for depression, PCOS-specific quality of life, general health, and body image. Significant improvements were found in all PCOS Questionnaire (PCOSQ) domains except acne, yet the importance of these differences in clinical practice was indeterminable. Despite statistical effects, the quality of evidence was judged as low/very-low due to between study heterogeneity, risk of bias, and imprecision in effect estimates. Future studies should focus on rigorously designed, well-reported trials, in order to address the uncertainty around the effectiveness of psychological interventions. The protocol of this systematic review was prospectively registered on the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO: CRD42023472417). Full article

(1) Background: Induced After-Death Communication (IADC) therapy is a brief intervention facilitating grief resolution through a perceived experience of communication with the deceased. Despite growing evidence of its efficacy, little is known about which individual characteristics may influence treatment responsiveness. (2) Methods: This pre–post study investigated psychological predictors of IADC outcomes in 73 bereaved adults. Standardized measures assessed grief severity, alexithymia, dissociation, attachment dimensions, and Big Five personality traits. Changes in grief-related distress and continuing bonds were analyzed using paired-sample t-tests and hierarchical regressions. (3) Results: IADC therapy produced substantial reductions in grief-related distress and enhanced continuing bonds. Dissociation, demographic variables, and most personality traits were unrelated to outcomes. Neuroticism showed a marginally negative association, whereas Openness predicted greater improvement. Alexithymia negatively predicted clinical gains, suggesting that limited emotional awareness may interfere with the therapeutic phase of abreaction and, in turn, limit access to the receptive state. Among attachment dimensions, only Need for Approval significantly predicted poorer outcomes, consistent with performance anxiety and self-evaluative control interfering with spontaneous mental processes. (4) Conclusions: IADC therapy appears highly effective across diverse individual profiles. Screening for alexithymia and Need for Approval may help identify these potential sources of therapeutic failure and be followed by targeted strategies aimed at counteracting their impact and mitigating their effects. Full article

The present article explores how the development of inner resources can serve as a decisive lever to initiate and sustain individual, organizational, and societal transformations. (1) We first examine the concept of emotional capital, understood as the ability to mobilize emotional competencies defined by models of emotional intelligence, a capital that boosts other forms of capital and enables transformation. (2) We then link this to a capacitating approach, grounded in the work of Sen, which focuses on valuing and expanding human potential. (3) We will introduce the paradigm of bienvivance as an economic and social perspective that ensures a better way of co-vivance, a bienvivance economy; a societal model which proposes to reorient our systems toward a collective dynamic of vitality and meaning, shared living, sustainability, and regeneration. Taken together, these three dimensions pave the way for transformations that connect inner growth with outer change, across educational, organizational, and societal practices. In this article, (4) we will illustrate such a bienvivance approach focused on capacitating pedagogy and emotional capital development via collaborative learning and co-construction of competencies’ student portfolio exercises, as an intrinsic part of development of learners’ lifelong competencies and a lever of potentials’ unlocking, and recognition’s decolonization. Full article

Self-esteem and attachment are core constructs in adult relational functioning, yet their interrelations across levels of cognitive processing have remained understudied. This study investigated how explicit and implicit attachment styles relate to self-esteem in individuals seeking a romantic partner (N = 399) and in a partnered sample (N = 108). Participants completed explicit attachment and self-esteem scales, along with three single-target Implicit Association Tests (IATs) assessing implicit self-esteem and avoidant and anxious attachment styles. Regression analyses were conducted using explicit and implicit attachment as predictors of explicit and implicit self-esteem while controlling for covariates. In singles, explicit anxious attachment was negatively associated with explicit self-esteem, while implicit anxious attachment and implicit avoidant attachment were negatively associated with implicit self-esteem. No cross-level associations were found, supporting a parallel-level interpretation in which explicit and implicit variables relate primarily within, rather than across, processing levels. The same regression models applied to the partnered sample showed generally similar trends, although the associations observed in singles for explicit anxious and implicit avoidant attachment were not detected in the partnered group. The inclusion of implicit measures provides new insight into non-conscious relational insecurity, with both implicit anxious and avoidant attachment showing negative associations with implicit self-esteem. Full article