Journal of Intelligence

Research

13 pages, 790 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cognitive and Psychological Transfer Effects of Length-Dependent Working Memory Training in Healthy Older Adults

by Caterina Padulo, Anna Cascone, Francesco De Crescenzo, Onofrio Gigliotta and Beth Fairfield

J. Intell. 2026, 14(7), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14070124 - 1 Jul 2026

The verbal working memory training proposed by Borella and co-authors found specific and transfer effects among older adults. However, the effective training lengths needed to maximize transfer effects are not yet clear. Also, far-transfer effects related to psychological well-being and subjective health are [...] Read more.

The verbal working memory training proposed by Borella and co-authors found specific and transfer effects among older adults. However, the effective training lengths needed to maximize transfer effects are not yet clear. Also, far-transfer effects related to psychological well-being and subjective health are still under debate. The present study aimed to assess gains and transfer effects of a modified version of the WM training protocol by Borella and co-authors by comparing the original three-session (1 h each) version to a modified eighteen-session (1 h each) version. Our results confirmed the already demonstrated specific cognitive effects that seem to increase as the number of sessions increases. Regarding psychological well-being and subjective health, we found that while even three sessions of training can diminish reported loneliness and negative affective states, the longer training significantly improves the subjective perception of general health, suggesting that longer working memory training may be particularly fruitful in promoting well-being and successful aging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

12 pages, 725 KB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional Intelligence and Anxiety in Nursing Students in Special Services Clinical Practices

by María Anunciación Jiménez-Marcos, Ana María Insausti-Serrano, Ana Beatriz Bays-Moneo, Natalia Domínguez-Sanz and Izaskun Montori-Rodrigo

J. Intell. 2026, 14(6), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14060099 - 4 Jun 2026

Viewed by 345

Abstract

Nursing students in their training process often suffer from anxiety due to stressful situations, and emotional intelligence can help them to manage these situations. The aim of this study is to analyse the associations between the dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence and anxiety [...] Read more.

Nursing students in their training process often suffer from anxiety due to stressful situations, and emotional intelligence can help them to manage these situations. The aim of this study is to analyse the associations between the dimensions of perceived emotional intelligence and anxiety in students undergoing their training cycles in different special services in order to check if there are differences between them. It is an observational, cross-sectional and correlational study with a sample of 85 nursing students who had not received training in emotional intelligence. Two measurement instruments were used: the Trait-State Anxiety Inventory (STAI) to assess anxiety and the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24) to measure EI. Data were analysed using Pearson’s coefficient when the distribution was normal, and Spearman’s coefficient in the non-normal distribution. The results showed in the group—ER-Emergency and Oncology—there was a significant negative relationship between state and trait anxiety and emotional understanding and regulation. In contrast, in the Primary Care setting there was also a positive relationship between emotional perception and trait anxiety. The study concludes that nursing students who understand and manage their emotions may have a lower risk of anxiety. Furthermore, if they identify emotions appropriately, the risk of suffering from anxiety in the long term may be lower. This finding was observed when the student did the internship in Primary Care. So there is a difference depending on the clinical context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

28 pages, 2837 KB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional Responses to AI-Powered Personalised Advertising: The Role of Perceived Empathy and Social Cognition in Consumer Decision-Making

by Cristian Ionuţ Tatu, Raluca-Giorgiana Chivu (Popa), Mihai Cristian Orzan, Daniel Moise and Larisa Boboc (Dumitru)

J. Intell. 2026, 14(6), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14060098 - 3 Jun 2026

Viewed by 580

Abstract

The rapid proliferation of artificial intelligence (AI) in digital advertising has fundamentally transformed how brands communicate with consumers, shifting from generic mass messaging toward highly personalised, emotionally targeted experiences. Despite growing interest in AI-driven marketing, limited empirical research has examined how consumers’ socio-emotional [...] Read more.

The rapid proliferation of artificial intelligence (AI) in digital advertising has fundamentally transformed how brands communicate with consumers, shifting from generic mass messaging toward highly personalised, emotionally targeted experiences. Despite growing interest in AI-driven marketing, limited empirical research has examined how consumers’ socio-emotional processing mechanisms, particularly perceived empathy and social cognition, mediate the relationship between AI-powered ad personalisation and downstream consumer decision-making outcomes. This study addresses this gap by investigating the emotional and cognitive responses triggered by AI-personalised advertising among Romanian consumers. Using a quantitative survey design, data were collected from a sample of 234 adult respondents (18–65 years) in Romania, broadly aligned with key Romanian demographic distributions across age, gender, and residential area. Structural equation modelling using the Partial Least Squares (PLS-SEM) approach was employed to test the proposed conceptual model, which integrates constructs of AI-powered ad personalisation, trust in AI, perceived AI empathy, emotional arousal, cognitive elaboration, social cognition, consumer engagement, and purchase intention. The results reveal that perceived empathy toward AI-generated advertising positively influences emotional arousal and cognitive elaboration, which in turn significantly predict consumer engagement and purchase intention. Trust in AI emerged as a critical sequential mediator, while social cognition moderated the personalisation-to-trust pathway. The study yields a validated marketing model that captures the socio-emotional dynamics underlying consumer responses to AI advertising. These findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of human–AI interaction through a social cognition and emotions lens, while offering practical implications for the design of emotionally intelligent, AI-driven advertising strategies. Limitations and future research directions are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 795 KB

Open AccessArticle

Alexithymia and Social Cognition in the General Population: Further Evidence on the Relationship with Theory of Mind, Emotion Recognition, and Empathy

by Aurelia Lo Presti, Marialaura Di Tella and Mauro Adenzato

J. Intell. 2026, 14(5), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14050090 - 21 May 2026

Viewed by 827

Abstract

Alexithymia has been associated with deficits in social cognition, although findings are inconsistent and often limited by methodological constraints. This study aimed to clarify this relationship using ecologically valid and traditional standardized measures across multiple social-cognitive domains. A total of 163 adults from [...] Read more.

Alexithymia has been associated with deficits in social cognition, although findings are inconsistent and often limited by methodological constraints. This study aimed to clarify this relationship using ecologically valid and traditional standardized measures across multiple social-cognitive domains. A total of 163 adults from the general population completed a series of measures, including the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy (QCAE), Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET), Movies for the Assessment of Social Cognition (MASC), and Amsterdam Dynamic Facial Expression Set—Bath Intensity Variations (ADFES-BIV). Results of hierarchical regression analyses revealed that alexithymia facets significantly predicted performance on affective and cognitive empathy (QCAE), and Theory of Mind (MASC total and “No ToM” scores). The only exceptions were affective Theory of Mind (RMET) and recognition of others’ emotions (ADFES-BIV), for which none of the alexithymia facets emerged as significant predictors. The findings suggest that alexithymia is associated with poorer performance in cognitive and affective empathy and contextual Theory of Mind, whereas no significant association emerged for emotion recognition. The results suggest that integrating dynamic and context-rich tasks may be useful for detecting subtle social-cognitive difficulties in individuals with alexithymic traits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

20 pages, 2265 KB

Open AccessArticle

Explicit and Implicit Emotion Processing: The Role of Spatial Frequencies in a Case Study of Right Capsulo–Thalamic Damage

by Vincenza Tommasi, Caterina Padulo, Giulia Prete, Antonio Leo, Alessandra Franco, Tatiana De Francesco, Maria Rosaria Viva, Luca Tommasi, Giuliana Lucci and Chiara Valeria Marinelli

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040060 - 3 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1170

Abstract

This study examined the interaction between spatial frequencies and emotion processing using tachistoscopic presentations of emotional faces, in a patient with right capsulo–thalamic damage and a matched control group (N = 3). Emotional (happy, angry and sad) and neutral faces were presented in [...] Read more.

This study examined the interaction between spatial frequencies and emotion processing using tachistoscopic presentations of emotional faces, in a patient with right capsulo–thalamic damage and a matched control group (N = 3). Emotional (happy, angry and sad) and neutral faces were presented in one of two ways: broadband emotional images and hybrid faces, which were created by superimposing emotional Low Spatial Frequencies (LSFs) to the High Spatial Frequencies (HSFs) of the same identity with a neutral expression, resulting in a subliminal presentation of the emotional content. According to LeDoux’s dual-route model, which suggests a cortical–conscious emotional analysis and subcortical–unconscious emotional processing, we expected healthy participants to show different variations in friendliness ratings compared with the case study patient. In particular, we hypothesized that while healthy participants should show friendliness ratings varying consistently with the facial expressions for both unfiltered (conscious) and filtered (unconscious) stimuli, reflecting the efficiency of both routes, the patient should show a selective deficit in the unfiltered condition due to the disruption of the thalamo–cortical connections. The results showed that healthy controls evaluated emotions consistently across both conditions. Notably, there were no significant differences between the case study patient and the control group for hybrid faces, suggesting that the “hidden” LSF successfully activated the intact subcortical route. However, significant differences emerged for unfiltered stimuli: the case study patient was able to distinguish between positive and negative valence, but she failed to discriminate between negative emotions. This finding suggests that the fine-grained differentiation of negative emotions requires an intact cortical analysis, mediated by the internal capsule. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 2427 KB

Open AccessArticle

Attentional Impairments and Neural Compensation in Adolescents with High Social Anxiety Traits: A Combined ERP and Functional Connectivity Study

by Wenqing Lin and Xinmei Deng

J. Intell. 2026, 14(4), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14040051 - 25 Mar 2026

Viewed by 867

Abstract

Adolescence is a key period of significant physiological and social development, during which social anxiety symptoms often emerge and can impact academic and social functioning. Social anxiety disorder (SAD) involves heightened sensitivity to social cues and impaired social information processing, potentially contributing to [...] Read more.

Adolescence is a key period of significant physiological and social development, during which social anxiety symptoms often emerge and can impact academic and social functioning. Social anxiety disorder (SAD) involves heightened sensitivity to social cues and impaired social information processing, potentially contributing to persistent anxiety symptoms. However, research exploring the neural mechanisms of social information processing in adolescents with social anxiety remains limited. The investigation employed a facial dot-probe paradigm combined with EEG measurements to assess differences in attentional processing and neurophysiological activity between two adolescent groups: a high-social-anxiety (HSA) group (N = 27) and a low-social-anxiety (LSA) group (N = 18). Results showed (1) there was a significant reduction in P2 amplitudes in the HSA group compared to the LSA group. (2) A significant negative correlation between the disengagement index (DI) and P2 amplitude was found. (3) Weaker functional connectivity in the theta band was found in the HSA group. (4) In the graph theory analysis, the HSA group exhibited significantly higher node efficiency across various frequency bands compared to the LSA group. The findings suggest that socially anxious adolescents have impaired attentional control toward social cues. This difficulty may reinforce their anxiety symptoms over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

16 pages, 1170 KB

Open AccessArticle

Teaching Experience Correlates with Enhanced Social Cognition in Preschool Teachers

by Daniela Molina-Mateo, Ivo Leiva-Cisterna and Paulo Barraza

J. Intell. 2026, 14(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14010010 - 6 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1181

Abstract

Preschool teaching is a highly demanding profession that requires constant socio-emotional attunement and the ability to engage in reflective reasoning. Despite the central role of these skills in effective early childhood education, little is known about whether preschool teachers’ socio-affective and cognitive capacities [...] Read more.

Preschool teaching is a highly demanding profession that requires constant socio-emotional attunement and the ability to engage in reflective reasoning. Despite the central role of these skills in effective early childhood education, little is known about whether preschool teachers’ socio-affective and cognitive capacities vary as a function of accumulated professional experience. To address this knowledge gap, we compared the performance of 30 professional preschool teachers with a matched control group of 30 non-teachers on tests measuring emotion recognition, active-empathic listening, interpersonal reactivity, and abstract reasoning. We found that preschool teachers were significantly better on all dimensions of active-empathic listening (sensing, processing, and responding) and better in emotional self-regulation than controls. Moreover, years of preschool teaching experience were positively correlated with emotion recognition, improved listening skills, and more deliberate abstract reasoning strategies. Notably, socio-affective competencies were correlated with abstract reasoning performance within the preschool teacher group. According to these results, long-term professional involvement in preschool teaching enhances socio-affective skills and integrates them with higher-order cognitive processes, both of which are essential for responsive teaching, efficient classroom management, and the development of children’s social and cognitive abilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 3383 KB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding Love in the L1 and the Additional Language: Evidence from Semantic Fluency and Graph Analysis

by Maria Pilar Agustín Llach

J. Intell. 2026, 14(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14010003 - 24 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1245

Abstract

This study explores how adolescent learners conceptualize the emotion of love in their first language (Spanish) and in English as a foreign language (EFL), comparing monolingual Spanish speakers and Spanish–Arabic bilinguals. A total of 66 participants (33 per group), all with A2 proficiency [...] Read more.

This study explores how adolescent learners conceptualize the emotion of love in their first language (Spanish) and in English as a foreign language (EFL), comparing monolingual Spanish speakers and Spanish–Arabic bilinguals. A total of 66 participants (33 per group), all with A2 proficiency in English, completed a semantic fluency task in both Spanish and English, producing as many words as possible in relation to the prompts Amor and Love. The data were analyzed using graph theory to capture the organization of participants’ emotion lexicons. The results show that love is a highly productive and cohesive semantic field, eliciting significantly more responses in L1 than in L2, for both Spanish-only (t = −8.866, p < 0.001) and Spanish–Arabic (W = 101.0, p = 0.001) participants. The differences between the two learner cohorts were not significant in Spanish nor in English. The results from the graph analyses revealed that learners displayed rich and strongly connected networks in Spanish, with learners with a migration origin showing slightly more fragmented networks. In English, both groups performed similarly, with responses probably mediated by L1 translation equivalents and metaphorical associations (e.g., heart, flower, and red). The findings suggest that emotional lexicons are better developed and more efficiently organized in the L1, whereas FL representations are shaped by proficiency, context of learning, and reliance on L1 conceptual structures. This study contributes novel insights into bilingual and heritage learners’ emotional conceptualization and highlights the value of graph analysis for examining the structure of emotion words. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 1981 KB

Open AccessArticle

Determinants of Trust: Evidence from Elementary School Classrooms

by Roberto Araya and Pablo González-Vicente

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120165 - 15 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1075

Abstract

Emotional intelligence (EI), specifically the capacity to recognize and understand one’s own emotions and those of others, is pivotal for developing the interpersonal skills that foster effective collaboration. This is especially crucial for developing trust in others, which serves as the necessary foundation [...] Read more.

Emotional intelligence (EI), specifically the capacity to recognize and understand one’s own emotions and those of others, is pivotal for developing the interpersonal skills that foster effective collaboration. This is especially crucial for developing trust in others, which serves as the necessary foundation for functioning in our increasingly impersonal contemporary society. Although extensive research has been conducted on trust in adults, empirical evidence for children remains limited. Quantifying the extent to which trust exists in young children, whether it differs from trust in adults, and how it changes with age, gender, and various psychological and school culture factors is essential for understanding how educational environments can foster its development. In this article, we analyze trust among almost 3000 fourth-grade children from 135 schools, measured based on behaviors exhibited during a Public Goods Game. The results align with other studies, showing that trust is substantially higher towards the in-group (classmates) than the out-group. A notable gender effect was observed, with boys exhibiting significantly higher levels of trust than girls. Trust was also higher in municipal schools compared to state-subsidized private schools. Personality traits, measured via the Big Five model using the Pictorial Personality Traits Questionnaire for Children (PPTQ-C), also emerged as influential. Specifically, elevated levels of Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predicted increased trust in both in-groups and out-groups. Extraversion and Openness to Experience also played a role, although to a lesser extent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 3980 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bridging Text and Speech for Emotion Understanding: An Explainable Multimodal Transformer Fusion Framework with Unified Audio–Text Attribution

by Ashutosh Pandey, Jasmeet Singh and Maninder Kaur

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120159 - 3 Dec 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1904

Abstract

Conversational interactions, rich in both linguistic and vocal cues, provide a natural context for studying these processes. In this work, we propose an explainable multimodal transformer framework that integrates textual semantics (via RoBERTa) and acoustic prosody (via WavLM) to advance emotion understanding. By [...] Read more.

Conversational interactions, rich in both linguistic and vocal cues, provide a natural context for studying these processes. In this work, we propose an explainable multimodal transformer framework that integrates textual semantics (via RoBERTa) and acoustic prosody (via WavLM) to advance emotion understanding. By projecting both modalities into a shared latent space, our model captures the complementary contributions of language and speech to affective communication, achieving an 0.83 accuracy value across five emotion categories. Crucially, we embed explainable AI (XAI) techniques including Integrated Gradients and Occlusion to attribute predictions to specific linguistic tokens and prosodic patterns, thereby aligning computational mechanisms with human cognitive processes of emotion perception. Beyond performance gains, this work demonstrates how multimodal AI systems can support transparent, human-centered emotion recognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 1159 KB

Open AccessArticle

Teachers’ Emotional Commitment: The Emotional Bond That Sustains Teaching

by Olena Kostiv, Antonio F. Rodríguez-Hernández and Jonathan Delgado Hernández

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120158 - 2 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1377

Abstract

This study introduces and validates the construct of Teacher Emotional Commitment (CED), understood as the conative–behavioral dimension that characterizes the emotional bond that teachers establish with their students. To this end, two complementary studies were conducted in the Autonomous Community of the Canary [...] Read more.

This study introduces and validates the construct of Teacher Emotional Commitment (CED), understood as the conative–behavioral dimension that characterizes the emotional bond that teachers establish with their students. To this end, two complementary studies were conducted in the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands (Spain), with the aim of: to empirically isolate the factorial structure of CED and differentiating it from related constructs, such as empathy; to analyze its presence in both active teachers and those in initial training; and to test the theoretical model’s validity by expanding the sample and enlarging the response scale. Study 1 involved 854 practicing teachers and 701 teachers in training, following a validation process that included exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, as well as item response theory models. The results showed a four-factor structure: loving proactivity, teacher compassion, instructional commitment, and communicative affectivity, with adequate reliability and discriminant validity indices with respect to empathy. Study 2, with an expanded sample of 2096 participants, confirmed the robustness of the model. The findings allow us to consider CED as a psychological competence that can be trained, with relevant implications for improving the educational relationship, student learning, and the emotional well-being of teachers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 7050 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping the Evolution of Social and Emotional Learning Research in Primary Education Contexts: A Bibliometric and Thematic Analysis

by Melek Alemdar

J. Intell. 2025, 13(9), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13090123 - 19 Sep 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4164

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive bibliometric and thematic analysis of social and emotional learning (SEL) research in primary education, aiming to map its evolution, key contributors, and conceptual structure. Drawing on 915 peer-reviewed articles published between 1983 and 2025, retrieved from Web of [...] Read more.

This study presents a comprehensive bibliometric and thematic analysis of social and emotional learning (SEL) research in primary education, aiming to map its evolution, key contributors, and conceptual structure. Drawing on 915 peer-reviewed articles published between 1983 and 2025, retrieved from Web of Science and Scopus, the analysis employed performance metrics, science mapping, and thematic clustering techniques. Findings reveal a marked acceleration in SEL publications since the mid-2010s, with the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia leading both in research output and collaborative networks. Science mapping identified concentrated author and institutional clusters, while also highlighting geographic disparities in global research participation. Thematic analysis uncovered a shift from early focuses on behavioral and emotional regulation toward systemic, school-based interventions emphasizing mental health, resilience, professional development and family engagement. Clustering results positioned ‘social-emotional learning’ as the densest yet fragmented basic theme, reflecting its structural centrality alongside persistent conceptual dispersion across intervention models, implementation processes, and target populations. This study’s findings offer a macro-level synthesis of the SEL research landscape in primary education with the related implications being discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

25 pages, 959 KB

Open AccessArticle

Personality and Smartphone Addiction in Romania’s Digital Age: The Mediating Role of Professional Status and the Moderating Effect of Adaptive Coping

by Daniela-Elena Lițan

J. Intell. 2025, 13(7), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13070086 - 15 Jul 2025

Viewed by 2758

Abstract

In this research, we aimed to evaluate the relationship between the main dimensions of personality (Extraversion, Maturity, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Self-actualization) and mobile phone addiction, both directly and mediated by the professional context (professional status), and moderated by adaptive cognitive-emotional coping strategies. The [...] Read more.

In this research, we aimed to evaluate the relationship between the main dimensions of personality (Extraversion, Maturity, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Self-actualization) and mobile phone addiction, both directly and mediated by the professional context (professional status), and moderated by adaptive cognitive-emotional coping strategies. The participants, adult Romanian citizens, completed measures of personality—Big Five ABCD-M, a mobile phone addiction questionnaire, and the CERQ for adaptive coping strategies. They also responded to a question about current professional status (employed, student, etc.). Data were analyzed using Jamovi, and the findings were somewhat unexpected, though it aligned with the existing literature. Maturity emerged as a consistent inverse predictor of smartphone addiction (r = −0.45, β = −0.43, p < 0.001) across all three analyses. Extraversion showed an indirect effect mediated by professional status (β = −0.077, p < 0.05). Self-actualization was also found to predict smartphone addiction positively through full mediation by professional status (β = 0.05, p < 0.05). Agreeableness became a significant negative predictor (β = −0.13, p < 0.05) only when adaptive coping strategies were included. These findings highlight that the transition from frequent smartphone use—whether for work or personal reasons—to addiction can be subtle. This study may support both the general population in understanding smartphone use from a psycho-emotional perspective and organizations in promoting a healthy work-life balance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Social Cognition and Emotions

Share This Special Issue

Editors

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (13 papers)

Research

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI