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Journal of Intelligence

Journal of Intelligence is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on the study of human intelligence, published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SSCI (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, PsycInfo, PSYNDEX, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Psychology, Multidisciplinary) / CiteScore - Q1 (Education)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 30.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Journal Cluster of Education and Psychology: Adolescents, Behavioral Sciences, Education Sciences, Journal of Intelligence, Psychology International and Youth.

Impact Factor: 3.4 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 3.5 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2079-3200

Latest Articles

14 pages, 1009 KB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of International Cognitive Ability Resource (ICAR) Implemented in Mobile Toolbox (MTB)

by Stephanie Ruth Young, Jiwon Kim, Kiley McKee, Danielle Rothschild Doyle, Miriam A. Novack, William Revelle, Richard Gershon and Elizabeth M. Dworak

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120154 - 1 Dec 2025

Standardized cognitive assessments are essential in research but often limited by proprietary restrictions and methodological constraints. This study evaluates the psychometric properties of two public-domain International Cognitive Ability Resource (ICAR) measures implemented in the Mobile Toolbox (MTB) assessment library: Puzzle Completion and Block [...] Read more.

Standardized cognitive assessments are essential in research but often limited by proprietary restrictions and methodological constraints. This study evaluates the psychometric properties of two public-domain International Cognitive Ability Resource (ICAR) measures implemented in the Mobile Toolbox (MTB) assessment library: Puzzle Completion and Block Rotation. Using a sample of 100 adults (18–82 years), we assessed internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and construct validity compared to gold-standard measures. Results demonstrated acceptable reliability for both Puzzle Completion and Block Rotation. Each measure showed moderate to strong correlations with respective gold-standard assessments: Puzzle Completion correlated with Raven’s Progressive Matrices (r = 0.40), and Block Rotation with Mental Rotation Test (r = 0.46). Practice effects were non-significant. Both demonstrated the ability to discriminate between verbal and nonverbal abilities. Findings were consistent with previous ICAR validations, suggesting MTB provides a viable option for remote self-administration while preserving measurement integrity. This enables larger sample collection and ecological assessment of cognitive abilities outside of laboratory settings. Full article

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17 pages, 904 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Creativity in Learning Analytics: A Systematic Literature Review

by Siamak Mirzaei, Hooman Nikmehr, Sisi Liu and Fernando Marmolejo-Ramos

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120153 - 23 Nov 2025

Creativity is increasingly recognized as an essential 21st-century skill, critical for innovation, problem-solving, and personal growth. Educational systems have responded by prioritizing creative thinking, prompting researchers to explore the potential of Learning Analytics (LA) to support and enhance creativity. This systematic review synthesizes [...] Read more.

Creativity is increasingly recognized as an essential 21st-century skill, critical for innovation, problem-solving, and personal growth. Educational systems have responded by prioritizing creative thinking, prompting researchers to explore the potential of Learning Analytics (LA) to support and enhance creativity. This systematic review synthesizes empirical studies, theoretical frameworks, and methodological innovations from databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, ERIC, ProQuest, and Google Scholar, examining how creativity is operationalized within LA contexts. The review identifies diverse assessment frameworks, encompassing divergent thinking tests, product-based evaluations, behavioral metrics, and process-oriented assessments, often underpinned by the “4 Ps of Creativity” framework (Person, Process, Product, Press). Tools such as automated scoring systems, multimodal analytics, and AI-enhanced assessments demonstrate the potential to objectively and reliably capture creative processes and outcomes. However, significant challenges remain, including definitional ambiguity, inconsistent metrics, scalability issues, and ethical concerns related to data privacy. This review underscores the transformative capacity of LA to foster creativity in education while highlighting the critical need for standardized, robust methodologies and inclusive frameworks. By addressing identified gaps, future research can advance innovative approaches to assess and cultivate creativity using LA. Full article

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14 pages, 976 KB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship Between Well-Being and Inclusive Practice in Chilean Teachers: A Preliminary Analysis

by Marco Villalta-Paucar, Jéssica Rebolledo-Etchepare and Juan Pablo Hernández-Ramos

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120152 - 22 Nov 2025

Although numerous studies address inclusive education, especially in Latin America, research analyzing the overall life satisfaction of teachers in schools that implement inclusion policies are scarce. The purpose of this study is to analyze the relationship between Life Satisfaction, Optimism, Culture, and the [...] Read more.

Although numerous studies address inclusive education, especially in Latin America, research analyzing the overall life satisfaction of teachers in schools that implement inclusion policies are scarce. The purpose of this study is to analyze the relationship between Life Satisfaction, Optimism, Culture, and the Inclusive Practice of primary school teachers from Chile. A descriptive quantitative method was employed, with an ex post facto design including 246 primary teachers from urban and rural schools in Chile. The teachers completed four questionnaires: Inclusive Culture (IC), Inclusive Practice (IP) Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWSL), and Life Orientation Test Revised (LOT-R). The results show that these instruments present acceptable reliability. In addition, a significant correlation was found between Classroom Experience Time (CET) and SWSL (r = 0.201, p < .01), as well as between SWSL, and LOT-R (r = 0.411, p < .01), and IC and IP (r = 0.838, p < .01). The regression model is statistically significant [F (4, 241) = 139.572, p < .001]. The findings indicate that IC and SWSL predict IP directly, whereas CET is an inverse predictor. There is a statistically significant relationship between Life Satisfaction, Classroom Experience Time, Culture, and Inclusive Practice, with the three first variables being predictors of Inclusive Practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emotions, Well-Being and Intelligence: Assessment, Interventions and Professional Development)

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22 pages, 1037 KB

Open AccessArticle

Complex Motor Schemes and Executive Functions: A School-Based Dual-Challenge Intervention to Enhance Cognitive Performance and Academic Success in Early Adolescence

by Francesca Latino, Francesco Tafuri, Mariam Maisuradze and Maria Giovanna Tafuri

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110151 - 20 Nov 2025

Complex motor tasks that integrate cognitive demands may particularly enhance executive functions, which support school success. Yet few school-based trials have tested structured interventions combining motor complexity and cognitive challenge in early adolescence. Purpose: This study examined the effects of a gamified “Dual-Challenge [...] Read more.

Complex motor tasks that integrate cognitive demands may particularly enhance executive functions, which support school success. Yet few school-based trials have tested structured interventions combining motor complexity and cognitive challenge in early adolescence. Purpose: This study examined the effects of a gamified “Dual-Challenge Circuit” (DCC), integrating motor patterns with cognitive tasks, on executive functions, academic performance, motor skills, and physical fitness among middle school students. Secondary aims were to explore whether executive functions mediated academic gains and whether a dose–response relationship emerged. Method: A cluster-randomized controlled trial was conducted in four middle schools in Southern Italy with sixth- and seventh-grade students. Participants were assigned to either the DCC program or traditional physical education. The 12-week intervention included two weekly 60 min sessions. Outcomes were executive functions (Stroop, Digit Span backward, Trail Making Test-B), academic achievement (grades, MT tests), motor coordination (KTK), physical fitness (PACER, long jump, sit-and-reach), and adherence/fidelity. Results: The DCC group showed significantly greater improvements in all executive function measures and in mathematics and language grades (medium-to-large effects). Mediation analyses confirmed executive functions predicted academic improvements. Motor coordination and fitness also improved, with large effects in aerobic capacity and strength. Conclusions: The DCC effectively enhanced executive functions, academic outcomes, and fitness. Gamified, cognitively demanding physical education formats appear feasible and beneficial in real-world school settings. Full article

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27 pages, 2202 KB

Open AccessArticle

Small Samples, Big Insights: A Methodological Comparison of Estimation Techniques for Latent Divergent Thinking Models

by Selina Weiss, Lara S. Elmdust and Benjamin Goecke

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110150 - 17 Nov 2025

In psychology, small sample sizes are a frequent challenge—particularly when studying specific expert populations or using complex and cost-intensive methods like human scoring of creative answers—as they reduce statistical power, bias results, and limit generalizability. They also hinder the use of frequentist confirmatory [...] Read more.

In psychology, small sample sizes are a frequent challenge—particularly when studying specific expert populations or using complex and cost-intensive methods like human scoring of creative answers—as they reduce statistical power, bias results, and limit generalizability. They also hinder the use of frequentist confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), which depends on larger samples for reliable estimation. Problems such as non-convergence, inadmissible parameters, and poor model fit are more likely. In contrast, Bayesian methods offer a robust alternative, being less sensitive to sample size and allowing the integration of prior knowledge through parameter priors. In the present study, we introduce small-sample-size structural equation modeling to creativity research by investigating the relationship between creative fluency and nested creative cleverness with right-wing authoritarianism, starting with a sample size of N = 198. We compare the stability of results in frequentist and Bayesian SEM while gradually reducing the sample by n = 25. We find that common frequentist fit indexes degrade below N = 100, while Bayesian multivariate Rhat values indicate stable convergence down to N = 50. Standard errors for fluency loadings inflate 40–50% faster in frequentist SEM compared to Bayesian estimation, and regression coefficients linking RWA to cleverness remain significant across all reductions. Based on these findings, we discuss (1) the critical role of Bayesian priors in stabilizing small-sample SEM, (2) the robustness of the RWA-cleverness relationship despite sample constraints, and (3) practical guidelines for minimum sample sizes in bifactor modeling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analysis of a Divergent Thinking Dataset)

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28 pages, 3611 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Meta-Intelligent Child: Validating the MKIT as a Tool to Develop Metacognitive Knowledge in Early Childhood

by Onciu Oana and Prisacaru Flavia

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110149 - 17 Nov 2025

This article presents and validates the Metacognitive Knowledge Intervention for Thinking (MKIT)—an educational framework designed to assess and develop domain-general metacognitive knowledge (MK) in children aged 5 to 9. Moving beyond traditional approaches that examine metacognition within isolated subject areas, this research reconceptualizes [...] Read more.

This article presents and validates the Metacognitive Knowledge Intervention for Thinking (MKIT)—an educational framework designed to assess and develop domain-general metacognitive knowledge (MK) in children aged 5 to 9. Moving beyond traditional approaches that examine metacognition within isolated subject areas, this research reconceptualizes MK as a transferable learning resource across content domains and developmental stages. Moreover, by employing a stepped-wedge design—a rigorous but rarely used approach in education—the study introduces a methodological advancement. Simultaneously, MK is operationalized through an ecologically valid and developmentally appropriate format, using visually engaging stories, illustrated scenarios, and interactive tasks integrated within classroom routines. These adaptations enabled young learners to engage meaningfully with abstract metacognitive concepts. Therefore, across three interconnected studies (N = 458), the MKIT provided strong psychometric evidence supporting valid inferences about metacognitive knowledge, age-invariant effects, and substantial gains among children with initially low MK levels. In addition, qualitative data indicated MK transfer across contexts. Thus, these findings position MKIT as a scalable tool, supported by multiple strands of validity evidence, that makes metacognitive knowledge teachable across domains—offering a practical approach to strengthening learning, reducing early achievement gaps, and supporting the development of core components of intelligence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning in Diverse Educational Contexts)

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23 pages, 1679 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Mapping the Scaffolding of Metacognition and Learning by AI Tools in STEM Classrooms: A Bibliometric–Systematic Review Approach (2005–2025)

by Maria Tsakeni, Stephen C. Nwafor, Moeketsi Mosia and Felix O. Egara

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110148 - 15 Nov 2025

This study comprehensively analyses how AI tools scaffold and share metacognitive processes, thereby facilitating students’ learning in STEM classrooms through a mixed-method research synthesis combining bibliometric analysis and systematic review. Using a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, the study draws on 135 peer-reviewed articles [...] Read more.

This study comprehensively analyses how AI tools scaffold and share metacognitive processes, thereby facilitating students’ learning in STEM classrooms through a mixed-method research synthesis combining bibliometric analysis and systematic review. Using a convergent parallel mixed-methods design, the study draws on 135 peer-reviewed articles published between 2005 and 2025 to map publication trends, author and journal productivity, keyword patterns, and theoretical frameworks. Data were retrieved from Scopus and Web of Science using structured Boolean searches and analysed using Biblioshiny and VOSviewer. Guided by PRISMA 2020 protocols, 24 studies were selected for in-depth qualitative review. Findings show that while most research remains grounded in human-centred conceptualisations of metacognition, there are emerging indications of posthumanist framings, where AI systems are positioned as co-regulators of learning. Tools like learning analytics, intelligent tutoring systems, and generative AI platforms have shifted the discourse from individual reflection to system-level regulation and distributed cognition. The study is anchored in Flavell’s theory of metacognition, General Systems Theory, and posthumanist perspectives to interpret this evolution. Educational implications highlight the need to reconceptualise pedagogical roles, integrate AI literacy in teacher preparation, and prioritise ethical, reflective AI design. The review provides a structured synthesis of theoretical, empirical, and conceptual trends, offering insights into how human–machine collaboration is reshaping learning by scaffolding and co-regulating students’ metacognitive development in STEM education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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13 pages, 985 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Analysis of Individual Differences in Within-Test Practice Effects in Progressive Matrices

by José H. Lozano, Susan E. Embretson and Javier Revuelta

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110147 - 13 Nov 2025

The present study aimed to investigate individual differences in practice effects during progressive matrices based on Carpenter et al.’s taxonomy of abstract rules. To this end, data from a non-verbal reasoning test, the Abstract Reasoning Test (ART), were used. Because the ART was [...] Read more.

The present study aimed to investigate individual differences in practice effects during progressive matrices based on Carpenter et al.’s taxonomy of abstract rules. To this end, data from a non-verbal reasoning test, the Abstract Reasoning Test (ART), were used. Because the ART was developed from Carpenter et al.’s theory, the impact of extraneous factors unrelated to the theoretical model is minimized, thereby allowing for a more precise identification of practice effects. The sample consisted of 765 military recruits who responded to 34 items on the ART. Analyses were conducted using a random weights operation-specific learning model (RWOSLM), in which practice parameters were treated as random effects allowed to vary across individuals. The model measures within-test practice effects specific to each examinee, allowing the hypothesis of rule learning during the ART to be assessed at the individual level. Correlations between practice effects and external measures associated with intelligence were examined to investigate the nature of the practice effects. The results suggest individual differences in rule learning within the ART. Decreases in difficulty were observed for both pairwise progression and figure addition or subtraction, although between-person variability was evident only for the latter. Additionally, the results revealed between-person variability in decreases in difficulty associated with one of the items’ figural properties, which suggests the existence of individual differences in the process of increasing familiarity with this feature throughout the test. Individual differences in practice effects during the ART significantly correlated with external measures of abilities and intellect, suggesting that practice effects during progressive matrices are conceptually tied to intelligence. Full article

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23 pages, 1407 KB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional Intelligence and Language Learning Performance of ESL Learners: Mediating Effects of L2 Grit and L2 Motivation

by Qingshu Xu and Huaqing Hong

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110146 - 13 Nov 2025

This study examined the associations among emotional intelligence (EI), grit, motivation, and second language (L2) learning performance, with particular attention to the mediating roles of grit and motivation. A sample of 801 Chinese university students completed validated measures of EI, grit, and motivation, [...] Read more.

This study examined the associations among emotional intelligence (EI), grit, motivation, and second language (L2) learning performance, with particular attention to the mediating roles of grit and motivation. A sample of 801 Chinese university students completed validated measures of EI, grit, and motivation, and their English test scores were collected as an indicator of performance. Using structural equation modeling (SEM), EI was positively associated with grit (β = 0.574, p < .001) and motivation (β = 0.426, p < .001), while grit was also positively related to motivation (β = 0.515, p < .001). In relation to performance, significant positive associations were observed with motivation (β = 0.635, p < .001), EI (β = 0.185, p < .001), and grit (β = 0.165, p < .001). Bootstrap analyses confirmed robust indirect associations of EI with performance through grit (β = 0.095), through motivation (β = 0.271), and via the sequential chain EI → grit → motivation → performance (β = 0.188). The model accounted for 33% of the variance in grit, 55% in motivation, and 79% in performance. These findings indicate that EI, grit, and motivation are closely interrelated constructs that jointly contribute to L2 performance, highlighting the importance of socio-emotional and motivational resources in second language learning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Diversity, Educational Inclusion, Emotional Intelligence, Coping, and Other Factors That Influence Psychological Health and Well-Being)

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22 pages, 2708 KB

Open AccessArticle

Student Characteristics and ICT Usage as Predictors of Computational Thinking: An Explainable AI Approach

by Tongtong Guan, Liqiang Zhang, Xingshu Ji, Yuze He and Yonghe Zheng

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110145 - 11 Nov 2025

Computational thinking (CT) is recognized as a core competency for the 21st century, and its development is shaped by multiple factors, including students’ individual characteristics and their use of information and communication technology (ICT). Drawing on large-scale international data from the 2023 cycle [...] Read more.

Computational thinking (CT) is recognized as a core competency for the 21st century, and its development is shaped by multiple factors, including students’ individual characteristics and their use of information and communication technology (ICT). Drawing on large-scale international data from the 2023 cycle of the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS), this study analyzes a sample of 81,871 Grade 8 students from 23 countries and one regional education system who completed the CT assessment. This study is the first to apply a predictive modeling framework that integrates two machine learning techniques to systematically identify and explain the key variables that predict CT and their nonlinear effects. The results reveal that various student-level predictors—such as educational expectations and the number of books at home—as well as ICT usage across different contexts, demonstrate significant nonlinear patterns in the model, including U-shaped, inverted U-shaped, and monotonic trends. Compared with traditional linear models, the SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP)-based approach facilitates the interpretation of the complex nonlinear effects that shape CT development. Methodologically, this study expands the integration of educational data mining and explainable artificial intelligence (XAI). Practically, it provides actionable insights for ICT-integrated instructional design and targeted educational interventions. Future research can incorporate longitudinal data to explore the developmental trajectories and causal mechanisms of students’ CT over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Assessment: Harnessing Technology for Testing Cognitive Ability, Thinking Skill, and Competency)

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14 pages, 1038 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond Global IQ: Identifying Subgroups of Intellectual Functioning in Dyslexia Through Latent Profile Analysis

by Bartosz M. Radtke, Ariadna Łada-Maśko, Paweł Jurek, Michał Olech, Shally Novita and Urszula Sajewicz-Radtke

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110144 - 10 Nov 2025

Dyslexia, a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder, is characterized by persistent reading and spelling difficulties despite average intellectual potential. Although intellectual functioning in dyslexia is often described as average, emerging evidence suggests meaningful within-group variability. This study examined whether children and adolescents with dyslexia exhibited [...] Read more.

Dyslexia, a heterogeneous neurodevelopmental disorder, is characterized by persistent reading and spelling difficulties despite average intellectual potential. Although intellectual functioning in dyslexia is often described as average, emerging evidence suggests meaningful within-group variability. This study examined whether children and adolescents with dyslexia exhibited distinct intellectual profiles based on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition (SB5). Data were obtained from a large, diagnostically verified sample of 3458 individuals aged 10–19 years assessed in psychological-pedagogical counseling centers across Poland. We used latent profile analysis (LPA) of all 10 SB5 subtests and compared models that specified 2–6 latent classes. The optimal solution identified two profiles: (a) a small subgroup (5%) with globally reduced intellectual functioning and a profound deficit in verbal working memory (>3 standard deviations below the norm) and (b) the predominant subgroup (95%) with broadly average intellectual functioning and relatively preserved reasoning abilities. Profile membership was associated with socioeconomic status; the low-functioning subgroup was associated with lower parental education and age, as younger participants were more likely to belong to this group. These findings highlight the dimensional nature of intellectual heterogeneity in dyslexia and underscore the diagnostic value of profile-based approaches over global intelligence quotient (IQ) scores. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Individual Differences and Cognitive Profiles: Evidence-Based Approaches to Intelligence Assessment)

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24 pages, 1330 KB

Open AccessArticle

Personality Traits and Cognitive Abilities in Conflict Management: Preliminary Insights from a Situational Judgment Test of Emotional Intelligence

by Juliane Völker, Katja Schlegel and Marcello Mortillaro

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110143 - 7 Nov 2025

Previous studies suggested that people have stable conflict management styles which relate to their personality traits. However, recent research indicates that conflict management requires flexibility to switch between strategies and that this flexibility may relate to cognitive abilities. The interplay between stable preferences [...] Read more.

Previous studies suggested that people have stable conflict management styles which relate to their personality traits. However, recent research indicates that conflict management requires flexibility to switch between strategies and that this flexibility may relate to cognitive abilities. The interplay between stable preferences and a flexible performance in conflict management is a novel research avenue. We analyzed data from four studies (N = 1104) using a situational judgment test on emotional intelligence that presents conflict situations in the workplace. We tested whether preferences (selecting one’s typical behavior) mainly relate to personality traits and performance (selecting the ideal behavior) to cognitive abilities. We found that preferences akin to conflict management styles emerged between individuals; however, these preferences did not reflect tangible differences in personality traits. Considering performance, cognitive abilities were consistently conducive to solving conflicts, while the contribution of personality traits varied across situations, with the possibility that some traits may even hinder conflict resolution in some situations. We provide preliminary evidence on the contributions of both traits and abilities to conflict management, arguing that conflict management research needs to adopt a holistic view that combines both a person’s traits and abilities to explain their conflict behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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45 pages, 2033 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Relationship of Need for Cognition and Typical Intellectual Engagement with Intelligence and Executive Functions: A Multi-Level Meta-Analysis

by Felix M. Schweitzer, Nele M. Lindenberg, Monika Fleischhauer and Sören Enge

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110142 - 6 Nov 2025

In this preregistered multi-level meta-analysis, we aim to clarify the association of need for cognition (NFC) and typical intellectual engagement (TIE) with intelligence and executive functions. Multi-level models with robust variance estimation were specified and risk of bias was assessed with the adapted [...] Read more.

In this preregistered multi-level meta-analysis, we aim to clarify the association of need for cognition (NFC) and typical intellectual engagement (TIE) with intelligence and executive functions. Multi-level models with robust variance estimation were specified and risk of bias was assessed with the adapted Risk of Bias Utilized for Surveys Tool. NFC/TIE was associated with fluid intelligence (Gf; r = 0.18, p < .001, N = 25,367), crystallized intelligence (Gc; r = 0.26, p < .001, N = 14,651), general intelligence (r = 0.23, p < .001, N = 8479), and working memory (WM) capacity (r = 0.15, p < .001, N = 5921). Associations with WM updating (r = 0.08, p = .111, N = 1084), inhibition (r = 0.04, p = .077, N = 2895), and shifting (r = 0.01, p = 0.642, N = 1727) were non-significant. NFC (r = 0.19) was more strongly related to Gf than TIE (r = 0.12; F(1, 12.10) = 5.04, p = .045) whereas TIE (r = 0.35) was more strongly associated with Gc than NFC (r = 0.24; F(1, 13.10) = 10.70, p = .006). Correlations with Gc significantly declined over time (b₁ = −0.006, β₁ = −0.04, p = .010). Results provide strong evidence for small-to-moderate associations of NFC and TIE with Gf, Gc, general intelligence, and WM capacity, and at best small associations with core executive functions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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20 pages, 1133 KB

Open AccessArticle

Teachers’ Perceptions of Shared Leadership and Their Relationship with Organizational Attractiveness and Identification: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

by Nesip Demirbilek

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110141 - 5 Nov 2025

This study examined the relationships among shared leadership, organizational attractiveness, and organizational identification among teachers in Malatya, Türkiye. Using a relational design and structural equation modeling, the research explored how these variables interact. Data were collected via validated scales, revealing positive and significant [...] Read more.

This study examined the relationships among shared leadership, organizational attractiveness, and organizational identification among teachers in Malatya, Türkiye. Using a relational design and structural equation modeling, the research explored how these variables interact. Data were collected via validated scales, revealing positive and significant associations among shared leadership, organizational attractiveness, and organizational identification. Shared leadership and organizational identification were found to significantly predict organizational attractiveness, explaining a substantial portion of its variance. The model demonstrated a good fit, supporting theoretical frameworks related to social identity and shared leadership. Findings highlight that participative leadership is positively associated with teachers’ perceptions of their organizations within a centralized education system. This study offers valuable implications for school leaders and policymakers seeking to enhance teacher engagement and organizational culture. Limitations include the study’s regional focus and cross-sectional design, underscoring the need for broader, longitudinal research to deepen understanding in diverse contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Diversity, Educational Inclusion, Emotional Intelligence, Coping, and Other Factors That Influence Psychological Health and Well-Being)

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21 pages, 1290 KB

Open AccessArticle

Construction of Learning Pathways and Learning Progressions for High School English Reading Comprehension Based on Cognitive Diagnostic Assessment

by Fei Wang, Zhaosheng Luo, Ying Miao, Shuting Zhou and Lang Zheng

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110140 - 4 Nov 2025

To meet the growing demands for competency-based and personalized instruction in high school English reading, this study investigates a quantitative approach to modeling learning pathways and progressions. Traditional assessments often fail to capture students’ fine-grained cognitive differences and provide limited guidance for individualized [...] Read more.

To meet the growing demands for competency-based and personalized instruction in high school English reading, this study investigates a quantitative approach to modeling learning pathways and progressions. Traditional assessments often fail to capture students’ fine-grained cognitive differences and provide limited guidance for individualized teaching. Based on cognitive diagnostic theory, this study analyzes large-scale empirical data to construct a progression framework reflecting both the sequencing of cognitive skill development and the hierarchical structure of reading abilities. A Q-matrix was calibrated through expert consensus. A hybrid cognitive diagnostic model was used to infer students’ knowledge states, followed by cluster analysis and item response theory to define progression levels, which were mapped to national curriculum standards. The findings reveal that students’ mastery of cognitive attributes follows a stepwise developmental pattern, with dominant learning trajectories. The constructed learning progression aligns well with curriculum-based academic quality levels, while uncovering potential misalignments in the positioning of some skill levels. Students with identical scores also showed significant variation in cognitive structures. The proposed model provides a data-informed foundation for adaptive instruction and offers new tools for personalized learning in English reading comprehension. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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28 pages, 1547 KB

Open AccessArticle

FLUX (Fluid Intelligence Luxembourg): Development and Validation of a Fair Tablet-Based Test of Cognitive Ability in Multicultural and Multilingual Children

by Dzenita Kijamet, Rachel Wollschläger, Ulrich Keller and Sonja Ugen

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110139 - 3 Nov 2025

Nonverbal tests assess cognitive ability in multicultural and multilingual children, but language-based instructions disadvantage non-proficient children. This is a growing concern worldwide due to the increasing number of multilingual classrooms. The tablet-based FLUX (Fluid Intelligence Luxembourg) test was developed within a highly multicultural [...] Read more.

Nonverbal tests assess cognitive ability in multicultural and multilingual children, but language-based instructions disadvantage non-proficient children. This is a growing concern worldwide due to the increasing number of multilingual classrooms. The tablet-based FLUX (Fluid Intelligence Luxembourg) test was developed within a highly multicultural and multilingual educational context to offer not only nonverbal test content but also language-fair animated video instructions. A total of 703 third graders (M_age = 8.85, SD = 0.66; 48.8% females, 51.1% males, 0.1% with no gender specified) were included in the standardisation sample and were assessed with tasks measuring figural fluid intelligence, quantitative fluid intelligence, visual processing and short-term memory. The test proved sufficiently reliable (FLUX Full-scale: McDonald’s Omega = 0.94; split-half = 0.95). Test fairness was ensured by analysing each item for Differential Item Functioning (DIF) on children’s background characteristics (language spoken at home, socioeconomic status, gender). Its factorial structure was confirmed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Further validity evidence was provided by determining its concurrent and criterion-related validity (correlations with a test of cognitive ability and educational achievement scores). Research implications and future prospects in promoting equal opportunities in a heterogeneous multilingual educational context are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Diversity, Educational Inclusion, Emotional Intelligence, Coping, and Other Factors That Influence Psychological Health and Well-Being)

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14 pages, 1112 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cross-Lagged Relationships Between Cognitive Ability and Math Achievement

by Daniela Fiedler, Samantha Barton and Ulrike Kipman

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110138 - 31 Oct 2025

The relationship between cognitive abilities and students’ achievement in math is well documented. However, theoretical views on the chronological development of cognitive ability and math success remain controversial. Empirically, mutual effects between these concepts amongst primary school children have not yet been adequately [...] Read more.

The relationship between cognitive abilities and students’ achievement in math is well documented. However, theoretical views on the chronological development of cognitive ability and math success remain controversial. Empirically, mutual effects between these concepts amongst primary school children have not yet been adequately addressed, because longitudinal data have mostly been limited to two measurement time points. The present study aims to fill this gap by investigating whether cognitive abilities can predict math success across time (unidirectional effect) or whether a reciprocal effect according to the theory of mutualism is more in line with longitudinal data. It also provides information on the stability of intelligence and mathematics achievement in primary school children. Taking into account four measurement occasions, cognitive ability, and achievement in math, N = 1726 primary school students were annually examined. We analyzed construct-specific latent variables and cross-lagged effects over four years. Results indicate a unidirectional cross-lagged relationship pattern rather than a mutual effect between reasoning ability and math achievement. However, over time, the influence of math achievement on cognitive ability increases slightly, which stresses the importance of knowledge acquisition in math for cognitive development over time, and a fairly high stability of cognitive ability and mathematics achievement in primary school age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Math Development and Cognitive Skills)

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11 pages, 1629 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pre-Training Effects on Sleep-Dependent Consolidation of Novel Word Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality

by Zhengyu Liu and Lu Jiao

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110137 - 29 Oct 2025

The present study employed immersive virtual reality (iVR) technology to create a multimodal enriched learning environment and investigated the effects of pre-training on sleep-dependent consolidation of novel word learning. Native Chinese speakers were randomly assigned to either a pre-training group or a control [...] Read more.

The present study employed immersive virtual reality (iVR) technology to create a multimodal enriched learning environment and investigated the effects of pre-training on sleep-dependent consolidation of novel word learning. Native Chinese speakers were randomly assigned to either a pre-training group or a control group. Both groups learned two sets of novel words, one on Day 1 and the other on Day 2. All participants completed an explicit recognition task and an implicit semantic priming task on Day 2. The results reveal the sleep-dependent consolidation effects in the implicit measures, with enhanced semantic priming observed for words learned on the previous day following a sleep interval. Moreover, the pre-training yielded additional benefits for sleep-dependent consolidation, as evidenced by the improved sleep-dependent consolidation effects of the pre-training group as compared with the control group. However, no sleep-dependent consolidation and pre-training effects were observed in the explicit recognition task. These findings suggested that pre-training serves as an effective strategy to reduce cognitive load and facilitate novel word learning in iVR environments. This study provides new evidence for the pre-training principle of cognitive load theory from the perspective of sleep-dependent consolidation. Full article

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12 pages, 781 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Meta-Emotional Intelligence in Behavioral Rule Knowledge

by Antonella Chifari, Antonella D’Amico, Alessandro Geraci, Luciano Seta and Giuseppe Chiazzese

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110136 - 27 Oct 2025

Emotional intelligence (EI) and its meta-cognitive counterpart, meta-emotional intelligence (MEI), have increasingly been recognized as key factors in helping students understand, regulate, and reflect on their emotional experiences. MEI expands upon EI by incorporating meta-cognitive beliefs and awareness about one’s own emotional functioning, [...] Read more.

Emotional intelligence (EI) and its meta-cognitive counterpart, meta-emotional intelligence (MEI), have increasingly been recognized as key factors in helping students understand, regulate, and reflect on their emotional experiences. MEI expands upon EI by incorporating meta-cognitive beliefs and awareness about one’s own emotional functioning, thereby influencing both emotional regulation and positive behavioral choices. This study examined the relationship between MEI and the knowledge of positive behavioral rules among 198 students aged 9 to 12. Participants completed the IE-ACCME-B, which assesses meta-emotional beliefs, emotional self-conceptualization, and emotional abilities, along with the PBIS-KGVE, a tool developed ad hoc to measure knowledge, generalization, and value-based understanding of school rules. Findings highlight that almost all considered variables are intercorrelated, with meta-emotional beliefs being the best predictor of the students’ knowledge, generalization, and value-based interpretation of behavioral rules. These results suggest the opportunity to establish interventions focused on meta-emotional beliefs to enhance behavioral rule knowledge and foster prosocial development within educational contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emotions, Well-Being and Intelligence: Assessment, Interventions and Professional Development)

22 pages, 1011 KB

Open AccessArticle

Do Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) Have Deep Learning Ability? An Exploratory Research in Inclusive Play

by Yanrong Zhu and Xueyun Su

J. Intell. 2025, 13(11), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13110135 - 27 Oct 2025

Deep learning ability is critical for children’s development, yet little research has been conducted on preschool children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). This study investigated the deep learning ability of children with ASD in inclusive play, which involved 8 children with ASD and [...] Read more.

Deep learning ability is critical for children’s development, yet little research has been conducted on preschool children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). This study investigated the deep learning ability of children with ASD in inclusive play, which involved 8 children with ASD and 13 children with typical development (TD) (5–7 years of age) from four public kindergartens in China. An assessment scale for children’s deep learning ability was developed, and children were observed during inclusive play (IP) and solitary play (SP) in natural settings. A total of 40 play cases (10 were IP and 30 were SP) were collected. Key findings indicated that (1) children with ASD had a moderate level of deep learning ability during play, the emotional experience scored the highest while the interpersonal interaction scored the lowest. (2) The score of deep learning ability in children with ASD in SP was higher than that in IP. (3) Monthly per capita household income, father’s occupation, siblings, and primary playmates significantly influenced the deep learning ability of children with ASD. This study provided new insights into deep learning during play for children with ASD and offered an empirical basis for future inclusive education. Full article

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