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Practice Testing Facilitates Forward Navigation but Undermines Backward Navigation During Map Learning
Do Applicant Reactions to Gamified Cognitive Ability Tests Differ Between High- Versus Low-Stakes Settings?
Gender and Accuracy in Decoding Affect Cues: A Meta-Analysis
Bayesian Estimation of Generalized Log-Linear Poisson Item Response Models for Fluency Scores Using brms and Stan
Enhancing Spatial Ability Assessment: Integrating Problem-Solving Strategies in Object Assembly Tasks Using Multimodal Joint-Hierarchical Cognitive Diagnosis Modeling

Journal Description

Journal of Intelligence

Journal of Intelligence is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on the study of human intelligence, published monthly online by MDPI.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SSCI (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, PsycInfo, PSYNDEX, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Psychology, Multidisciplinary) / CiteScore - Q2 (Education)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 25.8 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 2.8 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2079-3200

Latest Articles

20 pages, 1222 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Working Smarter: Work-Related Emotional Intelligence and the Family-Work Interface

by Michael D. Robinson, Kelyn X. Chen, Sukumarakurup Krishnakumar and Roberta L. Irvin

J. Intell. 2025, 13(5), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13050058 - 21 May 2025

Employees have both work and non-work lives, and these domains of investment can interfere with each other. The present investigation (total N = 497) sought to understand the potential role(s) of work-related emotional intelligence (W-EI) in managing these forms of conflict, with samples [...] Read more.

Employees have both work and non-work lives, and these domains of investment can interfere with each other. The present investigation (total N = 497) sought to understand the potential role(s) of work-related emotional intelligence (W-EI) in managing these forms of conflict, with samples consisting of full-time military personnel (Study 1), postdoctoral researchers (Study 2), and employees from diverse occupations (Study 3). Higher levels of W-EI were associated with lower levels of family-to-work conflict, but not work-to-family conflict, suggesting an asymmetric form of conflict shielding. Lesser experiences of family-work conflict also provided some explanation for why employees with higher W-EI levels were less prone to counterproductive work behaviors and work-related burnout. In addition, employees with higher W-EI levels were less prone to counterproductive work behaviors even when levels of family-work conflict were relatively high. The results highlight multiple ways in which employees with high W-EI levels manage the family-work interface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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25 pages, 2240 KiB

Open AccessReview

AI as a Helper: Leveraging Generative AI Tools Across Common Parts of the Creative Process

by Sudapa Chompunuch and Todd Lubart

J. Intell. 2025, 13(5), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13050057 - 20 May 2025

This study explores Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) applications in creativity. We identify the four most common parts of the creative process: (1) Problem Identification and Framing, (2) Generating ideas, (3) Evaluating ideas, and (4) Deploying and Implementing ideas. We map Generative AI systems [...] Read more.

This study explores Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) applications in creativity. We identify the four most common parts of the creative process: (1) Problem Identification and Framing, (2) Generating ideas, (3) Evaluating ideas, and (4) Deploying and Implementing ideas. We map Generative AI systems into this common part of the creative process. By positioning GenAI as a supportive “AI as a helper”, we propose a structured framework that identifies specific GenAI tools and their capabilities within each common part of the creative process. Through the analysis and demonstration of use cases, this study demonstrates how Generative AI systems facilitate problem identification, generate novel ideas, evaluate ideas, and enhance implementation. We also propose the criteria for evaluating these GenAI systems for each part of the process. Moreover, this study provides insights for researchers and practitioners who are seeking to enhance GenAI’s creative capabilities and human creativity. This study concludes with a discussion of the implications of these illustrative use cases and suggests directions for future research to further advance the use of GenAI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Generative AI: Reflections on Intelligence and Creativity)

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13 pages, 953 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Academic Performance and Resilience in Secondary Education Students

by Ana María Carroza-Pacheco, Benito León-del-Barco and Carolina Bringas Molleda

J. Intell. 2025, 13(5), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13050056 - 16 May 2025

Academic performance is a factor of concern and interest in the educational context for the improvement of the educational and economic system of any country. Determining the factors influencing it has been the subject of multiple investigations. This study focused on analysing which [...] Read more.

Academic performance is a factor of concern and interest in the educational context for the improvement of the educational and economic system of any country. Determining the factors influencing it has been the subject of multiple investigations. This study focused on analysing which dimensions of school resilience could act as determinants of academic performance in a sample of 609 Spanish secondary education students, aged between 11 and 17 years. The School Resilience Scale (SRS) was used as a data collection instrument. The data were analysed using analysis of variance and discriminant analysis based on a canonical function model, which suggested the existence of a direct and significant relationship between academic performance and all dimensions of resilience, with somewhat larger effect sizes for the Internal Resources and Identity–Self-Esteem dimensions, which allowed us to classify students with particularly high levels of performance. The results also show that the school year was significantly associated with academic performance, with the highest percentages of students at the highest level observed in the 2nd and 3rd years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive, Emotional, and Social Skills in Students)

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15 pages, 1666 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

When ChatGPT Writes Your Research Proposal: Scientific Creativity in the Age of Generative AI

by Vera Eymann, Thomas Lachmann and Daniela Czernochowski

J. Intell. 2025, 13(5), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13050055 - 16 May 2025

Within the last years, generative artificial intelligence (AI) has not only entered the field of creativity; it might even be marking a turning point for some creative domains. This raises the question of whether AI also poses a turning point for scientific creativity, [...] Read more.

Within the last years, generative artificial intelligence (AI) has not only entered the field of creativity; it might even be marking a turning point for some creative domains. This raises the question of whether AI also poses a turning point for scientific creativity, which comprises the ability to develop new ideas or methodological approaches in science. In this study, we use a new scientific creativity task to investigate the extent to which AI—in this case, ChatGPT-4—can generate creative ideas in a scientific context. Specifically, we compare AI-generated responses with those of graduate students in terms of their ability to generate scientific hypotheses, design experiments, and justify their ideas for a fictitious research scenario in the field of experimental psychology. We asked students to write and prompted ChatGPT to generate a brief version of a research proposal containing four separate assignments (i.e., formulating a hypothesis, designing an experiment, listing the required equipment, and justifying the chosen method). Using a structured (blinded) rating, two experts from the field evaluated students’ research proposals and proposals generated by ChatGPT in terms of their scientific creativity. Our results indicate that ChatGPT received significantly higher overall scores, but even more crucially exceeded students in sub-scores measuring originality or meaningfulness of the ideas. In addition to a statistical evaluation, we qualitatively assess our data providing a more detailed report in regards to subtle differences between students’ and AI-generated responses. Lastly, we discuss challenges and provide potential future directions for the field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Generative AI: Reflections on Intelligence and Creativity)

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13 pages, 822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Do Intellectually Gifted Children Have Better Planning Skills?

by Li Cheng, Xiaohe Xie, Shiting Yang, Linjie Xiao, Xiaoyu Chen, Yun Nan, Dong Qi, Jagannath P. Das and George K. Georgiou

J. Intell. 2025, 13(5), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13050054 - 13 May 2025

The present study aimed to examine whether intellectually gifted children had better planning skills than their chronological-age controls and what processing skills may explain these differences. A total of 35 intellectually gifted Chinese children (25 boys and 10 girls; M_age = 12.77 [...] Read more.

The present study aimed to examine whether intellectually gifted children had better planning skills than their chronological-age controls and what processing skills may explain these differences. A total of 35 intellectually gifted Chinese children (25 boys and 10 girls; M_age = 12.77 years) and 39 chronological-age controls (27 boys and 12 girls; M_age = 12.89 years) participated in this study. They were assessed on three measures of operational planning (Planned Codes, Planned Connections, and Planned Search), on a measure of action planning (Crack the Code), and on measures of processing speed, working memory, and attention. Results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed first that the two groups differed in Crack the Code (accuracy and first move time) and in Planned Connections. Whereas processing speed explained the group differences in Planned Connections, none of the processing skills were able to eliminate the group differences in Crack the Code. Taken together, these findings suggest that gifted children have better action planning, which allows them to perform better than controls in tasks that require complex problem solving and evaluation of different scenarios and solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Contributions to the Measurement of Intelligence)

23 pages, 2444 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Peer and Teacher Support on Students’ Creative Thinking: Emotional Intelligence as a Mediator and Emotion Regulation Strategy as a Moderator

by Yafei Shi, Qi Cheng, Yantao Wei, Yunzhen Liang and Ke Zhu

J. Intell. 2025, 13(5), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13050053 - 25 Apr 2025

This study aimed to explore the relationships among peer and teacher support, emotional intelligence, and creative thinking. A total of 335 middle school students in grade seven were surveyed in China, including boys 187 (55.8%) and girls 148 (44.2%), aged from 11 to [...] Read more.

This study aimed to explore the relationships among peer and teacher support, emotional intelligence, and creative thinking. A total of 335 middle school students in grade seven were surveyed in China, including boys 187 (55.8%) and girls 148 (44.2%), aged from 11 to 14 years (M = 12.5; SD = 0.5). Results of the partial least square structural equation modeling showed that emotional intelligence was a positive mediator in the processes from peer and teacher support to middle school students’ creative thinking, and emotion regulation strategies moderated these processes from emotional intelligence to creative thinking. Specifically, both peer and teacher support had an indirect effect on creative thinking through emotional intelligence. Moreover, the four dimensions of emotional intelligence bore different mediating powers. Among them, emotion regulation exhibited the greatest mediating power, and self-emotion appraisal is the least. In addition, both reappraisal and suppression positively moderated the impact of emotional intelligence on creative thinking. Moreover, reappraisal had stronger moderating power than that of suppression. Interestingly, the direct effects of both peer and teacher support on creative thinking were not observed. This study offers knowledge about the mechanisms of peer and teacher support and students’ creative thinking, and implications for practitioners were also discussed in this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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48 pages, 1149 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

The Relationship Between Children’s Indoor Loose Parts Play and Cognitive Development: A Systematic Review

by Ozlem Cankaya, Mackenzie Martin and Dana Haugen

J. Intell. 2025, 13(5), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13050052 - 23 Apr 2025

Children’s engagement with toys and play materials can contribute to the foundational cognitive processes that drive learning. Loose parts are interactive, open-ended materials originally not designed as toys but can be incorporated into children’s play (e.g., acorns, cardboard, and fabric). Practitioners and researchers [...] Read more.

Children’s engagement with toys and play materials can contribute to the foundational cognitive processes that drive learning. Loose parts are interactive, open-ended materials originally not designed as toys but can be incorporated into children’s play (e.g., acorns, cardboard, and fabric). Practitioners and researchers widely endorse loose parts for fostering creativity, divergent thinking, and problem-solving skills. Despite these recommendations, research on their specific role in young children’s cognitive development remains limited. This systematic review examines how indoor loose parts play has been studied in relation to young children’s (0–6 years) cognitive development. Following PRISMA guidelines, searches in bibliographic databases and forward and backward citation tracking identified 5721 studies published until December 2024. We identified 25 studies and evaluated the quality and risk of bias. Studies focused on children’s general cognitive outcomes, language development, and specific cognitive subdomains, with many reporting positive associations between children’s play materials and cognitive development. However, five studies found no such associations, and another seven did not address the relationship between play materials and outcomes. Despite methodological variation across studies, our systematic review identified a relationship between play materials similar to loose parts and children’s problem-solving, creativity, academic skills (reading and math), and both convergent and divergent thinking. Notably, only one study explicitly used the term “loose parts.”Our review identified empirical and methodological gaps regarding the relationship between play materials and cognitive development, which can inform future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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18 pages, 1419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Importance of Individual and Expert Knowledge Grows as Clan Identity Diminishes: The Bedouin of Southern Israel Adapt to Anthropocene Ecology

by Michael Weinstock, Turky Abu Aleon and Patricia M. Greenfield

J. Intell. 2025, 13(5), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13050051 - 23 Apr 2025

Before the Anthropocene, Bedouin communities in Southern Israel were based on a clan structure—a kin-based social network; clans were culturally and socially homogenous communities with a strong authority structure. Work consisted of subsistence activities necessary for physical survival. Group-based authority and cooperative problem [...] Read more.

Before the Anthropocene, Bedouin communities in Southern Israel were based on a clan structure—a kin-based social network; clans were culturally and socially homogenous communities with a strong authority structure. Work consisted of subsistence activities necessary for physical survival. Group-based authority and cooperative problem solving were adaptive in this ecology. Throughout the Anthropocene, the Bedouin of Southern Israel have had to adapt to diverse urban environments, expanded educational opportunity, and exposure to media emanating from different cultures. Our study explored the implications of these ecological shifts for epistemic thinking by comparing three generations of 60 Bedouin families: adolescent girls, their mothers, and their grandmothers (N = 180). Families were evenly divided among three residence types differing in degree of urbanization and degree of population homogeneity: unrecognized Bedouin villages consisting of single clans; recognized Bedouin villages, towns, or cities, consisting of multiple clans; and ethnically diverse cities. Results: Across the generations, media exposure and formally educated parents have weakened the epistemic authority of family elders, in turn weakening clan identity. Ethnically diverse cities have weakened extended family identity. At the same time, personal knowledge and professional expertise have gained new cultural importance. These changes in epistemology and identity are adaptive in the ecological environments that have multiplied in the Anthropocene era. Local identity was strongest both in diverse cities, with their many attractions, and in unrecognized villages, where the population continues to occupy ancestral lands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Understanding Higher-Order Cognitive Abilities and Their Development in the Anthropocene)

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17 pages, 1156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Critical, Creative, Metacognitive, and Empathic Thinking Skills on High and Low Academic Achievements of Pre-Service Teachers

by Hatice Kumandaş-Öztürk and Özlem Ulu-Kalın

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040050 - 16 Apr 2025

This study aims to determine how higher-order thinking skills—namely creative thinking, critical thinking, metacognitive thinking, and empathic thinking—impact the academic achievement of pre-service teachers at both low and high levels. The study was conducted using the predictive model. The case sampling method, a [...] Read more.

This study aims to determine how higher-order thinking skills—namely creative thinking, critical thinking, metacognitive thinking, and empathic thinking—impact the academic achievement of pre-service teachers at both low and high levels. The study was conducted using the predictive model. The case sampling method, a purposive sampling method, was used in the study. The study participants included 196 volunteer pre-service teachers attending Artvin Coruh University, Faculty of Education. The study data were analyzed using binomial logistic regression analysis. The analysis revealed that the academic achievement of the pre-service teachers varied significantly based on other higher-order thinking skills, except for empathy. Furthermore, the contributions of these variables to academic achievement were ranked based on Exp(β) (odds/likelihood). The findings demonstrated that all variables affected academic achievement, while creative thinking skills contributed most significantly, followed by critical thinking and metacognitive thinking skills. It was also determined that the contribution of empathy skills was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). It was observed that the increase in higher-order thinking skills led to greater academic achievement. Similarly, low higher-order thinking skills significantly led to a decrease in achievement. Thus, it could be recommended that learning activities be revised, and the number of activities aimed at improving thinking skills should be increased for the active acquisition of higher-order thinking skills in higher teacher training institutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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16 pages, 2711 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Practice Testing Facilitates Forward Navigation but Undermines Backward Navigation During Map Learning

by Shaohang Liu and Chunliang Yang

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040049 - 15 Apr 2025

Practice testing (i.e., retrieval practice) has been established as a powerful learning strategy by comparison with many others, such as restudying. The current study explores whether practice testing can boost learning of map routes. Experiment 1 demonstrated that, by comparison with restudying, testing [...] Read more.

Practice testing (i.e., retrieval practice) has been established as a powerful learning strategy by comparison with many others, such as restudying. The current study explores whether practice testing can boost learning of map routes. Experiment 1 demonstrated that, by comparison with restudying, testing enhanced forward navigation and facilitated memory for peripheral information along the route. Experiment 2 examined the testing effect on backward navigation by asking participants to navigate from the endpoint to the start point in the final recall test. The results showed a negative testing effect: testing produced poorer backward navigation performance by comparison with restudying. Experiment 3 demonstrated that showing participants the tracing of the cursor during the retrieval practice phase eliminated the negative testing effect on backward navigation. Overall, the documented findings suggest that retrieval practice can facilitate forward navigation but impair backward navigation when the navigation task requires reorganization and mental rotation of the learned routes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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19 pages, 1006 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional Intelligence in Portuguese Youth: Age and Gender Differences

by Adelinda Araújo Candeias

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040048 - 15 Apr 2025

Emotional intelligence (EI) plays a pivotal role in youth development, influencing well-being, social adaptation, and academic success. This study aimed to assess age- and gender-related differences in perceived EI among Portuguese youth using the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (EQ-i:YV), a validated [...] Read more.

Emotional intelligence (EI) plays a pivotal role in youth development, influencing well-being, social adaptation, and academic success. This study aimed to assess age- and gender-related differences in perceived EI among Portuguese youth using the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (EQ-i:YV), a validated and widely applied tool. A sample of 931 students aged 8 to 16 from various regions of Portugal was evaluated across five EI domains: intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management, adaptability, and general mood. The results show that emotional intelligence changes during adolescence, with clear age and gender differences. The data shows that as adolescents grow older, their perceived emotional intelligence (PEI) tends to decline, especially in adaptability and intrapersonal skills. While stress management and interpersonal abilities stay steady, they increasingly struggle with self-awareness and emotional regulation. Interpersonal skills remain the strongest, reflecting solid social abilities, while intrapersonal skills are the weakest, pointing to challenges with emotional insight. This means that while social connection and stress resilience hold up, adapting to change and managing emotions become harder with age. Gender differences also emerged, with girls demonstrating higher interpersonal skills and stress management in early adolescence, while boys reported better general mood in mid-adolescence. Despite these differences, no significant variations were found in the global EQi:YV scores. These results challenge the assumption of a linear increase in EI with age and emphasize the importance of a nuanced understanding of EI development. The study highlights the need for interventions that support emotional development throughout adolescence and targeted educational interventions tailored to the specific emotional competencies of different age and gender groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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15 pages, 1305 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on the Creativity Perception of Music Practitioners

by Haixia Ma, Yan Zhang, Xin Shan and Xiaoxi Hu

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040047 - 15 Apr 2025

This study investigates the relationship between artificial intelligence (AI) tools and the creative abilities of music practitioners within the context of globalization and technological advancements that are transforming creative industries. Through a quantitative analysis, the study assesses how AI tool usage influences creative [...] Read more.

This study investigates the relationship between artificial intelligence (AI) tools and the creative abilities of music practitioners within the context of globalization and technological advancements that are transforming creative industries. Through a quantitative analysis, the study assesses how AI tool usage influences creative output. By surveying music practitioners from diverse backgrounds, it captures their experiences and perceptions of AI technologies in music creation. Grounded in cognitive science and diffusion of innovation theories, the research also empirically examines the relationship between AI technology acceptance and creativity perception, while considering the role of socioeconomic factors. Regression analysis was used to explore the relationships between key variables, ensuring robust and reliable results. The results suggest that AI technology acceptance is significantly correlated with creative performance, particularly among individuals with formal music education and experience using music composition software. However, socioeconomic factors such as age, gender, and professional background also influence how extensively AI is utilized in the creative process. These findings provide new insights into AI’s role in creative industries and offer data to inform music education and technology training policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Generative AI: Reflections on Intelligence and Creativity)

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5 pages, 669 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Introduction to the Special Issue: Advances in Metacognition, Learning, and Reactivity

by Chunliang Yang and Liang Luo

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040046 - 9 Apr 2025

Metacognition, particularly the ability to monitor and regulate cognitive processes, plays a crucial role in effective learning [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metacognition, Learning, and Reactivity)

17 pages, 5653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automated Graphic Divergent Thinking Assessment: A Multimodal Machine Learning Approach

by Hezhi Zhang, Hang Dong, Ying Wang, Xinyu Zhang, Fan Yu, Bailin Ren and Jianping Xu

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040045 - 7 Apr 2025

This study proposes a multimodal deep learning model for automated scoring of image-based divergent thinking tests, integrating visual and semantic features to improve assessment objectivity and efficiency. Utilizing 708 Chinese high school students’ responses from validated tests, we developed a system combining pretrained [...] Read more.

This study proposes a multimodal deep learning model for automated scoring of image-based divergent thinking tests, integrating visual and semantic features to improve assessment objectivity and efficiency. Utilizing 708 Chinese high school students’ responses from validated tests, we developed a system combining pretrained ResNet50 (image features) and GloVe (text embeddings), fused through a fully connected neural network with MSE loss and Adam optimization. The training set (603 images, triple-rated consensus scores) showed strong alignment with human scores (Pearson r = 0.810). Validation on 100 images demonstrated generalization capacity (r = 0.561), while participant-level analysis achieved 0.602 correlation with total human scores. Results indicate multimodal integration effectively captures divergent thinking dimensions, enabling simultaneous evaluation of novelty, fluency, and flexibility. This approach reduces manual scoring subjectivity, streamlines assessment processes, and maintains cost-effectiveness while preserving psychometric rigor. The findings advance automated cognitive evaluation methodologies by demonstrating the complementary value of visual-textual feature fusion in creativity assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in Assessment: Harnessing Technology for Testing Cognitive Ability, Thinking Skill, and Competency)

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15 pages, 1079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding the Role of Cognitive Abilities and Math Anxiety in Adolescent Math Achievement

by Lorenzo Esposito, Irene Tonizzi, Maria Carmen Usai and David Giofrè

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040044 - 3 Apr 2025

A consistent amount of research has tried to study the contributions of cognitive and emotional factors involved in math achievement. Despite this, research examining their joint role in children is scarce. In this paper, we examined the joint role of cognitive and math [...] Read more.

A consistent amount of research has tried to study the contributions of cognitive and emotional factors involved in math achievement. Despite this, research examining their joint role in children is scarce. In this paper, we examined the joint role of cognitive and math anxiety on math achievement in a sample of 135 seventh-grade children (54% male, M_age = 12.79, SD = 0.47). Math achievement was measured using a validated paper-and-pencil test, while higher-order cognitive abilities were assessed with a PMAs test. Working memory was evaluated through two verbal and two visuo-spatial experimental span tasks. Inhibitory control was measured using three computerized tasks adapted from the classic Stroop, Flanker, and Simon tasks. Math anxiety was assessed with an AMAS questionnaire. A series of correlation analyses and path models were conducted to understand the complex relationships among the factors. The correlations showed a positive relationship among our cognitive abilities and a negative correlation with math anxiety. The results from the path analysis showed a strong effect of higher-order cognitive abilities on math achievement (β = 0.44, p < .001) and highlighted the mediating role of working memory between math anxiety and math performance (β = −0.04, 95%CI [−0.11; −0.00]). Conversely, inhibitory control did not seem to play a crucial role in this relationship (β = −0.03, 95%CI [−0.08; 0.00]). These findings are discussed in relation to current theoretical frameworks. Interventions aimed at reducing math anxiety could help improve math achievement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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20 pages, 2520 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Generative AI and ChatGPT Break Human Supremacy in Mathematics and Reshape Competence in Cognitive-Demanding Problem-Solving Tasks?

by Deniz Kaya and Selim Yavuz

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040043 - 2 Apr 2025

This study investigates the potential of generative artificial intelligence tools in addressing cognitive challenges encountered by humans during problem-solving. The performance of ChatGPT-4o and GPT-4 models in the NAEP mathematics assessments was evaluated, particularly in relation to the cognitive demands placed on students. [...] Read more.

This study investigates the potential of generative artificial intelligence tools in addressing cognitive challenges encountered by humans during problem-solving. The performance of ChatGPT-4o and GPT-4 models in the NAEP mathematics assessments was evaluated, particularly in relation to the cognitive demands placed on students. Sixty NAEP mathematics assessment tasks, coded by field experts, were analyzed within a framework of cognitive complexity. ChatGPT-4o and GPT-4 provided responses to each question, which were then evaluated using NAEP’s scoring criteria. The study’s dataset was analyzed using the average performance scores of students who answered correctly and the item-wise response percentages. The results indicated that ChatGPT-4o and GPT-4 outperformed most students on individual items in the NAEP mathematics assessment. Furthermore, as the cognitive demand increased, higher performance scores were required to answer questions correctly. This trend was observed across the 4th, 8th, and 12th grades, though ChatGPT-4o and GPT-4 did not demonstrate statistically significant sensitivity to increased cognitive demands at the 12th-grade level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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25 pages, 987 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emotional Intelligence and Its Relationship with Subjective Well-Being and Academic Achievement in University Students

by Presentación Ángeles Caballero-García and Sara Sánchez Ruiz

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040042 - 26 Mar 2025

The demands of the labor market are a constant challenge for universities, emphasizing the crucial importance of competency-based education to make our students more academically and professionally competitive. The benefits of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Subjective Well-Being (happiness/life satisfaction) (SWB) have been evidenced [...] Read more.

The demands of the labor market are a constant challenge for universities, emphasizing the crucial importance of competency-based education to make our students more academically and professionally competitive. The benefits of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Subjective Well-Being (happiness/life satisfaction) (SWB) have been evidenced as necessary competencies in personal, academic, and professional contexts. Our research assessed these variables in a sample of 300 university students from Madrid (Spain), comprising 68 (22.7%) men and 232 (77.3%) women, aged between 18 and 47 years (M = 21.72; SD = 0.42). Our objective was to determine their baseline levels, study their relationship with Academic Achievement (AA), analyze their changes after a positive emotional intervention, and determine if they are predictors of AA. For this, we used a quasi-experimental pre/post-test design with experimental/control groups. Our results show medium–high baseline levels of EI, SWB, and AA in our students; positive correlations, which improved in intensity in the post-test, between EI (clarity and repair) and SWB, between AA and EI (attention), and between AA and happiness (OHI); and better scores in EI and happiness in the post-test compared to the pre-test, and in the experimental group compared to the control group, as a result of our intervention. Finally, the findings indicate that EI (attention) and SWB (life satisfaction) jointly predict a small part of AA. The data are discussed for their implications for change in higher education, towards competency-based education interventions that improve the outcomes and employability of our students and bridge the university/industry gap. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

23 pages, 3315 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Reasoning and Its Contribution to Mathematical Performance Across Different Content Domains: Evidence from Chinese Students

by Tianshu Xu, Siyu Sun and Qiping Kong

J. Intell. 2025, 13(4), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13040041 - 24 Mar 2025

Recent studies have provided convincing evidence highlighting the strong relationship between spatial reasoning and mathematical performance. However, there is a limited body of research exploring the contributions of different spatial reasoning constructs to mathematical performance across various content domains, particularly within non-Western contexts. [...] Read more.

Recent studies have provided convincing evidence highlighting the strong relationship between spatial reasoning and mathematical performance. However, there is a limited body of research exploring the contributions of different spatial reasoning constructs to mathematical performance across various content domains, particularly within non-Western contexts. This study investigates the relationship between spatial reasoning skills—including mental rotation, spatial visualization, and spatial orientation—and mathematical performance across various domains (number, geometric shapes and measures and data display) among Chinese elementary school students in grade four (ages 9–10). The results indicate that overall spatial reasoning significantly predicts mathematical performance across various domains. All three spatial reasoning constructs significantly contribute to performance in the number and geometric shapes and measures domains, with mental rotation and spatial orientation being the strongest predictors of performance in these respective content domains. For data display performance, spatial orientation and spatial visualization significantly contribute, with spatial visualization being the strongest predictor. Although no significant gender differences were found in the overall link between spatial reasoning and mathematical performance, subgroup regression analysis showed variations. For male students, spatial orientation was the main predictor across content areas. For female students, mental rotation was the key predictor for number and geometry, while spatial visualization was most significant for data display. Full article

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16 pages, 1922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Planning, Cognitive Reflection, Inter-Temporal Choice, and Risky Choice in Chess Players: An Expertise Approach

by Guillermo Campitelli, Martín Labollita and Merim Bilalić

J. Intell. 2025, 13(3), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13030040 - 19 Mar 2025

This study investigates the cognitive processes underlying chess expertise by examining planning, cognitive reflection, inter-temporal choice, and risky choice in chess players. The study involves 25 chess players and 25 non-chess players, comparing their performance on the Tower of London (TOL) task, Cognitive [...] Read more.

This study investigates the cognitive processes underlying chess expertise by examining planning, cognitive reflection, inter-temporal choice, and risky choice in chess players. The study involves 25 chess players and 25 non-chess players, comparing their performance on the Tower of London (TOL) task, Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT), inter-temporal choice (ITC), and risky choice tasks. Results indicate that chess players outperform non-chess players in TOL and CRT, showing superior planning and cognitive reflection abilities. Chess players also prefer future rewards over immediate ones in ITC, suggesting a higher propensity for future more rewarding options. In risky choice tasks, chess players made more decisions based on expected value than non-chess players, but the evidence in favour of differences between groups is very weak. Despite this study not being able to establish causality, the findings highlight the cognitive advantages associated with chess expertise and suggest potential areas for further research on the transfer of cognitive skills from chess to other domains and differences in general abilities between experts and novices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Skill Acquisition, Expertise, and Achievement)

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15 pages, 1219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Beliefs About Critical Competence in a Sample of Psychosocial and Socio-Educational Intervention Professionals in Master’s Degree Training

by Francisco Jose Garcia-Moro and Diego Gomez-Baya

J. Intell. 2025, 13(3), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13030039 - 18 Mar 2025

Critical thinking is a skill of great importance in our current and future society. Its value goes beyond all theoretical doubt although it requires more practical development, especially in terms of coordinated and evidence-based approaches. In addition, the ethical foundation must permeate the [...] Read more.

Critical thinking is a skill of great importance in our current and future society. Its value goes beyond all theoretical doubt although it requires more practical development, especially in terms of coordinated and evidence-based approaches. In addition, the ethical foundation must permeate the entire critical process, indicating what to criticize, for what, why, how, and when, elements that should not be left to improvisation or what is traditionally done. The aim of this research was to describe the ethical connotations that come together in the critical process. To this end, we focused on a group case study of undergraduate and graduate students of Psychosocial and Socio-educational studies in Spain, collecting information with instruments built ad hoc. The results show little practical awareness of the weight of ethics in critical decisions, producing a change in orientation regarding educational training to improve decision-making based on critical thinking and ethics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Formation and Evaluation of Critical and Creative Thinking for Good Personal, Academic and Professional Performance in These New Times)

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