Journal of Intelligence

This study explores how adolescent learners conceptualize the emotion of love in their first language (Spanish) and in English as a foreign language (EFL), comparing monolingual Spanish speakers and Spanish–Arabic bilinguals. A total of 66 participants (33 per group), all with A2 proficiency in English, completed a semantic fluency task in both Spanish and English, producing as many words as possible in relation to the prompts Amor and Love. The data were analyzed using graph theory to capture the organization of participants’ emotion lexicons. The results show that love is a highly productive and cohesive semantic field, eliciting significantly more responses in L1 than in L2, for both Spanish-only (t = −8.866, p < 0.001) and Spanish–Arabic (W = 101.0, p = 0.001) participants. The differences between the two learner cohorts were not significant in Spanish nor in English. The results from the graph analyses revealed that learners displayed rich and strongly connected networks in Spanish, with learners with a migration origin showing slightly more fragmented networks. In English, both groups performed similarly, with responses probably mediated by L1 translation equivalents and metaphorical associations (e.g., heart, flower, and red). The findings suggest that emotional lexicons are better developed and more efficiently organized in the L1, whereas FL representations are shaped by proficiency, context of learning, and reliance on L1 conceptual structures. This study contributes novel insights into bilingual and heritage learners’ emotional conceptualization and highlights the value of graph analysis for examining the structure of emotion words.

Parental overprotection before adulthood can have enduring consequences for offspring, yet the mechanisms underlying its association with adult physical health are not fully understood. This study proposes trait emotional intelligence (trait-EI) as a pivotal mediating factor in this relationship. A sample of 459 university students (mean age = 22.42 years, SD = 1.43; 50.3% female, 49.7% male) completed measures assessing their recalled parental overprotection, trait-EI and physical health. Results from regression and mediation analyses revealed that parental overprotection was significantly negatively associated with both overall trait-EI and physical health. Critically, trait-EI was found to be a significant mediator, indicating that overprotective parenting impedes the development of trait-EI, which in turn translates into poorer health outcomes. Further analysis of the facets of trait-EI demonstrated that the intrapersonal and stress management dimensions were unique contributors to physical health, whereas interpersonal and adaptability skills were not. What’s more, a moderated mediation analysis showed that gender significantly moderated the pathway from parental overprotection to trait-EI, with the negative effect of overprotection on trait-EI being substantially stronger for male than for female offspring. These findings underscore the role of trait-EI as a central psychological mechanism translating early parenting experiences into long-term physical health and point to the need for gender-sensitive approaches in preventive health interventions.

Emotional intelligence (EI), specifically the capacity to recognize and understand one’s own emotions and those of others, is pivotal for developing the interpersonal skills that foster effective collaboration. This is especially crucial for developing trust in others, which serves as the necessary foundation for functioning in our increasingly impersonal contemporary society. Although extensive research has been conducted on trust in adults, empirical evidence for children remains limited. Quantifying the extent to which trust exists in young children, whether it differs from trust in adults, and how it changes with age, gender, and various psychological and school culture factors is essential for understanding how educational environments can foster its development. In this article, we analyze trust among almost 3000 fourth-grade children from 135 schools, measured based on behaviors exhibited during a Public Goods Game. The results align with other studies, showing that trust is substantially higher towards the in-group (classmates) than the out-group. A notable gender effect was observed, with boys exhibiting significantly higher levels of trust than girls. Trust was also higher in municipal schools compared to state-subsidized private schools. Personality traits, measured via the Big Five model using the Pictorial Personality Traits Questionnaire for Children (PPTQ-C), also emerged as influential. Specifically, elevated levels of Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predicted increased trust in both in-groups and out-groups. Extraversion and Openness to Experience also played a role, although to a lesser extent.