Journal of Intelligence

26 pages, 3600 KB

Open AccessArticle

Macro- and Micro-Level Behavioral Patterns in Simulation-Based Scientific Inquiry: Linking Processes to Performance Among Elementary Students

by Shuang Wang, An Hu, Lu Yuan, Wei Tian and Tao Xin

J. Intell. 2026, 14(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14010006 (registering DOI) - 4 Jan 2026

Abstract

Scientific inquiry is fundamental to science education, encompassing the processes through which students construct scientific knowledge and develop thinking skills. However, the unfolding of these inquiry processes and their relation to performance remain underexplored. Drawing on process data from a structured simulation-based assessment [...] Read more.

Scientific inquiry is fundamental to science education, encompassing the processes through which students construct scientific knowledge and develop thinking skills. However, the unfolding of these inquiry processes and their relation to performance remain underexplored. Drawing on process data from a structured simulation-based assessment task, this study investigated the inquiry processes of 259 fourth-grade students. We applied a multi-analytic approach including sequential pattern mining, entropy analysis, and process mining to capture macro- and micro-level behavioral patterns and examine their associations with task performance operationalized by effectiveness and efficiency. Macro-level analyses revealed that effective students generally organized their inquiry processes into more iterative cycles of evidence collection, demonstrating a more dedicated approach before committing to a final response. Micro-level analyses further indicated that effective and efficient students showed better strategic coordination during experimentation. Together, these findings provide a multi-level characterization of elementary students’ scientific inquiry processes and link inquiry patterns to task effectiveness and efficiency. The study also underscores the potential of process data from simulation-based assessments for diagnosing inquiry skills and informing the design of personalized scaffolds in elementary science education. Full article

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16 pages, 1024 KB

Open AccessArticle

Association Between Weekly Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity and Emotional Intelligence Factors in Spanish Adolescents: Perspectives for Digital and Gamified Interventions

by Alberto Ruiz-Ariza, José Enrique Moral-García, Alba Rusillo-Magdaleno and Jose Luis Solas-Martínez

J. Intell. 2026, 14(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14010005 (registering DOI) - 3 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study aimed to analyze the relationship between moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and dimensions of emotional intelligence (EI) in Spanish adolescents aged 12 to 16 years, controlling for variables such as gender, age, and body mass index (BMI). A total of [...] Read more.

This study aimed to analyze the relationship between moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and dimensions of emotional intelligence (EI) in Spanish adolescents aged 12 to 16 years, controlling for variables such as gender, age, and body mass index (BMI). A total of 171 students (92 boys; mean age = 13.73 ± 1.34 years) were analyzed, measuring MVPA using the PACE + Adolescent PA Measure and EI using the TEIQue-SF, which includes well-being, self-control, emotionality, and sociability. Physically active adolescents (>4 days/week with ≥60 min of MVPA) showed significantly higher scores in well-being and sociability compared to their inactive peers (p < 0.05), with no differences in emotionality or self-control. Regression analyses confirmed that weekly MVPA was positively associated with well-being and sociability, independent of gender, age, and BMI. These findings suggest that regular MVPA is associated with emotional balance and social competence in adolescents, highlighting the importance of integrating structured PA programs in and out of school. Furthermore, the study underscores the potential of digital and gamified interventions, such as exergames and mobile apps, as promising tools to support the emotional and social correlates of PA by promoting motivation, social interaction, and emotional regulation, offering innovative approaches to support adolescents’ social-emotional development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Children’s Emotional Intelligence: Digital Games, Technologies and Practical Applications)

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26 pages, 954 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Early Precursors of Academic Skills: Preliminary Validation of a Touchscreen-Based Digital Assessment in Preschoolers

by Davide Apicerni, Paolo Stievano, James Dawe, Sergio Melogno and Lina Pezzuti

J. Intell. 2026, 14(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14010004 - 1 Jan 2026

Abstract

Early identification of cognitive precursors to literacy and numeracy is essential for promoting school readiness and preventing later learning difficulties. Digital assessment tools using touchscreen technology offer advantages of engagement, standardization, and efficiency. This study reports preliminary findings on the Digital Assessment for [...] Read more.

Early identification of cognitive precursors to literacy and numeracy is essential for promoting school readiness and preventing later learning difficulties. Digital assessment tools using touchscreen technology offer advantages of engagement, standardization, and efficiency. This study reports preliminary findings on the Digital Assessment for Preschoolers—Tool (DAP-T), a touchscreen-based battery for preschool children. A sample of 105 children (M = 61.43 months, SD = 10.38; age range = 38–72) completed eight tasks assessing visuomotor integration, literacy (letter knowledge, phonological awareness, notational awareness, Rapid Automatized Naming), and numeracy (non-symbolic quantity comparison, quantity recognition, counting, cardinality). A subsample (n = 47–61, depending on the measure) also completed the paper-based criterion tasks used for concurrent validity analyses. Item difficulty and discrimination, internal consistency (McDonald’s ω), concurrent validity, and factorial structure (SEM) were assessed. Results showed medium-to-low difficulty, age-related performance increases, and good discrimination in most tasks. Reliability was high (ω = 0.713–0.966), and correlations with criterion measures ranged from ρ = 0.52 to 0.95. The DAP-T showed promising psychometric properties as a rapid, standardized tool to detect early difficulties and guide targeted interventions. Full article

20 pages, 3383 KB

Open AccessArticle

Understanding Love in the L1 and the Additional Language: Evidence from Semantic Fluency and Graph Analysis

by Maria Pilar Agustín Llach

J. Intell. 2026, 14(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14010003 - 24 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study explores how adolescent learners conceptualize the emotion of love in their first language (Spanish) and in English as a foreign language (EFL), comparing monolingual Spanish speakers and Spanish–Arabic bilinguals. A total of 66 participants (33 per group), all with A2 proficiency [...] Read more.

This study explores how adolescent learners conceptualize the emotion of love in their first language (Spanish) and in English as a foreign language (EFL), comparing monolingual Spanish speakers and Spanish–Arabic bilinguals. A total of 66 participants (33 per group), all with A2 proficiency in English, completed a semantic fluency task in both Spanish and English, producing as many words as possible in relation to the prompts Amor and Love. The data were analyzed using graph theory to capture the organization of participants’ emotion lexicons. The results show that love is a highly productive and cohesive semantic field, eliciting significantly more responses in L1 than in L2, for both Spanish-only (t = −8.866, p < 0.001) and Spanish–Arabic (W = 101.0, p = 0.001) participants. The differences between the two learner cohorts were not significant in Spanish nor in English. The results from the graph analyses revealed that learners displayed rich and strongly connected networks in Spanish, with learners with a migration origin showing slightly more fragmented networks. In English, both groups performed similarly, with responses probably mediated by L1 translation equivalents and metaphorical associations (e.g., heart, flower, and red). The findings suggest that emotional lexicons are better developed and more efficiently organized in the L1, whereas FL representations are shaped by proficiency, context of learning, and reliance on L1 conceptual structures. This study contributes novel insights into bilingual and heritage learners’ emotional conceptualization and highlights the value of graph analysis for examining the structure of emotion words. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

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18 pages, 1532 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Does Teacher Certification Promote Student Achievement in Science, Reading, and Math? A Chain-Mediated Model of Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy and Pedagogical Innovation

by Yanbin Guo and Guoxiu Tian

J. Intell. 2026, 14(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14010002 - 22 Dec 2025

Abstract

Teacher certification is strongly correlated with student development. Many studies have documented the effect of teacher certification on student achievement. However, there are inconsistent conclusions about this issue. Moreover, few studies have examined the mechanisms by which teacher certification promotes student achievement. To [...] Read more.

Teacher certification is strongly correlated with student development. Many studies have documented the effect of teacher certification on student achievement. However, there are inconsistent conclusions about this issue. Moreover, few studies have examined the mechanisms by which teacher certification promotes student achievement. To fill these gaps, this paper examines the effect of teacher certification on student achievement and the underlying mechanisms. We analyzed the data from the TALIS 2018 Türkiye teacher data and the PISA 2018 Türkiye student data using path analysis and PROCESS Model 6. It was found that the rise in entry requirements for teacher certification was positively associated with teachers’ sense of efficacy and pedagogical innovation in the Turkish context. It was also indicated that teacher certification was positively associated with student achievement through the serial mediation of teachers’ sense of efficacy and pedagogical innovation. The practical and theoretical implications of this paper were discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Studies on Cognitive Processes)

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18 pages, 1265 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Mediating Role of Emotional Intelligence in the Relationship Between Parental Overprotection and Offspring’s Physical Health in Adulthood

by Huanhua Lu, Yawen Zhao, Zaina Jianaer and Ruihan Chen

J. Intell. 2026, 14(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence14010001 - 22 Dec 2025

Abstract

Parental overprotection before adulthood can have enduring consequences for offspring, yet the mechanisms underlying its association with adult physical health are not fully understood. This study proposes trait emotional intelligence (trait-EI) as a pivotal mediating factor in this relationship. A sample of 459 [...] Read more.

Parental overprotection before adulthood can have enduring consequences for offspring, yet the mechanisms underlying its association with adult physical health are not fully understood. This study proposes trait emotional intelligence (trait-EI) as a pivotal mediating factor in this relationship. A sample of 459 university students (mean age = 22.42 years, SD = 1.43; 50.3% female, 49.7% male) completed measures assessing their recalled parental overprotection, trait-EI and physical health. Results from regression and mediation analyses revealed that parental overprotection was significantly negatively associated with both overall trait-EI and physical health. Critically, trait-EI was found to be a significant mediator, indicating that overprotective parenting impedes the development of trait-EI, which in turn translates into poorer health outcomes. Further analysis of the facets of trait-EI demonstrated that the intrapersonal and stress management dimensions were unique contributors to physical health, whereas interpersonal and adaptability skills were not. What’s more, a moderated mediation analysis showed that gender significantly moderated the pathway from parental overprotection to trait-EI, with the negative effect of overprotection on trait-EI being substantially stronger for male than for female offspring. These findings underscore the role of trait-EI as a central psychological mechanism translating early parenting experiences into long-term physical health and point to the need for gender-sensitive approaches in preventive health interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Social and Emotional Intelligence)

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24 pages, 1981 KB

Open AccessArticle

Determinants of Trust: Evidence from Elementary School Classrooms

by Roberto Araya and Pablo González-Vicente

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120165 - 15 Dec 2025

Abstract

Emotional intelligence (EI), specifically the capacity to recognize and understand one’s own emotions and those of others, is pivotal for developing the interpersonal skills that foster effective collaboration. This is especially crucial for developing trust in others, which serves as the necessary foundation [...] Read more.

Emotional intelligence (EI), specifically the capacity to recognize and understand one’s own emotions and those of others, is pivotal for developing the interpersonal skills that foster effective collaboration. This is especially crucial for developing trust in others, which serves as the necessary foundation for functioning in our increasingly impersonal contemporary society. Although extensive research has been conducted on trust in adults, empirical evidence for children remains limited. Quantifying the extent to which trust exists in young children, whether it differs from trust in adults, and how it changes with age, gender, and various psychological and school culture factors is essential for understanding how educational environments can foster its development. In this article, we analyze trust among almost 3000 fourth-grade children from 135 schools, measured based on behaviors exhibited during a Public Goods Game. The results align with other studies, showing that trust is substantially higher towards the in-group (classmates) than the out-group. A notable gender effect was observed, with boys exhibiting significantly higher levels of trust than girls. Trust was also higher in municipal schools compared to state-subsidized private schools. Personality traits, measured via the Big Five model using the Pictorial Personality Traits Questionnaire for Children (PPTQ-C), also emerged as influential. Specifically, elevated levels of Agreeableness and Conscientiousness predicted increased trust in both in-groups and out-groups. Extraversion and Openness to Experience also played a role, although to a lesser extent. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

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18 pages, 1474 KB

Open AccessArticle

Early Childhood Education and Care Enhances Cognitive Performance in Later Adolescence Through Non-Cognitive Skills Development and Reduced Truancy

by Ji Liu, Millicent Aziku and Dahman Tahri

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120164 - 15 Dec 2025

Abstract

Prior studies have examined associations between early childhood education and care (ECEC) and cognitive performance in later adolescence. However, little is known about the role of non-cognitive skills development and truancy in this link. To address this gap, the current study investigates how [...] Read more.

Prior studies have examined associations between early childhood education and care (ECEC) and cognitive performance in later adolescence. However, little is known about the role of non-cognitive skills development and truancy in this link. To address this gap, the current study investigates how non-cognitive skills and truancy mediate the link between ECEC and cognitive performance among 15-year-old students (N = 550,818), leveraging the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2022 dataset. Findings indicate that ECEC directly and positively influences non-cognitive skills development and cognitive performance. Non-cognitive skills development is negatively associated with truancy and positively influences cognitive performance. An inverse relationship was found between truancy and cognitive performance. Analyzing this relationship based on gender, it was observed that female students benefited more from ECEC compared to their male counterparts. These results imply that the provision of ECEC may reap substantial social equity benefits. Full article

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26 pages, 1255 KB

Open AccessArticle

Developmental Trajectories of Transcription and Oral Language Skills in Kindergarten Students: The Influence of Executive Functions and Home Literacy Practices

by Jennifer Balade, Cristina Rodríguez and Juan E. Jiménez

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120163 - 13 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the developmental trajectories of transcription and oral language skills in kindergarten students over the course of an academic year, with a focus on the influence of executive functions (EF) and home literacy practices (HLP). Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses revealed [...] Read more.

This study investigates the developmental trajectories of transcription and oral language skills in kindergarten students over the course of an academic year, with a focus on the influence of executive functions (EF) and home literacy practices (HLP). Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses revealed significant growth in transcription skills, with both EF and independent home literacy practices positively influencing baseline transcription scores. The interaction between independent home literacy practices and formal literacy practices at home further enhanced transcription skill development. In contrast, oral language skills were not influenced by either HLP or EF. These results suggest that EF plays a more prominent role in transcription development than oral language skills in early childhood, especially in transparent orthographic systems. The findings highlight the importance of cognitive and environmental factors in early literacy development, suggesting implications for educational practices, particularly in fostering effective home literacy environments Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cognitive, Emotional, and Social Skills in Students)

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24 pages, 2445 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

From Practice to Reflection: A Systematic Review of Mechanisms Driving Metacognition and SRL in Music

by Yinghui Wang, Mengqi Zhang, Huasen Zhang, Xin Shan and Xiaofei Du

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120162 - 9 Dec 2025

Abstract

Metacognition and self-regulated learning (SRL) are widely recognized as key mechanisms for academic achievement and skill development, yet in music education they have rarely been examined through explicit instructional interventions to enable causal testing and effect evaluation. To address this gap, this study [...] Read more.

Metacognition and self-regulated learning (SRL) are widely recognized as key mechanisms for academic achievement and skill development, yet in music education they have rarely been examined through explicit instructional interventions to enable causal testing and effect evaluation. To address this gap, this study followed PRISMA guidelines and conducted a systematic review of 31 studies (including seven for meta-analysis) to identify intervention types and mechanisms, and to quantify their overall effects and moderating factors. Results indicate the following: (1) the intervention ecology is grounded in structured learning support (SLS), frequently combined with strategy teaching (ST) or technology-enhanced interventions (TEI), with full integration concentrated at the university level. (2) The mechanisms operate primarily along four pathways: structure facilitates a “plan–practice–reflection” loop, strategy instruction makes tacit experience explicit, technological feedback provides a third-person perspective, and teacher support stabilizes motivation. (3) The meta-analysis revealed a significant positive medium effect overall. (4) Intervention structure moderated outcomes, though not as a single or stable determinant. (5) Effects followed a U-shaped pattern across educational stages, strongest in secondary school, followed by university, and weaker in preschool and primary. Future research should employ proximal, task-aligned measures, conduct parallel multi-indicator assessments within the same stage, and expand evidence for multi-mechanism integration in primary and secondary school contexts. Experimental designs manipulating levels of SLS are needed to test whether ST + TEI remain effective under low-structure conditions, thereby identifying the minimum structural threshold. Extending samples to informal and professional music learners would further enhance robustness and generalizability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning in Diverse Educational Contexts)

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21 pages, 2065 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reading and Writing Abilities in Students with Mild Nonspecific Intellectual Disability: A Multivariate Examination of Literacy and Cognitive Processing Abilities

by Urszula Sajewicz-Radtke, Ariadna Beata Łada-Maśko, Paweł Jurek, Michał Olech and Bartosz Mikołaj Radtke

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120161 - 8 Dec 2025

Abstract

Individuals with mild nonspecific intellectual disability (NSID) often exhibit delayed literacy development. Unfortunately, how cognitive–linguistic processing profiles influence literacy in this population lacks clarity. This study investigated literacy development in this population, considering the cognitive–linguistic mechanisms. The Specialist Battery for the Diagnosis of [...] Read more.

Individuals with mild nonspecific intellectual disability (NSID) often exhibit delayed literacy development. Unfortunately, how cognitive–linguistic processing profiles influence literacy in this population lacks clarity. This study investigated literacy development in this population, considering the cognitive–linguistic mechanisms. The Specialist Battery for the Diagnosis of Cognitive Abilities and School Skills was used to assess cognitive–linguistic abilities and literacy-related skills in 122 participants. Fuzzy C-means clustering was used to identify processing profiles. Developmental age equivalents in literacy were estimated using local regression models and matched comparisons with typically developing peers. Two cognitive–linguistic profiles emerged: globally weaker and moderately developed. Those with NSID performed significantly lower than their peers in all domains. Their literacy skills aligned with those of children 2–4 years younger, and plateaued after age 15. Cognitive–linguistic heterogeneity in students with NSID should guide targeted literacy interventions. The findings inform ICD-11 educational expectations for individuals with mild NSID. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligence Testing and Its Role in Academic Achievement)

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21 pages, 2817 KB

Open AccessReview

Does Generative Artificial Intelligence Improve Students’ Higher-Order Thinking? A Meta-Analysis Based on 29 Experiments and Quasi-Experiments

by Yan Zhao, Yuhe Yue, Zhonghua Sun, Qiang Jiang and Gangsheng Li

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120160 - 5 Dec 2025

Abstract

The widespread application of Generative Artificial Intelligence (Gen-AI) is transforming educational practices and driving pedagogical innovation. While cultivating higher-order thinking (HOT) represents a central educational goal, its achievement remains an ongoing challenge. Current evidence regarding the impact of Gen-AI on HOT is relatively [...] Read more.

The widespread application of Generative Artificial Intelligence (Gen-AI) is transforming educational practices and driving pedagogical innovation. While cultivating higher-order thinking (HOT) represents a central educational goal, its achievement remains an ongoing challenge. Current evidence regarding the impact of Gen-AI on HOT is relatively fragmented, lacking systematic integration, particularly in the analysis of moderating variables. To address this gap, a meta-analysis approach was employed, integrating data from 29 experimental and quasi-experimental studies to quantitatively assess the overall impact of Gen-AI on learners’ HOT and to examine potential moderating factors. The analysis revealed that Gen-AI exerts a moderate positive effect on HOT, with the most significant improvement observed in problem-solving abilities, followed by critical thinking, while its effect on creativity is relatively limited. Moderation analyses further indicated that the impact of Gen-AI is significantly influenced by experimental duration and learners’ self-regulated learning (SRL) abilities: effects were strongest when interventions lasted 8–16 weeks, and learners with higher SRL capacities benefited more substantially. Based on the research findings, this study proposed that Gen-AI should be systematically integrated as a targeted instructional tool to foster HOT. Medium- to long-term interventions (8–16 weeks) are recommended to enhance learners’ problem-solving and critical thinking abilities. At the same time, effective approaches should also be explored to promote creative thinking through Gen-AI within existing pedagogical frameworks. Furthermore, individual learner differences should be accounted for by adopting dynamic and personalized scaffolding strategies to foster SRL, thereby maximizing the educational potential of Gen-AI in cultivating innovative talents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of AI in Talent Development: Synergies Between Creativity, Cognitive Intelligence, and Socio-Emotional Growth)

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24 pages, 3980 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bridging Text and Speech for Emotion Understanding: An Explainable Multimodal Transformer Fusion Framework with Unified Audio–Text Attribution

by Ashutosh Pandey, Jasmeet Singh and Maninder Kaur

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120159 - 3 Dec 2025

Abstract

Conversational interactions, rich in both linguistic and vocal cues, provide a natural context for studying these processes. In this work, we propose an explainable multimodal transformer framework that integrates textual semantics (via RoBERTa) and acoustic prosody (via WavLM) to advance emotion understanding. By [...] Read more.

Conversational interactions, rich in both linguistic and vocal cues, provide a natural context for studying these processes. In this work, we propose an explainable multimodal transformer framework that integrates textual semantics (via RoBERTa) and acoustic prosody (via WavLM) to advance emotion understanding. By projecting both modalities into a shared latent space, our model captures the complementary contributions of language and speech to affective communication, achieving an 0.83 accuracy value across five emotion categories. Crucially, we embed explainable AI (XAI) techniques including Integrated Gradients and Occlusion to attribute predictions to specific linguistic tokens and prosodic patterns, thereby aligning computational mechanisms with human cognitive processes of emotion perception. Beyond performance gains, this work demonstrates how multimodal AI systems can support transparent, human-centered emotion recognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

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26 pages, 1159 KB

Open AccessArticle

Teachers’ Emotional Commitment: The Emotional Bond That Sustains Teaching

by Olena Kostiv, Antonio F. Rodríguez-Hernández and Jonathan Delgado Hernández

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120158 - 2 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study introduces and validates the construct of Teacher Emotional Commitment (CED), understood as the conative–behavioral dimension that characterizes the emotional bond that teachers establish with their students. To this end, two complementary studies were conducted in the Autonomous Community of the Canary [...] Read more.

This study introduces and validates the construct of Teacher Emotional Commitment (CED), understood as the conative–behavioral dimension that characterizes the emotional bond that teachers establish with their students. To this end, two complementary studies were conducted in the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands (Spain), with the aim of: to empirically isolate the factorial structure of CED and differentiating it from related constructs, such as empathy; to analyze its presence in both active teachers and those in initial training; and to test the theoretical model’s validity by expanding the sample and enlarging the response scale. Study 1 involved 854 practicing teachers and 701 teachers in training, following a validation process that included exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, as well as item response theory models. The results showed a four-factor structure: loving proactivity, teacher compassion, instructional commitment, and communicative affectivity, with adequate reliability and discriminant validity indices with respect to empathy. Study 2, with an expanded sample of 2096 participants, confirmed the robustness of the model. The findings allow us to consider CED as a psychological competence that can be trained, with relevant implications for improving the educational relationship, student learning, and the emotional well-being of teachers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Emotions)

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30 pages, 2224 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

From Evidence to Insight: An Umbrella Review of Computational Thinking Research Syntheses

by Jin Zhang, Yaxin Wu, Yimin Ning and Yafei Shi

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120157 - 2 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study reviews 33 meta-analyses and systematic reviews on Computational Thinking (CT), focusing on research quality, intervention effectiveness, and content. Quality assessment of included studies was conducted using the AMSTAR 2 tool. The meta-analysis achieved an average score of 10.9 (a total of [...] Read more.

This study reviews 33 meta-analyses and systematic reviews on Computational Thinking (CT), focusing on research quality, intervention effectiveness, and content. Quality assessment of included studies was conducted using the AMSTAR 2 tool. The meta-analysis achieved an average score of 10.9 (a total of 16 points), while systematic reviews scored an average of 6.1 (a total of 11 points). The 15 meta-analyses showed diverse intervention strategies. Project-based learning, text-based programming, and game-based learning demonstrate more pronounced effects in terms of effect size and practical outcomes. Curricular integration, robotics programming, and unplugged strategies offered additional value in certain contexts. Gender and disciplinary background were stable moderators, while grade level and educational stage had more conditional effects. Intervention duration, sample size, instructional tools, and assessment methods were also significant moderators in several studies. The 18 systematic reviews used a five-layer framework based on ecological systems theory, covering educational context (microsystem), tools and strategies (mesosystem), social support (exosystem), macro-level characteristics (macrosystem), and CT development (chronosystem). Future research should focus on standardizing meta-analyses, unifying effect size indicators, and strengthening longitudinal studies with cognitive network analysis. Additionally, systematic reviews should improve evidence credibility by integrating textual synthesis and data-driven reasoning to reduce redundancy and homogeneity. Full article

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27 pages, 1141 KB

Open AccessHypothesis

Ctrl + Alt + Inner Speech: A Verbal–Cognitive Scaffold (VCS) Model of Pathways to Computational Thinking

by Daisuke Akiba

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120156 - 2 Dec 2025

Abstract

This theoretical paper introduces the Verbal–Cognitive Scaffold (VCS) Model, a cognitively inclusive framework which proposes the cognitive architectures underlying computational thinking (CT). Moving beyond monolithic theories of cognition (e.g., executive-function and metacognitive control models), the VCS Model posits inner speech (InSp) as the [...] Read more.

This theoretical paper introduces the Verbal–Cognitive Scaffold (VCS) Model, a cognitively inclusive framework which proposes the cognitive architectures underlying computational thinking (CT). Moving beyond monolithic theories of cognition (e.g., executive-function and metacognitive control models), the VCS Model posits inner speech (InSp) as the predominant cognitive pathway supporting CT operations in neurotypical populations. Synthesizing interdisciplinary scholarship across cognitive science, computational theory, neurodiversity research, and others, this framework articulates distinct mechanisms through which InSp supports CT. The model specifies four primary pathways linking InSp to CT components: verbal working memory supporting decomposition, symbolic representation facilitating pattern recognition and abstraction, sequential processing enabling algorithmic thinking, and dialogic self-questioning enhancing debugging processes. Crucially, the model posits these verbally mediated pathways as modal rather than universal. Although non-verbal architectures are acknowledged as possible alternative routes, their precise mechanisms remain underspecified in the existing literature and, therefore, are not the focus of the current theoretical exploration. Given this context, this manuscript focuses on the well-documented verbal support provided by InSp. The VCS Model’s theoretical contributions include the following: (1) specification of nuanced cognitive support systems where distinct InSp functions selectively enable particular CT operations; (2) generation of empirically testable predictions regarding aptitude–pathway interactions in computational training and performance; and (3) compatibility with future empirical efforts to inquire into neurodivergent strategies that may diverge from verbal architectures, while acknowledging that these alternatives remain underexplored. Individual variations in InSp phenomenology are theorized to predict distinctive patterns of CT engagement. This comprehensive framework, thus, elaborates and extends existing verbal mediation theories by specifying how InSp supports and enables CT, while laying the groundwork for possible future inquiry into alternative, non-verbal cognitive pathways. Full article

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15 pages, 798 KB

Open AccessArticle

Psychometric Properties of the Pre-Literacy Test: Assessing Literacy Readiness Skills

by Muhammet Baştuğ

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120155 - 2 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study examined the psychometric properties of the Pre-Literacy Test, developed to measure the literacy readiness skills of children who have completed preschool education. Using a quantitative, multistage design, the study was conducted with a total of 5966 children aged 6–7 who were [...] Read more.

This study examined the psychometric properties of the Pre-Literacy Test, developed to measure the literacy readiness skills of children who have completed preschool education. Using a quantitative, multistage design, the study was conducted with a total of 5966 children aged 6–7 who were about to enter elementary school in the 2024–2025 academic year (N₁ = 1911; N₂ = 1644; N₃ = 2411). Exploratory Factor Analysis revealed a three-factor structure—Reading Skills, Writing Skills (Dictation), and Writing Skills (Copying)—which explained 82.38% of the total variance. Confirmatory Factor Analysis demonstrated that this structure showed an acceptable model fit (CFI = 0.997, TLI = 0.997, SRMR = 0.030, RMSEA = 0.111). The internal consistency coefficients (α = 0.891–0.962; ω = 0.912–0.983) and convergent validity values (AVE = 0.867–0.949) of the PLT were found to be high. Discriminant validity was confirmed according to the Fornell–Larcker criterion, and measurement invariance across gender was supported through Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Item analyses indicated that most test items were of moderate difficulty (mean difficulty = 0.409) and high discrimination (mean discrimination = 0.516). In conclusion, the PLT was determined to be a psychometrically robust, valid, and reliable instrument for assessing basic literacy skills prior to elementary school entry. These findings suggest that the test can be confidently used in early literacy research and school readiness assessments. Full article

14 pages, 1009 KB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of International Cognitive Ability Resource (ICAR) Implemented in Mobile Toolbox (MTB)

by Stephanie Ruth Young, Jiwon Kim, Kiley McKee, Danielle Rothschild Doyle, Miriam A. Novack, William Revelle, Richard Gershon and Elizabeth M. Dworak

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120154 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

Standardized cognitive assessments are essential in research but often limited by proprietary restrictions and methodological constraints. This study evaluates the psychometric properties of two public-domain International Cognitive Ability Resource (ICAR) measures implemented in the Mobile Toolbox (MTB) assessment library: Puzzle Completion and Block [...] Read more.

Standardized cognitive assessments are essential in research but often limited by proprietary restrictions and methodological constraints. This study evaluates the psychometric properties of two public-domain International Cognitive Ability Resource (ICAR) measures implemented in the Mobile Toolbox (MTB) assessment library: Puzzle Completion and Block Rotation. Using a sample of 100 adults (18–82 years), we assessed internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and construct validity compared to gold-standard measures. Results demonstrated acceptable reliability for both Puzzle Completion and Block Rotation. Each measure showed moderate to strong correlations with respective gold-standard assessments: Puzzle Completion correlated with Raven’s Progressive Matrices (r = 0.40), and Block Rotation with Mental Rotation Test (r = 0.46). Practice effects were non-significant. Both demonstrated the ability to discriminate between verbal and nonverbal abilities. Findings were consistent with previous ICAR validations, suggesting MTB provides a viable option for remote self-administration while preserving measurement integrity. This enables larger sample collection and ecological assessment of cognitive abilities outside of laboratory settings. Full article

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17 pages, 906 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Creativity in Learning Analytics: A Systematic Literature Review

by Siamak Mirzaei, Hooman Nikmehr, Sisi Liu and Fernando Marmolejo-Ramos

J. Intell. 2025, 13(12), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence13120153 - 23 Nov 2025

Abstract

Creativity is increasingly recognized as an essential 21st-century skill, critical for innovation, problem-solving, and personal growth. Educational systems have responded by prioritizing creative thinking, prompting researchers to explore the potential of Learning Analytics (LA) to support and enhance creativity. This systematic review synthesizes [...] Read more.

Creativity is increasingly recognized as an essential 21st-century skill, critical for innovation, problem-solving, and personal growth. Educational systems have responded by prioritizing creative thinking, prompting researchers to explore the potential of Learning Analytics (LA) to support and enhance creativity. This systematic review synthesizes empirical studies, theoretical frameworks, and methodological innovations from databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, ERIC, ProQuest, and Google Scholar, examining how creativity is operationalized within LA contexts. The review identifies diverse assessment frameworks, encompassing divergent thinking tests, product-based evaluations, behavioral metrics, and process-oriented assessments, often underpinned by the “4 Ps of Creativity” framework (Person, Process, Product, Press). Tools such as automated scoring systems, multimodal analytics, and AI-enhanced assessments demonstrate the potential to objectively and reliably capture creative processes and outcomes. However, significant challenges remain, including definitional ambiguity, inconsistent metrics, scalability issues, and ethical concerns related to data privacy. This review underscores the transformative capacity of LA to foster creativity in education while highlighting the critical need for standardized, robust methodologies and inclusive frameworks. By addressing identified gaps, future research can advance innovative approaches to assess and cultivate creativity using LA. Full article

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