Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(9), 1213; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15091213 (registering DOI) - 5 Sep 2025
Abstract
Background: Intuitive inquiry meditation (Can-Hua-Tou) is a unique mental practice which differs from relaxation-based practices by continuously demanding intuitive inquiry. It emphasizes the doubt-driven self-interrogation, also referred to as Chan/Zen meditation. Nonetheless, its electrophysiological signature remains poorly characterized. Methods: We recorded 128-channel EEG
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Background: Intuitive inquiry meditation (Can-Hua-Tou) is a unique mental practice which differs from relaxation-based practices by continuously demanding intuitive inquiry. It emphasizes the doubt-driven self-interrogation, also referred to as Chan/Zen meditation. Nonetheless, its electrophysiological signature remains poorly characterized. Methods: We recorded 128-channel EEG from 20 male Buddhist monks (5–28 years Can-Hua-Tou experience) and 18 male novice lay practitioners (<0.5 year) during three counter-balanced eyes-closed blocks: Zen inquiry meditation (ZEN), a phonological control task silently murmuring “A-B-C-D” (ABCD), and passive resting state (REST). Power spectral density was computed for alpha (8–12 Hz), beta (12–30 Hz) and gamma (30–45 Hz) bands and mapped across the scalp. Mixed-design ANOVAs and electrode-wise tests were corrected with false discovery rate (p < 0.05). Results: Alpha power increased globally with eyes closed, but condition- or group-specific effects did not survive FDR correction, indicating comparable relaxation in both cohorts. In contrast, monks displayed a robust beta augmentation, showing significantly higher beta over parietal-occipital leads than novices across all conditions. The most pronounced difference lay in the gamma band: monks exhibited trait-like fronto-parietal gamma elevations in all three conditions, with additional, though sub-threshold, increases during ZEN. Novices showed negligible beta or gamma modulation across tasks. No significant group × condition interaction emerged after correction, yet only experts expressed concurrent beta/gamma amplification during meditative inquiry. Conclusions: Long-term Can-Hua-Tou practice is associated with frequency-specific neural adaptations—stable high-frequency synchrony and state-dependent beta enhancement—consistent with Buddhist constructs of citta-ekāgratā (one-pointed concentration) and vigilance during self-inquiry. Unlike mindfulness styles that accentuate alpha/theta, Chan inquiry manifests an oscillatory profile dominated by beta–gamma dynamics, underscoring that different contemplative strategies sculpt distinct neurophysiological phenotypes. These findings advance contemplative neuroscience by linking intensive cognitive meditation to enduring high-frequency cortical synchrony. Future research integrating cross-frequency coupling analyses, source localization, and behavioral correlates of insight will further fully delineate the mechanisms underpinning this advanced contemplative expertise.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impact of the Mindfulness-Based and Compassion-Based Therapies on Well-Being: The New Findings of the Neuroscience, the Practices, and the Education)
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